Journal of the Geological Society of India

Charnockite Bedrock, Chennai Coast, Tamil Nadu: Micromorphology And Geochemical

Signatures In Stages Of The Weathering Processes
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: JGSI-D-15-00070

Full Title: Charnockite Bedrock, Chennai Coast, Tamil Nadu: Micromorphology And Geochemical
Signatures In Stages Of The Weathering Processes

Article Type: Research Article

Corresponding Author: Hema Achyuthan, Ph.D.

Anna University Chennai
Chennai, Tamil nadu INDIA

Corresponding Author Secondary

Information:

Corresponding Author's Institution: Anna University Chennai

Corresponding Author's Secondary

Institution:

First Author: Malarvizhi Arjunan, Ph.D. Research Scholar

First Author Secondary Information:

Order of Authors: Malarvizhi Arjunan, Ph.D. Research Scholar

Hema Achyuthan, Ph.D.

Gobichandhru Dhayanithi, M.Sc.Applied Geology

Order of Authors Secondary Information:

Funding Information:

Abstract: Mineral weathering of bedrock in the context of landscape evolution provides useful
insights in understanding the processes. In this paper, we report mineral and
petrographical features supported by geochemical results on the weathering of
charnockite rocks exposed along the east coast, Chennai. The exposed rocks consist
of medium to fine grained charnockite and are intensely weathered, fractured with
weathering rind. Micromorphology of the unweathered charnockite core rock,
weathering rind and soil show that the weathering processes are characterised by
progressive physical and chemical attack on the labile minerals with the formation of
neoformed clay minerals substituting the original rock fabric. The alteration of minerals
has produced Fe oxides and clay minerals such as halloysite and kaolinite.
Ferruginous oxides etch and impregnate into the plagioclase and othropyroxene
microcracks and fractures during the advanced weathering stage. Microfabric
alterations in microfractures and its variations occur in the weathering rind thereby,
affect the Chanrnockite weathering landscape Geochemical data and chemical
weathering indices (CIA, CIW, PIA and CWI) indicate insitu weathering due to stronger
physical weathering compared to chemical alteration. UCC and Chondrite normalised
trace and REE data of the core stone, weathering and soil show similar spider spectra
again pointing to insitu weathering with minor recycling. -ve Eu anamoly is due to the
alteration of the alkali feldspars. Weathering of the core stone to soil grades towards
the increase of quartz grains and Fe oxides in the weathering rind and soils.
Weathering rind exhibits formation of clays such as kaolinite, halloysite and gibbsite
formed under the humid, alternate dry and wet conditions.

Key words: Weathering, Weathering rind, Charnockite, Soil, Microfractures,

Weathering indices.

Suggested Reviewers: Nitin Karmalker, Ph.D. in petrology

Professor and Head, Savitri bai Phule Poona Unviersity
nrkarmal@unipune.ac.in
Prof. N. Karmalkar is one of the leading igneous petrologist. He has several

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 international publications on geochemistry and mineral composition of rocks.

N. B. Reddy, Ph.D. in petrology

Professor, S.V.University, Tirupati
profnbreddy@gmail.com
Prof.N.B.Reddy has several years of experience in petrology. He has publsihed
several manuscripts in international and national journals.

Prakash Narasimha, Ph.D. in petrology

Professor, Manasgangotri University, Mysore
knpnsimha@gmail.com
prof. prakash narasimha is an petrologists and has publisahed several papers both in
national and international journals.

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Title Page

Charnockite Bedrock, Chennai Coast, Tamil Nadu: Micromorphology

And Geochemical Signatures In Stages Of The Weathering Processes

Malarvizhi A.

Department of Geology

Anna University, Chennai 600 025.

Email: jonimalar@gmail.com

Achyuthan Hema

Department of Geology

Anna University, Chennai 600 025.

Email: hachyuthan@yahoo.com

Gobichandhru. D.

Department of Geology

Anna University, Chennai 600 025.

