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Finish grinding - INFINITY FOR CEMENT

EQUIPMENT

22-27 minutes

The finish grinding process is one of the basic tech nical

operations of cement production as well as the concluding
process. The manner in which this opera tion is conducted,
determines the quality of the cement.

It is useless to grind cement to a large specific sur face, but

the ground product must obey certain laws relative to
particle size distribution in order to favor the ensuing
hardening process.

The technology of finish grinding is based on the fol lowing

observations:

The particle size fraction from 3 to 30 microns is con

ducive to the  strength development of the cement. The
particle size fraction below 3 microns contributes to the
initial strength only. This particle fraction hydrates fast and
after one day results in the highest compressive und
flexural strengths. The fraction above 60 microns hydrates
slowly and contribute lit tle to the strength of the cement.

The particle fraction from 3 to 30 microns should be

represented as follows:

The values shown above are only orientation figures; the

development of strength is dependent upon the particle
structure as well as the mineral composition of the cement.

Higher particle fineness (approximately 5000 cm2/g

Blaine) has  no influence upon the development of
strength. On the contrary, it lowers the strength.
The curves shown above (Fig. 10.2.) [105] make it pos sible
to read the specific Blaine surface (cm2/g) for particle
sizes from 0- 100 microns; this is for a cement  with  a
 specific  gravity  of  3.1 grams/cm 3. These curves are an
aid in determining the approxi mate specific surface of
known particle sizes or vice versa.

Fig. 10.3. shows the correlation between sieve residue

(sieve 0.09 of German Standards DIN 4188, equal approx.
to ASTM  sieve No  170), and specific  surface (cm2/g) of
Portland cement. This is useful in determin ing the
approximate specific surface of a known sieve residue.
However, this curve is for orientation pur poses only, since
sieve residue and specific surface are different, depending
on the material and grinding system.
Fig. 10.3.a. shows the relationship between the spe cific
surface ace. to Blaine and the residue on the 30 Micron
sieve of various types of separators. The area between the
dotted curves shows the relationship in the case of various
types of turbo separators, while the area between the solid
lines shows the situation in the case of plants equipped
with cyclone separa tors

Wagner and Blaine specific surface

In connection with Bond’s formula, the ratio of the Wagner-
surface to the Blaine-surface was given on table 6.4.1. In
order to check the conversion factor, a number of Blaine
and Wagner laboratory results were plotted on Fig. 10.4.

Two conversion factors are in use: the 5/g-factor and the 

125+ 0.485 Blaine factor. Either conversion method is
merely  a practical way of obtaining the surface value; the
ratio will vary somewhat for different materials.

Remark to ‘Specific Surface

Fineness requirements for Portland cement are stated in

terms of specific surface in square centimeter per gram
and measured by two alternate methods: air· permeability
and turbidity.

The Blaine air permeability test utilizes the D”Arcy Kozeny

relationship which  states that the flow of a fluid through a
packed bed of granular particles is related to the surface
area of the particles in the bed.

The Wagner turbidimeter is based on Stokes law for

particles settling in a fluid. The concentration of par ticles
indicating the specific surface is measured by the intensity
of a light beam passing through a sus pension of the
material.

While both Blaine and Wagner fineness values are

expressed as specific surface in square centimeters per
gram, the values are obtained from entirely differ ent
relationships and are not comparable. Both sur faces are
not identical with the true specific surface of the test
substance, but each gives a usable relative value in the
practically important range of cement fineness

Grinding aids
Grinding aids are materials which facilitate grinding in ball
or tube mills, by eliminating ball coating or by dispersing
the ground material. When grinding cement, the additive
must also have been shown not to be harmful to the
finished cement.

Grinding aids may be added in solution, as solids to the mill

feed or directly to the mill itself.

The addition of a fluid may be more readily con trolled than

the addition of a small amount of granu lar material.
Grinding aids are metered in quantities from 0.006 to 0.08
% of the clinker weight.
The majority of grinding aids are substances which
become strongly adsorbed by the ground particles, so that
surface energy requirements are satisfied and no bonds
remain to attract other particles and cause agglomeration.

Grinding aids prevent ball coating and consequently mill

efficiency is increased. Grinding aids reduce power costs
thus paying their way. Savings of 2.5 US cents per ton of
cement, depending upon the specific surface, are reported.

Grinding aids also increase the efficiency of air sepa rators

by dispersing the particles so that the smaller ones are not
carried along by the larger. There is a decrease in volume of
the circulating load as a result of more fines being released
as finished product.

Grinding aids in themselves, do not have a major effect on

strength.

Although they may reduce early strengths, 28-days

strengths are about normal.

