Mathematics | Standards for Mathematical Practice

The Standards for Mathematical Practice describe varieties of expertise that mathematics educators at all levels should seek
to develop in their students. These practices rest on important “processes and proficiencies” with longstanding importance in
mathematics education. The first of these are the NCTM process standards of problem solving, reasoning and proof,
communication, representation, and connections. The second are the strands of mathematical proficiency specified in the
National Research Council’s report Adding It Up: adaptive reasoning, strategic competence, conceptual understanding
(comprehension of mathematical concepts, operations and relations), procedural fluency (skill in carrying out procedures
flexibly, accurately, efficiently and appropriately), and productive disposition (habitual inclination to see mathematics as
sensible, useful, and worthwhile, coupled with a belief in diligence and one’s own efficacy).

1 Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Mathematically proficient students start by explaining to themselves the meaning of a problem and looking for entry points to
its solution. They analyze givens, constraints, relationships, and goals. They make conjectures about the form and meaning of
the solution and plan a solution pathway rather than simply jumping into a solution attempt. They consider analogous
problems, and try special cases and simpler forms of the original problem in order to gain insight into its solution. They monitor
and evaluate their progress and change course if necessary. Older students might, depending on the context of the problem,
transform algebraic expressions or change the viewing window on their graphing calculator to get the information they need.
Mathematically proficient students can explain correspondences between equations, verbal descriptions, tables, and graphs or
draw diagrams of important features and relationships, graph data, and search for regularity or trends. Younger students might
rely on using concrete objects or pictures to help conceptualize and solve a problem.
Mathematically proficient students check their answers to problems using a different method, and they continually ask
themselves, “Does this make sense?” They can understand the approaches of others to solving complex problems and
identify correspondences between different approaches.

2 Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

Mathematically proficient students make sense of quantities and their relationships in problem situations. They bring two
complementary abilities to bear on problems involving quantitative relationships: the ability to decontextualize—to abstract a
given situation and represent it symbolically and manipulate the representing symbols as if they have a life of their own,
without necessarily attending to their referents—and the ability to contextualize, to pause as needed during the manipulation
process in order to probe into the referents for the symbols involved. Quantitative reasoning entails habits of creating a
coherent representation of the problem at hand; considering the units involved; attending to the meaning of quantities, not just
how to compute them; and knowing and flexibly using different properties of operations and objects.

3 Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.

Mathematically proficient students understand and use stated assumptions, definitions, and previously established results in
constructing arguments. They make conjectures and build a logical progression of statements to explore the truth of their
conjectures. They are able to analyze situations by breaking them into cases, and can recognize and use counterexamples.
They justify their conclusions, communicate them to others, and respond to the arguments of others. They reason inductively
about data, making plausible arguments that take into account the context from which the data arose. Mathematically
proficient students are also able to compare the effectiveness of two plausible arguments, distinguish correct logic or
reasoning from that which is flawed, and—if there is a flaw in an argument—explain what it is. Elementary students can
construct arguments using concrete referents such as objects, drawings, diagrams, and actions. Such arguments can make
sense and be correct, even though they are not generalized or made formal until later grades. Later, students learn to
determine domains to which an argument applies. Students at all grades can listen or read the arguments of others, decide
whether they make sense, and ask useful questions to clarify or improve the arguments.

4 Model with mathematics.

Mathematically proficient students can apply the mathematics they know to solve problems arising in everyday life, society, and
the workplace. In early grades, this might be as simple as writing an addition equation to describe a situation. In middle
grades, a student might apply proportional reasoning to plan a school event or analyze a problem in the community. By high
school, a student might use geometry to solve a design problem or use a function to describe how one quantity of interest
depends on another. Mathematically proficient students who can apply what they know are comfortable making assumptions
and approximations to simplify a complicated situation, realizing that these may need revision later. They are able to identify
important quantities in a practical situation and map their relationships using such tools as diagrams, two-way tables, graphs,
flowcharts and formulas. They can analyze those relationships mathematically to draw conclusions. They routinely interpret
their mathematical results in the context of the situation and reflect on whether the results make sense, possibly improving the
model if it has not served its purpose.