Email: chandhrudec12@gmail.com
Blinded Manuscript
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1
2
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4 Introduction
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6
7 Weathering refers to the alteration of mineral assemblages in bed rocks forming soils that take
8
9 place over long periods of time, extending from hundreds of thousands of years, or even tens of
10
11
12 millions of years (Birkeland, 1999). Weathering of rocks involves several processes such as
13
14 dissolution of primary phases, deposition of authigenic minerals, ionic exchange and sorption
15
16
17 (Borrelli et al. 2012). These processes are dependent primarily on the chemistry and mineral
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19 assemblages of rocks, chemical features of the interacting fluids, physical and biological factors
20
21 such as topography, climate and biological activity (Birkeland, 1999; Borrelli et al. 2012; Soares
22
23
24 et al. 2014). Generally, weathering of bedrock produces a complete alteration of the
25
26 mineralogical and petrographic characteristics of the rock resulting in a substantial
27
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29 decomposition of the physical-mechanical properties of the original rock. Understanding the
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31 formation and evolution of paleoweathering surfaces, geochemical dispersion patterns, which are
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33
34 an inherent part of weathering, can provide major advances in exploration of chemical resources
35
36 (Anand et al. 1993; Anand and Smith, 1993) resulting in a landscape in which erosional and
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38
39
depositional phases of various ages are set in an environment of ancient weathering (Borrelli et
40
41 al. 2012). Further, weathering phenomenon is also closely related to engineering geology
42
43 projects (Gullà et al. 2008) such as civil foundations, tunneling and mass wasting and others.
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45
46 The chemical composition of soil and soil sediments hold an important record of the
47
48 processes of pedogenesis that the parent material or the bedrock undergoes through time. This is
49
50
because some elements are quantitatively transported in the fine fraction (Mongelli et al. 1998).
51 Chemical weathering and alteration of the bedrock into soil and soil sediments under tropical,
52
53 hot and episodically humid climate with a prolonged dry season allows oxidation of iron and
54
55 rubefaction of soils and sediments forming weathered mantles (Birkeland, 1999; Perrone et al.
56
57 2005). Elements such as Na and Ca can be used to evaluate the degree of chemical weathering,
58
59 characterizing paleoclimates in the source regions at the time of deposition (Nesbitt and Young,
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4 1982). Further the mineralogical features of the rock bear signatures of possible post-
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6 depositional changes, including diagenesis and metamorphism (Chamley, 1995). Over the last
7
8 two decades, substantial research has been focused on understanding the characteristics and
9
10 processes of weathering of bedrock as well as establishing the patterns of geochemical dispersion
11
12 (Butt and Zeegers, 1992; Smith, 1996). Summaries are provided by Butt and Smith (1980),
13
14
Zeegers and Lecomte (1992), Lecomte and Zeegers (1992), Butt and Zeegers (1992), Smith et al.
15 (1992), Anand et al. (1993) and Soares et al. (2014). However, till date no work has been carried
16
17 out on the processes of weathering of the charnockite bedrock exposed along the Chennai coast,
18
19 Tamil Nadu (Fig.1). The studied area is chiefly represented by weathered charnockite
20
21 characterized by significant instability phenomenon. In the present study emphasis on
22
23 mineralogy, geochemical and micromorphology has been laid that would contribute to the
24
25
understanding of the rate of chemical weathering of minerals and on the genesis of the vertisols.
26 The approach used and the results proposed in this paper offer a valuable support for the study of
27
28 physical and mechanical characterization of weathering profiles. Here, we present the weathering
29
30 of charnockite bedrock exposed along the east coast, Tamil Nadu, with inter and
31
32 multidisciplinary approach.
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34
35
Study area
36
37 The study area covers (Fig.1) nearly 150 square kms of a narrow coastline, slightly
38
39 undulating terrain with a general slope of less than 1° towards the east and southeast. The coastal
40
41 strip is largely sandy with isolated exposures of charnockites, granites, granite gneiss, sandstone,
42
43 laterites and vertisols representing remnants of an ancient eroded landscape (Fig. 1). The bedrock
44
45 lithology is mostly crystalline, including granite, banded granitic gneiss, “acid charnockite”
46 (hypersthene granite with very minor biotite and no muscovite) and “mafic granulite or basic
47
48 charnockite” (a rock composed of plagioclase of labradorite variety and ortho and
49
50 clinopyroxenes with accessory quartz, Fe-Ti oxides with or without garnet) and norite
51
52 (Hypersthene - plagioclase rock with subordinate clinopyroxene, quartz and Fe-Ti oxides) of
53
54 Precambrian age. The rocks have been subjected to very high grade metamorphism, which is
55
56 estimated at 750 - 800 °C at 6.5-7.5 kbar (Bhattacharya and Sen, 1986). The younger intrusive
57 rocks are represented by dolerites (labradorite augite rocks with Fe-Ti oxides) and quartzo-
58
59 feldspathic pegmatite veins. These bed rocks are overlain by the sandstone and shale of the
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4 Gondwana age (Upper Permian to Lower Cretaceous), which in turn are overlain by the Mio-
5
6 Pliocene sandstone and shale that are lateritised. All these bedrock types are draped by a thin
7
8 veneer of Quaternary fluvial sediments of the Palar River. The Precambrian charnockites occur
9