By elimination of the surface energy forces which normally

cause interparticle attraction, grinding aids improve
cement flowability after grinding. ASTM Standard
Specifications for Portland Cement permit the use of two
 commercial  grinding  aids “TDA” and “109 B” (see table
10.2.1.).For raw materials a wide variety of additives includ
ing coal, graphite, colloidal carbon, coke [80], colo phonium,
fish oil stearate, etc. may be used as grind ing aids.

Slurry thinners have a beneficial effect on grinding in wet

process raw mills;  they have a deflocculating effect and
are surface active

In Germany, the following grinding aids are employed in the

grinding of finished cements:
Amine acetate

Ethylene glycol

Propylene glycol.

Grinding with propylene glycol generates approxi mately

800 cm2/gram cement more surface than grinding without
an aid, given the same energy con sumption.

The cost of these grinding aids is about 0.25- 0.40 U.S.

Dollars/kg. The grinding aid is added to the cement in an
amount of approximately 1 kg/t.

The following increase in mill throughput was reported:

10-30 % when grinding  Portland  cement N° 375 (equal to
compressive strength of 5321 psi after 28 days), and 25-
50 Ofo when grinding Portland cement No 475 (equal to
6740 psi).

Coating of grinding media

Grinding ball coating which impairs further commi nution is
the accumulation of finely ground material on the surface
of the grinding media.

Causes of ball coating are:

Static electricity – Very fine particles in a mill become

charged, and, if different materials are being ground,
one part becomes positively charged and the other
negatively. These opposite charges attract each other
and the particles agglomerate
Surface energy forces – Atoms or groups of atoms on
the surface of a solid may not be com pletely saturated
as to their valencies and form non-homogeneous fields
on their surface
Adsorption – Individual particles adsorb a sur face film
of air. Presumably this film tends to pre vent the
particles form combining.  However,  if this film is
removed in some way, the  particles may then be free to
combine more readily.
Mechanical impact -This theory states that the grinding
balls strike each other with such impact that the
particles of material are rammed together and tamped
upon the uneven ball surface.

Generally, ball  coating  cannot be  explained  by  a single

theory.

Factors contributing to ball coating:

Ball coating increases with elevated temperatures

When ground with clinker,  gypsum  has  a  ten dency to
prevent ball  coating;  however,  dehy drated gypsum
causes ball coating.
Aged clinker has a higher tendency to cause ball
coating than freshly burned clinker. But generally, aged
clinker grinds more  easily  than  freshly burned clinker
 because of the slaking of free lime. The slaking action
tends to weaken or break down the structure of the
clinker, apparently because of expansion of the lime as
it hydrates during aging. Blaine readings on fresh and
aged clinker showed that when ground for the same
number of revolu tions under the same  conditions,
 aged   clinker gave higher surface areas. The aged
clinker had 4405 cm2/g, whereas the fresh clinker had
3340 cm2/g
Rough  surface  balls  accumulate  coating  while
smooth surface balls do not.

Effects of chemical and potential

compounds  on grindability
Portland cement is a conglomerate of minerals gener ated
during the burning process and solidified by the liquid
phase (see chapter 1.4., Components of Portland cement).
Chemical composition and calculated poten tial
compounds have been plotted against grindability in a
grindability test mill. The grindability is expressed in grams
per mill revolution of the ground material, passing the 200
mesh sieve (ASTM).
The following grindabilities (Fig. 10.10., 10.11., 10.12.) are
based on a definition which states that grindabil ity is a
coefficient indicating how many times faster the tested
material is ground in comparison with a standard sample;
grinding is performed up to 10% residue on the 170 ASTM-
sieve.
Fig. 10.10. shows the correlation between the grinda bility
coefficient and the C3S-content. According to the diagram
the grindability increases linearly with increase of the C3S-
content of the clinker. The same applies to the lime
saturation ratio (LSR), and clinker grindability shown in the
diagram.

The lime saturation factor is expressed as the Kind

Modulus (KM)

Fig. 10.11. shows the grindability versus the C2S-con tent

of the clinker; a high C2S-content results in  a lower
grindability due mainly to coating of grinding media and
adsorption.

Fig. 10.12. shows the grindability of clinker versus the

amount of liquid phase in the clinker. Generation of clinker
minerals occurs partially in the liquid phase. The amount of
liquid phase influences the compact ness of the clinker and
thus its grindability. The more liquid phase, the lower the
grindability of clinker.
Effect of moisture on the grinding
process
Fig. 10.13. shows how the moisture content of clinker
influences grinding efficiency. To demonstrate this, the
same clinker with different  moisture  contents was ground
in the same mill.