5 Use appropriate tools strategically.

Mathematically proficient students consider the available tools when solving a mathematical problem. These tools might include
pencil and paper, concrete models, a ruler, a protractor, a calculator, a spreadsheet, a computer algebra system, a statistical
package, or dynamic geometry software. Proficient students are sufficiently familiar with tools appropriate for their grade or
course to make sound decisions about when each of these tools might be helpful, recognizing both the insight to be gained and
their limitations. For example, mathematically proficient high school students analyze graphs of functions and solutions generated
using a graphing calculator. They detect possible errors by strategically using estimation and other mathematical knowledge.
When making mathematical models, they know that technology can enable them to visualize the results of varying assumptions,
explore consequences, and compare predictions with data. Mathematically proficient students at various grade levels are able to
identify relevant external mathematical resources, such as digital content located on a website, and use them to pose or solve
problems. They are able to use technological tools to explore and deepen their understanding of concepts.

6 Attend to precision.
Mathematically proficient students try to communicate precisely to others. They try to use clear definitions in discussion with
others and in their own reasoning. They state the meaning of the symbols they choose, including using the equal sign
consistently and appropriately. They are careful about specifying units of measure, and labeling axes to clarify the
correspondence with quantities in a problem. They calculate accurately and efficiently, express numerical answers with a
degree of precision appropriate for the problem context. In the elementary grades, students give carefully formulated
explanations to each other. By the time they reach high school they have learned to examine claims and make explicit use
of definitions.

7 Look for and make use of structure.

Mathematically proficient students look closely to discern a pattern or structure. Young students, for example, might notice
that three and seven more is the same amount as seven and three more, or they may sort a collection of shapes according to
how many sides the shapes have. Later, students will see 7 x 8 equals the well-remembered 7 x 5 + 7 x 3, in preparation for
2
learning about the distributive property. In the expression x + 9x + 14, older students can see the 14 as 2 x 7 and the 9 as 2
+ 7. They recognize the significance of an existing line in a geometric figure and can use the strategy of drawing an auxiliary
line for solving problems. They also can step back for an overview and shift perspective. They can see complicated things,
such as some algebraic expressions, as single objects or as being composed of several objects. For example, they can see 5
2
– 3(x – y) as 5 minus a positive number times a square and use that to realize that its value cannot be more than 5 for any
real numbers x and y.

8 Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.

Mathematically proficient students notice if calculations are repeated, and look both for general methods and for shortcuts.
Upper elementary students might notice when dividing 25 by 11 that they are repeating the same calculations over and over
again, and conclude they have a repeating decimal. By paying attention to the calculation of slope as they repeatedly check
whether points are on the line through (1, 2) with slope 3, middle school students might abstract the equation (y – 2)/(x – 1)
2 3 2
= 3. Noticing the regularity in the way terms cancel when expanding (x – 1)(x + 1), (x – 1)(x + x + 1), and (x – 1)(x + x + x
+ 1) might lead them to the general formula for the sum of a geometric series. As they work to solve a problem,
mathematically proficient students maintain oversight of the process, while attending to the details. They continually
evaluate the reasonableness of their intermediate results.

Connecting the Standards for Mathematical Practice to the Standards for Mathematical Content
The Standards for Mathematical Practice describe ways in which developing student practitioners of the discipline of
mathematics increasingly ought to engage with the subject matter as they grow in mathematical maturity and expertise
throughout the elementary, middle and high school years. Designers of curricula, assessments, and professional
development should all attend to the need to connect the mathematical practices to mathematical content in mathematics
instruction.
The Standards for Mathematical Content are a balanced combination of procedure and understanding. Expectations that
begin with the word “understand” are often especially good opportunities to connect the practices to the content. Students
who lack understanding of a topic may rely on procedures too heavily. Without a flexible base from which to work, they may
be less likely to consider analogous problems, represent problems coherently, justify conclusions, apply the mathematics to
practical situations, use technology mindfully to work with the mathematics, explain the mathematics accurately to other
students, step back for an overview, or deviate from a known procedure to find a shortcut. In short, a lack of understanding
effectively prevents a student from engaging in the mathematical practices.
In this respect, those content standards which set an expectation of understanding are potential “points of intersection”
between the Standards for Mathematical Content and the Standards for Mathematical Practice. These points of intersection
are intended to be weighted toward central and generative concepts in the school mathematics curriculum that most merit the
time, resources, innovative energies, and focus necessary to qualitatively improve the curriculum, instruction, assessment,
professional development, and student achievement in mathematics.