10 as monadknocks with pediments, and with differential weathering pattern, whereas the
11
12 Quaternary deposits occur either as regolith over the pediment or as valley fills. The coastal plain
13
14
slopes from about 200 meters in the foothills to sea level, ranging from 2° to 3° in the foothills to
15 less than 1° to nearly horizontal along the coast.
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17
18
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20 Along the coast a tectonic event is represented by a north-south, NNE-SSW and
21
22 NNW-SSE trending fault. Relative uplift has been mainly reactivated along these directions,
23
24
25
resulting from trending structures and lineament from the Proterozoic through to the late
26
27 Cenozoic defining a series of tilted fault blocks. Uplifted parts of these blocks are dominated by
28
29 the charnockites, whereas the sandstone and shale of the Eo-Miocene period is draped by
30
31
32 vertisols, and lie mainly along present valleys. The severe fracturing, mainly related to
33
34 neotectonic activity of the massif uplift, has probably favored the chemical alteration and
35
36
37 physical degradation of the bed rocks. The exposed weathering profiles of the charnockite are
38
39 quite complex and irregular, showing frequent lateral and vertical variations. Bedrock exposure
40
41
42
gradually decreases towards the east with the down-tilted edge of the blocks beneath a cover of
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44 highly weathered bedrock, fluvial, alluvial, lacustrine and aeolian beach sediments and duricrust
45
46 (Achyuthan and Nagalakshmi, 2009).
47
48
49 The climate is dominated by the seasonal migration of the inter-tropical convergence
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51 zone that causes the North-East Monsoon in October and November, which is the heaviest period
52
53
54 of rainfall. The coastal strip experiences an average maximum temperature of around 36˚C
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56 during May to June and the average minimum temperature in January is 15.8˚C. This means that
57
58
59 the temperature varies widely between summer and winter with a range of about 20.9˚C. Such
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4 varied temperatures at different times of the year have a considerable impact in accelerating the
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7 weathering process. The area is characterized by sub-tropical climate with an average annual
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9 rainfall of 1200 mm (Achyuthan and Nagalakshmi 2009).
10
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12 Materials and Methods
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14 In the present study we have analysed the weathering of acid charnockite bedrock “an
15
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17 hypersthenes granite” composed of quartz-K-feldspar-plagioclase rock with orthopyroxene as
18
19 characteristic accessory and minor biotite, garnet, magnetite and ilmenite) (Bhattacharya and
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21 Sen, 1986) of Precambrian age. A detailed geomorphological survey was carried out to describe
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24 the weathering features and pattern during the field work. Bedrock weathering was studied on
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26 the exposed bedrocks of charnockite along the east coast Tamilnadu around Chennai to
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29 Pooncheri (Fig.1). Weathering rind thickness observed at several stations at Kovalam Muttukadu
30
31 were measured using an electronic vernier caliper (Fig. 2a, b, c). Rock samples were collected
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33
34 and thin sections were prepared to study under the polarized microscope for mineral
35
36 composition, mineral alteration and weathering features. In the present study, the application of
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38
39
soil micromorphology following the methods put forward by Stoops (2003) to weathering
40
41 phenomena proved to be a useful tool (Fig. 3a-m). All the bedrock samples (altered with
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43 weathering rind and unweathered fresh rocks and soil sediments) were analysed for major oxides
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45
46 such as SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, TiO2, P2O5, MnO and MgO using XRF (Spectro
47
48 Xepos, Powder method) at Pondicherry University, Pondicherry (Fig. 4a-5d). The samples were
49
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51 powdered to less than 230 ASTM mesh (63 µm) in a pre-treated uncontaminated agate mortar
52
53 and then split again to homogenize. The powdered samples were then pressed with high pressure
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55
56
to make pellets of equal density following Van Grieken and Markowicz (2002). The average
57
58 errors for the major oxides analysed were less than ±5%. Trace metals and REE (La to Lu) and
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4 Sc, Zn, Cs, Th, and U analyses were carried out using ICP-MS instrument at the Pondicherry
5
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7 University, Pondicherry, to understand the weathering process of the bedrock exposed. Trace
8
9 metals (Fig.5a-d) and REE values (Fig. 6a-6d) were then normalized using the UCC and
10
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12 Chondrite values (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). The average errors for trace elements are less
13
14 than ±5%, except for those elements at 10 ppm and lower (±5-10%). Based on guidelines given
15
16
17 in earlier studies, we assessed chemical indices of the weathering process following Nesbitt and
18
19 Young, 1982; Irfan and Dearman, 1978; Fedo et al. 1995; Caracciolo et al. 2011 and references
20
21 therein. Furthermore, mineral composition was determined for both fresh and completely
22
23