Diagram I: clinker containing 0.4 % moisture

Diagram II: clinker containing 2.4 0/o moisture.

One can  see that at 90 0/o passing through the 170 sieve
the clinker with 2.4 0/o moisture consumed 8 kWh (10.7
HPh) more energy per metric ton than clinker with 0.4 0/o
moisture. It is noteworthy that a higher moisture content of
mill feed has a detrimen tal effect on the grinding process
for the entire dura tion of grinding

This higher spec. energy consumption can be avoided by

passing hot gases through the mill (combined grinding/
drying) or by pre-drying the moist material in integrated
driers (flash driers)

Further examination shows the influence of the mill feed’s

moisture on the  required  grinding  energy when grinding to
different Blaine  numbers.   The results of the experiments
are pictured by the graphs given in Fig. 10.14.

Indeed, the given curves do not relate to cement or cement

raw mix, but represent results of practical grinding  of  iron
ore with different mosture  contents in a one-compartment
tube mill (size 4.25 x 11.7 m, open circuit, 4400 HP drive).
Bond’s work index for grinding of this ore was determined
to 12.7 kWh/ton. According to this, an increase in moisture
of the mill feed e. g. from 1 to 2 % when grinding to 2500
Blaine requires an additional  grinding energy of 10 % or 3
HPh/t. When grinding to 2900 Blaine the additional energy
consumption is already up to 15% or 6 HPh/t. Going on
with the same Blaine number  and increas ing the moisture
from 1 to 3 %, the requirement for additional grinding
energy becomes 26 %  or  13 HPh/t.

Grinding and generation of heat

All size reduction machines, especially ball mills, con vert
the majority of energy input into heat. The heat ing  is  such
 that  the  temperature   of  the  mill  feed increases to more
than 100 a c. The heating of the mill feed during dry
grinding of  cement raw mix has no detrimental effects.
Also  at these temperatures the chemical properties of the
clinker remain unchanged. However, admixtures such as
raw gypsum added to the  clinker  during  grinding,  are
 sensitive  to  these temperatures. The dehydration of  raw
gypsum  starts at a temperature of 105 oc. At high grinding
temperatures a partial separation of the gypsum’s water of
crystallization occurs and the gypsum loses its pro perty as
a cement setting retarder; such a cement becomes a so-
called false set cement, which, when mixed with water sets
to a hardened mass immedia tely or within a few minutes.
Heat generation in tube mills

In the following practical example, heat generation in tube

mills and the resulting losses of efficiency are given. The
figures used are average values which resulted from
practical mill operations

Based on the figures given above the reduction work loss

and heat generation is calculated as follows:
of the power input was converted into heat.

Cooling procedures during finish

grinding
With present day grinding temperatures and product
specifications, open circuit grinding is not completely
feasible. For best results, cooling must be done in the
grinding mill circuit, often in the air separator. Cool ing is
effective only so long as temperatures do not reach the
dehydration point of the gypsum. This criti cal temperature
is very often attained in open circuit grinding. Closed circuit
grinding provides better tem perature control over the
complete grinding circuit.

Several cooling concepts have been introduced:

Mill ventilation

Normally about 0.2 m3(min of air per mill kW is drawn

through a single compartment mill, compared to 0.12-0.4
m3/min per mill kW in a multicompart ment mill

For effective cooling Lurje [129] recommends for mul

ticompartment  mills  an  air  exchange  rate  of  300 m3
per ton of cement per hour. Other recommendations for
intensive mill ventilation quote figures for vent air from 400
to 1200 m3 per ton cement.

Arithmetically mill ventilation can also be expressed in mill

volume; this figure amounts from 3 to 4 times mill volume
air  exchange  per minute. Under usual conditions for mill
ventilation, normal dust concen trations can vary from 400
to 800 g/m3

For mills working in open-circuit systems the air vol ume is

determined by the air velocity in the  free cross section of
the mill. The air velocity should not exceed approx. 1.0
m/s.

Water-cooling of the mill shell

If the mill ventilation is not sufficient to lower the grinding

temperature, cooling of the mill shell can be of help. A
water sprinkler system installed along the longitudinal mill
axes, sprays water on the mill shell. This kind of mill
cooling lowers the temperature  of the mill discharge by 30
to 40 o C.

Water injection into the mill

This cooling system is based on injection of a con trolled

amount of water into the hottest part of the finish mill
where it is evaporated instantaneously. Water is carried
into the mill by compressed air through a simple nozzle
which breaks up the water into very small droplets. In two-
compartment mills the atomizing nozzle usually extends
into the second grinding compartment. The resulting
mixture of air and water vapor is swept out of the mill,
passed through a dust collector and discharged to the
atmos phere. Ducts and dust collector are insulated to
avoid condensation of water vapor.