24 weathered rock samples, using X-ray powder diffraction (XRD; Bruker D8 Advance
25
26 diffractometer, with Cu Kα radiation in the range of 5°-60° 2θ, with steps of 0.02°/ sec) at the
27
28
29 Department of Physics, Anna University Chennai, following Moore and Reynolds (1997) (Fig.
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31 7).
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34 Results
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36 Number of sites around Chennai along the coast exhibit at Kovalam Muttukadu (N
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12o 37’ 23.0”: E 80º 14’ 35.8”), Poonjeri, and inland sites as Pallavaram (N 12º 58’11.82”: E 80º
40
41 9’26.79”), Trisulam (N 12º 00’58.736”: E 80º 09.986”), Chengalpattu (N 12º 41.346’’: E: 79º
42
43 58.145’) and other sites given in Table 1. Weathering rind around the charnockite bedrock
44
45
46 measured using a Vernier Calliper was as thin as 6. 43 mm to 30. 61 mm thick (Fig. 2 b and C).
47
48 Survey of weathering grade
49
50
51 Based on the methodology put forward by Gullà and Matano (1994, 1997), six classes
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53 of weathering grade have been recognized: Class VI (residual and colluvial soils), Class V
54
55
56
(completely weathered rock), class IV (highly weathered rock), class III (moderately weathered
57
58 rock), class II (slightly weathered rock with weathering rind) and class I (fresh rock). Class VI
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4 grade, includes both the loose iron oxide nodules and soil sediments formed by the weathering
5
6
7 processes in situ (residual deposits) and the soils made up of weathered material transported by
8
9 slope processes (colluvium). Our survey showed that the charnockite samples are characterized
10
11
12 by complex weathering profile, where moderately weathered rocks with weathering rind (class
13
14 II-III) and highly weathered rocks (class IV) prevail. The general weathering conditions are
15
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17 associated with intense fracturing determined by joints, and normal fault planes (Fig. 2a). Thin
18
19 and discontinuous horizons of completely weathered rocks were also observed.
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21
Mineral composition and alteration
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23
24 Micromorphology of the thin section of samples from class I (Fig. 3a-b), II (Fig.3c-f),
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26 III and IV (Fig. 3g-k) to class V (Fig. 3l-m) show petrological changes characterized by a nearly
27
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29 complete alteration of plagioclase, clino and orthopyroxene and biotite and a slight
30
31 decomposition of K-feldspar. Class IV samples are intensely microfractured contributing to the
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34 increase of rock porosity, with clay-coated feldspar/or clinopyroxene grains (Fig.3j-k). Thus, the
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36 higher weathering stages (classes IV-V) are characterized by strong petrological changes, and
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39
extreme microfracturing, which are typical of the soil material behavior (Irfan and Dearman,
40
41 1978). The mineral composition of the unweathered core stone (Class I; Fig. 3a-b) is an
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43 assemblage of clino and orthopyroxene with garnet, hornblende and staurolite, leucoxene,
44
45
46 without Fe-oxide formation and granular disintegration. Zircon occurs as an accessory mineral
47
48 with a few specks of biotite. While the weathering rind (Class II to IV) exhibits the alteration of
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51 the hornblende, orthopyroxene, alkali feldspars releasing iron oxide that gets mobilized through
52
53 the fine microcracks and mineral fractures staining the groundmass (Figure 2a, 2b, 3a-3e). The
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55
56
soils (Class V) clearly show iron oxide rich clay with occurrences of hypersthene (Fig. 3f),
57
58 garnet (Fig. 3g), hornblende (Fig. 3h) and quartz grains forming a component of the soil matrix
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4 and the boundary of the quartz grain is lined by iron oxide coating. The weathered samples have
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7 preserved the texture of the parent rock, even if most of the rocks have a deep-brown iron-
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9 staining. The transition from slightly weathered samples (Fig. 3b-c) to highly weathered (Fig. 3d)
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12 and completely weathered samples (Fig. 3e-h) is marked by both granular disintegration and
13
14 chemical alteration. Simultaneously, significant widenening of the microcracks and contacts
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16
17 among minerals was observed. The main mineralogical changes of weathered charnockite was
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19 the argillification with neoformation of sericite of plagioclase (Fig. 3i-k), Fe-oxide replacement
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21 in hypersthene, hornblende and feldspar (Fig. 3c-k) and chloritization (Fig. 3f), and new
22
23
24 formation of Kaolinite and Halloysite (Fig. 7). Halloysite, together with Kaolinite has been
25
26 identified as a possible feldspar derivative occurring on charnockite weathered bedrock. Thus,
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29 the weathered stage is distinct by an increase in Fe oxide and appearance of clayey minerals with
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31 feldspars highly altered and fractured owing to the opening of microcracks.
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33
34
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36 Bivariant plot of SiO2 Vs Al2O3, (Fig. 4a) shows more or less constant ratio, a straight
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39
trend to indicate in situ processes of soil formation and the alteration of the charnockite bedrock.
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41 This also points that the in situ process of weathering/ alteration did not modify the ratio between
42
43 SiO2 and Al2O3 also pointing to the absence of leaching. A graph of Na2O VS K2O (Figure 4b)
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45
46 reveals that the ratios of samples collected from Kovalam Muttukadu soil (KMS), Pooncheri soil
47
48 (PCS), Trisulam soil (TSS), Kovalam Muttukadu weatherin rind (KMWR) and Natham rock
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50
51 (NR) fall within the circle suggesting major leaching of alkalis during weathering. While the
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53 samples from Kovalam Muttukadu rock (KMR), Kovalam Muttukadu rock1(KMR1), Natham
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56
rock (NR), Pallavaram rock (PVR) and Pullipakkam rock (PPR) and Trisulam rock depart from
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58 the circle indicating removal of alkalies that are more mobile during chemical weathering
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 1
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4 (Birkeland, 1999). Constant ratios indicate the predominance of physical rather than chemical
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6
7 weathering. However, the ratios of the soil samples from CGLS, KMS, PCS, KMWR, and TSS
8
9 have been affected chiefly by chemical weathering.
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11
12
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14 UCC normalized trace metal data of the rock and soil samples (Fig.5a) collected from
15
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17 Trisulam and Poonjeri (Fig. 5b and c) exhibit nearly similar patterns indicating the non-removal
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19 of the geochemical flux during weathering signifying insignificant intensity of chemical
20
21 weathering, which otherwise would reflect in varied concentrations of trace metals in rock and
22
23
24 soil chemistry. Zr, Nb and Y are mildly higher in the rocks samples due to retention in heavy
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26 minerals like zircons. The negative anomalies shown by V, Mn, Co, Rb, Sr, Cs and U indicate
27
28
29 their solubility in the aqueous medium, while the positive anomaly of Cr, Ni, Zn, Sb, and Zr
30
31 indicates that these are retained in mineral matter in the weathered layers of soil formation.
32
33
34 Positive anomalies of Sr, Ba, and Pb point to their enrichment in precipitates such as calcretes or
35
36 adsorption on clays, the latter being a dominant phenomenon in this tropical region.
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38
39
REE plots normalized to Chondrite values following Taylor and McLennan, (1985) (Fig. 6a-c)
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41 show enriched LREE and a flat HREE pattern with both positive and –ve Eu anamoly.
42
43 Discussion
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45
46 The chemical composition of the weathering rind and soil sediment depends on several
47
48 factors including the source rock composition, paleoweathering, sorting, and in some cases,
49
50
exhumation and burial history (Birkeland , 1999). Severe fracturing mainly related to neotectonic
51 activity of the bedrock favours physical degradation and chemical alteration and both the factors
52
53 play an important role in the weathering processes (Borrelli et al. 2007, 2012). The general
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55 weathering conditions are associated with intense fracturing determined by joints, normal fault
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57 planes. The charnockite framework microfabric is mainly related to the severe fracturing and
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59 faulting that has occurred in the studied weathering profile. It has been demonstrated that, in a
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4 humid climate, chemical weathering acts vigorously on sediment composition derived from
5
6 crystalline rocks, destroying labile minerals, such as feldspar and Fe-Mg phases, and lithic
7
8 fragments (Grantham and Velbel, 1988; Nesbitt and Young, 1989). Quartz is resistant to
9
10 chemical weathering and it increases in relative abundance in more humid climates because of
11
12 the release of quartz grains from the weathering of the bedrock fragments (Young et al. 1975).
13
14
15 Nesbitt and Young (1996), Fedo et al. (1995) and Nesbitt et al. (1996) suggested that as
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17 chemical weathering proceeds, feldspar depletion becomes progressively more pronounced,
18
19 resulting in increasingly less representation of the original rock mineralogy and shifting towards
20
21 a more quartzose composition with enrichment in clay minerals. Based on compositional and
22
23 textural features of the studied charnockite samples, the initial stage of weathering has produced
24
25
mainly precipitates of Fe-oxides along plagioclase lamellar planes (Fig. 3i-k); thus, ferrous
26 (Fe2+) iron of the iron-bearing silicates is combined with oxygen to form ferric (Fe3+) iron
27
28 oxides (e.g., hematite) (Fig. 3). Furthermore, in the later stage of plagioclase weathering; newly
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30 formed clay minerals such as sericite, kaolinite, halloysite occur replacing plagioclase grains
31
32 along the rims and lamellae (Fig. 3i-k). Fine-grained sericite often occurs within plagioclase,
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34 preferentially along twin planes (Fig. 3i), as yellowish birefringent, a few microns in size. As
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weathering advances, clay minerals replace fine-grained sericite, preferentially along mineral
36
37 rims. Furthermore, these newly formed phases along cleavage planes expand the mineral,
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39 thereby producing a packed effect which fractures adjacent grain (Baynes and Dearman, 1978;
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41 Eggler et al. 1969). The advanced stage of weathering is marked by chemical breakdown and
42
43 weathering feldspar. K feldspars have pale brownish appearance, due to a microcrystalline
44
45 secondary product, that is probably a clay mineral replacement during weathering (Le Pera et al.
46 2001; Tazaki and Fyfe, 1987; Velbel, 1983). All these processes influence the rock microfabric,
47
48 increasing crystal microfracturing and rock disaggregation with a decrease of the physical-
49
50 mechanical properties (Cascini et al. 1994; Heins, 1995; Le Pera et al. 2001 and references
51
52 therein). Silicate weathering releases easily soluble cations i.e. Ca and Na into solution, leaving
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54 behind Al in the residues such as clays. A higher abundance of clay and therefore, Al content in
55
56 sediments result from intense weathering (Dalai et al. 2004).
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4 The most commonly used weathering indices (Duzgoren-Aydin et al. 2002) are Chemical
5
6 Index of Alteration (CIA) proposed by Nesbitt and Young (1982) and Chemical index of
7
8 weathering (CIW) of Harnois (1988) using molecular proportions (Bahlburg and Dobrzinski,
9
10 2011), i.e. (A12O3 + K2O/ A12O3 +CaO +Na2O) x100. CIA = (A12O3/ A12O3 + K2O + Na2O +
11
12 CaO*) × 100, where, CaO is the amount of CaO that is incorporated into the silicate fraction of
13
14
the sediments (Fedo et al. 1995). A correction was made for carbonate and apatite contents if
15 any. CWI was calculated using Al2O3/(Al2O3+CaO+Na2O)X100. CIA results indicate the
16
17 measure of the proportion of Al2O3 versus the labile oxides of the sample. The resultant CIA
18
19 value reflects the weathering intensity, i.e. high CIA value indicates intensive weathering and
20
21 vice versa. CIA value of less than 50 indicates that the sediments are recent and the weathering
22
23 process was low, while a CIA value of 100 is the optimum weathered value. Fedo et al. (1995)
24
25
proposed the Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) as an alternative to the chemical index of
26 weathering (CIW). Because plagioclase is abundant in charnockite rocks and dissolves relatively
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28 rapidly, the PIA values have been used when plagioclase weathering needs to be monitored
29
30 (Fedo et al. 1995) and this was calculated using the following equation PIA = (100)[(Al2O3 -
31
32 K2O)/(Al2O3 + CaO + Na2O - K2O)]. The PIA values (47-99) indicate moderate weathering
33
34 phenomenon. The integration of the mineralogical assemblage of the charnockite corestone,
35
weathering rind and soil coupled with the CWI, CIA and PIA index (Table 1) indicates in situ
36
37 enrichment of iron oxide and recent soil formation. However, the CIA values of analyzed
38
39 weathering rind 63-65 suggest iron oxide enrichment due to insitu pedogenesis. CIW values
40
41 range from 62-70 indicating strong physical or mechanical weathering. The soil sediments and
42
43 the rock show non-uniform CIW values suggestive of varying intensity of physical/mechanical
44
45 weathering. Unweathered plagioclase has PIA value of 50 whereas the PAAS has PIA value of
46 79. Our PIA values show moderate to high values 47-99 indicating that most of the plagioclase
47
48 has been converted to clay rich minerals. In the present study all the indices (CIA, CIW, CWI
49
50 and PIA ratios) suggest that the bedrock experienced both intense physical weathering and
51
52 minimal chemical weathering and that they record a recycling effect from the Charnockite
53
54 bedrock.
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 Both CIW and CIA indices are strongly controlled by the amount of plagioclase in the
5
6
7 rock, and their paucity in the soil record probably a recycling effect. The process basically
8
9 fractionates Al2O3 (clay minerals) from SiO2 (Quartz and feldspars). Sorting also fractionates
10
11
12 TiO2, mostly present in clay minerals and Ti-oxides, from Zr, present in zircon, and sorted with
13
14 quartz (Mongelli et al. 2006). However, the variable content of immobile elements in bedrock is
15
16
17 mostly due to the weathering degree, which affects parent rocks. Th and Sc are useful indicators
18
19 because their distribution is not affected by secondary processes. Zircon, and thus Zr enrichment
20
21 during pedogenesis can also be evaluated when the Zr/Sc ratio, a useful index of sediment
22
23
24 recycling (Hassan et al. 1999), is plotted against the Th/Sc ratio, an indicator of chemical
25
26 differentiation (McLennan et al. 1993) and Zr recycling in sediments (Mongelli et al. 1998;
27
28
29 Hassan et al. 1999). In the plot the soils are not clustered along the compositional trend, but
30
31 moderately scattered little away from each other, but one data point departs away from the rest of
32
33
34 the ratios plotted suggestive of Zr recycling in soil sediments (Fig. 4c) indicating release of Zr
35
36 during mineral alteration. The REE pattern of the Kovalam Muttukadu rock and soil samples
37
38
39
exhibit intact and immobile pattern and are similar in nature except for Sm (Figure 6c). The
40
41 removal of Sm may be due to the absence of Sm bearing minerals. While the REE pattern of the
42
43 chondrite normalized REE data of Trisulam (Fig. 6b) shows a similar pattern for the rock and the
44
45
46 soil indicating in situ weathering. Most of the Eu released is during the dissolution of feldspar
47
48 that is retained by clay minerals thus contributing to minimize the recycling induced increase of
49
50
51 the Eu anomaly. The Eu anomaly is slightly higher than the UCC and chondrite values as more
52
53 feldspar is destroyed during weathering and diagenesis. The Eu released during the dissolution of
54
55
56
feldspar could be retained by clay minerals contributing to minimize the recycling induced
57
58 increase of the Eu-anomaly. The recycling effect of the Eu-anomaly is minor. Of these, there are
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 REE that are quantitatively transferred from the bedrock to the soil sediments (McLennan et al.
5
6
7 1993). Intense weathering produces LREE/HREE fractionation (Mongelli 1993, 2004; Mongelli
8
9 et al. 1998) and this is due to preferential HREE retention in solution (Cantrell and Byrne, 1987).
10
11
12
13
14 The X-ray diffraction pattern of the completely weathered sample (Kovallam
15
16
17 weathering rind-KWR) shows the occurrence of neoformed clay minerals, typically of
18
19 interstratified clay minerals (Fig. 7). The difference between the fresh rock and the completely
20
21 weathered rock XRD pattern is mainly related to the abundance of quartz and feldspars, which
22
23
24 decrease from fresh to completely weathered samples, and clay minerals, that are neoformed in
25
26 the completely weathered sample (Fig. 7). Bates (1962) suggested that clay minerals such as
27
28
29 smectite accumulate in a poorly drained area of low relief (Hong et al. 2010) characterized by
30
31 lower rainfall in a warm/dry climate. On the other hand, clays such as gibbsite composed of the
32
33
34 least soluble elements develop under severe leaching conditions and climate characterized by
35
36 very high rainfall conditions. Halloysite occurs in zones with intermediate rainfall while
37
38
39
kaolinite forms in the intermediate zones characterized by wet–humid conditions where silicon,
40
41 as well as aluminum, can be retained (Eberl, 1984; Thompson et al. 1982). Halloysite and
42
43 kaolinite often coexist in the upper parts of the weathering profiles developed under a temperate
44
45
46 climate (Mongelli and Moresi, 1990; Papoulis et al. 2004), as in the Mediterranean environment.
47
48 The presence of these newly formed clay minerals (kaolinite, halloysite and gibbsite) in the
49
50
51 studied samples, as observed in thin sections and XRD analyses, reflects an alternation between
52
53 chemical weathering and mechanical erosion as also showed by microcracks and rock
54
55
56
disaggregation and furthermore suggests an alternation of wet–humid conditions with cooler
57
58 season (Gerrard, 1994).
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6
7 Thus, the development of the weathering of the charnockite bedrock could be a result
8
9 of tectonic uplift and climatic oscillations since, at least, the Late Neogene-Early Pleistocene
10
11
12 time. The tectonic uplift mainly related to important regional fault systems has played an
13
14 important role in the Neogene–Quaternary geodynamic evolution of the weathering processes.
15
16
17 The physical weathering of such rocks under hot, episodically humid climate with a prolonged
18
19 dry season, produce kaolinite (kaolinisation of silicate minerals), oxidation of iron and
20
21 concentration of quartz in weathering rind that are later denudated by eluvial erosion. Our
22
23
24 geochemical data and the thickness of the weathering rind formed around the charnockite rock
25
26 exhibits mineral alteration that has occurred under hot, episodically humid climate with a
27
28
29 prolonged dry season. Wet-humid conditions favored the formation of weathering rind, while the
30
31 dry seasons promoted loosening of the mineral grains and sedimentation. The climate alternation
32
33
34 also favored recycling.
35
36
37
38 CONCLUSIONS
39
40 Charnockite bedrock exposed along the east coast Chennai has been studied for their weathering
41
42 pattern, geochemical signatures and mineralogical alterations. Weathering is taking place
43
44
45 through peels forming weathering rind. Trace and REE data reveal negative anomalies shown by
46
47 V, Mn, Co, Rb, Sr, Cs and U indicating their solubility in the aqueous medium, while the
48
49
positive anomaly of Cr, Ni, Zn, Sb, and Zr are retained in the minerals in the weathered layers.
50
51
52 Positive anomalies of Sr, Ba, and Pb is due to their enrichment in precipitates such as calcretes or
53
54 adsorption on clays. Sm and Zr are depleted and this probably due to processes of both physical
55
56
57 weathering and geochemical mineral alteration. Geochemistry of charnockite bedrock and soils
58
59 point to a complex history of mineral alteration, especially the orthopyroxenes, alkali feldspars.
60
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 The mineralogical assemblage, occurrence of kaolinite and halloysite clays, supported by CIA
5
6
7 index indicates that post-depositional iron oxide enrichments affect the bulk composition of the
8
9 rock. CIW and PIA indices suggest that physical rather than chemical weathering was strong and
10
11
12 occurred in steady-state conditions. Since CIW and PIA indices are strongly controlled by the
13
14 amount of plagioclase in the bedrock, their paucity in the soil records points to the processes of
15
16
17 fractionation and minor recycling effect. The distribution of Al2O3, TiO2, and Zr and the values
18
19 of the Zr/Ni and Th/Ni ratios further support this idea. In the SiO2 versus Al2O3 plot both the
20
21 rock and the soil are clustered along a trend, indicating insitu weathering. Near coastal
22
23
24 environment and the charnockite exposures on the east coast point to both physical and chemical
25
26 weathering under the humid climate with alternate dry seasons. The wet-humid conditions
27
28
29 promote erosion whereas the dry seasons favour alteration and deposition.
30
31
32
33
34 Ackowledgement
35
36 Ms. Malavizhi Arjunan is grateful to the Rajiv Gandhi fellowship, UGC, New Delhi, that helped
37
38
39
her to pursue her interest in this field of research. The authors are grateful to Prof. N. Karmalkar,
40
41 and Prof. S.Sangode, Department of Geology, Savitri Bai Phule Poona University, Pune, for
42
43 extending necessary facilities to carry out this work. The authors thank the Head, Department of
44
45
46 Geology, Anna University, Chennai, for the help and encouragement to carry out this work. The
47
48 authors thank the reviewers for their constructive comments. This is the contribution no.80,
49
50
51 published from the Quaternary Laboratory, Department of Geology, Anna University, Chennai.
52
53 .
54
55
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Figure

INDIA
INDIA

TAMIL NADU

Figure 1. Location map of the charnockite exposures around Chennai and along the east
coast.
Figure 2a. Muttukadu-Kovalam charnockite quarry showing core stone (unweathered dark
grey coloured fine to medium grained) and weathered white surface occurring as rind
around the bedrock near the coast. These are highly fractured rocks.

Figure 2b. Weathering rind of the charnockite bedrock as observed at Muttukadu-

Kovalam.
 Figure 2c. Thin weathering rind over the charnockite surface as observed at
Muttukadu-Kovalam.

Fgiure 3a. Photomicrograph of the unweathered charnockite with unaltered hypersthene

and alkali feldspars with microfine cracks. P.P.L Magnification X50.
Figure 3b. Photomicrograph of the weathered part of the charnockite at the lower contact
zone with the weathering rind .Mildly altered hypersthene and alkali feldspars with
microfine cracks and staining in light brown colour. P.P.L Magnification X50.

Figure 3c. Photomicrograph of the weathering hypersthene forming chlorite at the contact
zone; a close up of the alteration. P.P.L. Magnification X10.
Figure (3d). Photomicrograph showing filling of the microfine cracks by bright orange
coloured iron oxide. P.P.L Magnification X50

Figure (3e). Photomicrograph of a part of orthpyroxene (hypersthene) and plagioclase

grains getting altered and releasing iron oxide and lining the grain margin. BXN.
Magnification X 20.
Figure (3f). Photomicrograph of the weathering rind showing a part of the hypersthene
grain getting altered forming chlorite and releasing iron oxide and lined at its margin by
iron oxide. P.P.L . Magnification X 20.

Figure (3g). Photomicrograph of the weathering rind with garnet (Gr) and quartz (Qt)
grain stained by iron oxide. P.P.L. Magnification X 10.
Figure (3h). Photomicrograph of of the weathering rind showing the hornblende
alteration releasing iron oxide and impregnation of Fe oxides in the groundmass staining
red brownish colour around the feldspar and quartz grains. P.P.L Magnification X 10.

Figure (3i). Photomicrograph of the weathering rind showing alkali feldspar alteration
forming sericite along the microcracks and fractures. BXN. Magnfication X 20.
Figure (3j). Photomicrograph of the weathering rind showing alkali feldspar alteration
along the microcracks and fractures. P.P.L. Magnfication X 20.

Figure (3k). Photomicrograph of the weathering rind showing alkali feldspar alteration
along the microcracks and fractures staining ironoxide. BXN. Magnfication X 20.
Figure (3l). Photomicrograph of the soil showing quartz grains in iron oxide matrix
P.P.L. Magnfication X 5.

Figure (3m). Photomicrograph of soil thin section enriched in iron oxide clays. P.P.L.
Magnification X 10.
Figure (4a). Charnockite rock and weathered soil samples SiO2 %Vs Al2O3% indicating insitu
alteration. The red square is the data of the weathering rind.

Figure (4b). K2O%Vs Na2O% of the charnockite rock, weathering rind and soil samples pointing
to insitu alteration of the rock and the weathering rind forming soil.
Figure 4c. Zr/Sc versus Th/Sc ratios points to insitu weathering of the charnockite bedrock
marked within the circle.One dataof the Kovalam Muttukadu soil sample departs from the cluster
of rock and soil ratios indicating zircon addition suggessted of a recycling effect.

Figure (5a) UCC normalised trace elements and REE of charnockite bed rock and soil sediments
analysed showing similar pattern revealing insitu geochemical weathering.
Figure (5b) UCC normalised trace and REE spectra of the Trisulam rock and soil exposed inland
exhibit similar pattern indciating insitu weathering.

Figure (5c). UCC normalised trace and REE spectra of the Muttukadu-Kovalam rock and soil

exposed along the coast exhibiting similar pattern indciating insitu weathering.
Figure (5d). UCC normalised trace and REE spectra of the Pooncheri rock and soil exposed near
the coast exhibiting similar pattern indciating insitu weathering. UCC diagram at Pooncheri.

Figure (6a) Chondrite normalised REE diagram of charnockite rock and soil samples.
Figure (6b). Chondrite normalised spectra of the charnockite bedrock and weathering rind of
Trisulam.

Figure (6c). Chondrite normalised REE spectra of Kovalam Muttukadu rock and soil samples..
Figure (6d). Chondrite normalised REE diagram of Pooncheri rock and soil sample.
Figure 7. X ray diffractograms of the unweathered rock, weathering rind and soil samples
collected from different sites.
Table

Table 1 Site locations and chemical weathering indices calculated for unweathered charnockites rocks, weathering rind and
soil samples. Based on CIA, CIW, PIA and CIW values all the soil samples show moderete weathering barring Pooncheri soil
samples which is highly weathered. Thre is distinct difference in the weathering indices of the rocks and soil samples.

Abbreviation
S.No Location of sites Latitude Longitude CIA CIW PIA CWI
1 Trisulam TSS N 12ᵒ58'73.6" E 80ᵒ 09'86" 65.22 74.91 71.53 33.14
2 Kovalam Muttukadu soil KMS N 12ᵒ47'73.7" E 80014'19" 58.38 69.84 60.86 60.91
3 Chengalpattu soil CGLS N 12ᵒ41'14.5" E 79057'70" 70.77 80.14 73.04 37.75
4 Pooncheri soil PCS N 12ᵒ37'11.3" E 80010'73" 96.19 97.75 97.67 3.23
5 Pallavaram rock PVR N 12ᵒ58'11.8" E 80ᵒ26'79" 58.21 69.35 59.18 68.82
6 Trisulam rock TSR N 12ᵒ58'73.6" E 80ᵒ 09'86" 54.92 69.02 56.38 63.33
7 Kovalam Muttukadu rock KMR N 12ᵒ47'73.7" E 80014'19" 53.62 65.48 56.85 45.15
8 Pullipakkam rock PPR N 12ᵒ42'84.5" E 79ᵒ58'77" 58.49 70.44 59.59 78.53
9 Natham rock NR N 16ᵒ57'36.3" E 84ᵒ20'43" 52.30 61.07 53.69 58.73
10 Kovalam Muttukadu rock1 KMR1 N 12⁰47′44.4″ E 80⁰14′30.9″ 48.16 61.39 47.28 89.01
11 Kovalam Muttukadu Weathering rind KMWR N 12⁰47′14″ E 80⁰14′35″ 63.15 72.07 70.45 33.32