Owing to the low mill ventilation rate mentioned in point

10.7.1. for mills working in open circuit (Vmax. = approx.
1.0 m/s), it is necessary for cooling water to be injected
into the 2nd grinding compartment, if the mill is to function
under optimum conditions.

In the case of high clinker temperatures, water can be

injected into both compartments (of 2-compartment mills).

Fig. 10.15. shows a schematic presentation of injection of

cooling water into a finish mill (Fuller Co., Bulletin WS-lA).

The .following illustrative examples show the effectiveness

of spray water cooling in finish mills.

Fig. 10.15.  Cooling by water-injection into the mill

The heat absorbed by the water in this case is greater than
the heat given up by the cement; inaccuracies in the
measurement  of  water  and temperatures could account
for this condition.

Since more heat is given up by the cement than is

absorbed by the water, air circulation through the mill must
have helped cool the cement down to dis charge
temperature

The F. L. Smidth Co. applies a finish grinding mill cooling

system in which the water injection into the first grinding
compartment is controlled by the tem perature of the
material in the first diaphragm, while the water injection
into the second compartment is controlled by the
temperature of  the ground material at the mill outlet; see
control-scheme Fig. 10.16.
In the following, two heat balances for mill cooling
according to the F. L. Smidth-system are calculated [87c];
the first heat balance refers to a mill feed with a low clinker
 temperature  (50 °C),  whereas  the  second is calculated
on the base of a mill feed with  a  high clinker  temperature
 {150 oc).
Aftercooling of cement
The above calculations show that despite water cool ing in
the mill, the cement  exit temperature is over 100 o C. As  is
 known  from  experience,  storage  of  cement and packing
 into paper valve bags, require  a reduction  of  the  cement
temperature  down  to  about 65 oc.

Due to its high specific heat, a signifant drop in tem

perature can be achieved  only by  the  application  of on
appropriate cooling method. During  conveying from the
mill to the storage silo, the cement tempera ture is lowered
only by about 5- 10 deg. C; the  cool ing process in storage
silos lasts several weeks.

When packing hot cement (about 80- 100 oq into paper

bags, the paper fiber deteriorates, and the bags often tear
apart. When storing hot cement in silos, lumps are often
formed as a result from a reaction between the clinker
minerals and the water of hydra tion of the gypsum
(formation of syngenite).

The F. L. Smidth cement cooler reduces the cement

temperature from 110 o  to 65 o, when applying cooling
water of 15 oc (see Fig. 10.17.).
The hot material is fed to the bottom of the cooling tank,
and picked up by internal rotating spiral flights.

By the combination of the vertical movement with the

centrifugal force acting upon the material, the cement
forms a thin, upward moving layer, pressed against the
inside of the tank shell. This results in a high rate heat
transfer from the hot material to the cold tank shell.

The heat is transferred through the tank shell and carried

off by the cooling water, distributed evenly over the
circumference of the shell, and cascading continuously as
a thin film downwards, to be col lected in a trough below
the tank, and discharged.

For discharging of foreign matter accumulating in the tank,

the cooler’s bottom is provided with a special outlet.

This cooler can also be inserted into existing installations.

Fig. 10.18. shows a flow diagram of a grinding plant with

an F. L. Smidth cement cooler.
The F. L. Smidth cement cooler is manufactured for
capacities up to 100 t/h; for this cooler size the con
sumption of the cooling water is 65 m3/h, and the power
input is 90 kW.

After expiration of the patent rights the described cement

cooler is being built by many cement machi nery
manufacturers. So e. g. the Krupp Polysius Co.
manufactures this cement cooler in various sizes up to a
maximum throughput of 160 mt/h

Cement cooling in mechanical air

Here cement cooling is attainable at low power con

sumption. For this kind of cooling the end product and
circulating load are cooled simultaneously, thus avoiding
heating to the dehydration temperature of gypsum. The
cooling air amounts from 0.20 to 0.30 kg/kg of cement
(circulating load + finished product), depending  upon  the
temperature  of  the  cooling  air and the circulating load.
The thermodynamic  conditions and the amount of cooling
air must be deter mined by a separate heat balance for
each grinding mill.

Fig. 10.19. shows a flow chart of a finish mill working in

closed circuit with an air cooled mechanical air separator.
The circulating load amounts to approxi mately 290 % of
the new feed. All product quantities and temperatures are
shown in the flow chart. The quantity of cooling air is 0.28
kg/kg of cement (circulating load  + finished product). The
particular temperatures    are:   finished    product    81 oc.
 separator coarses 85 oe, and dust precipitator product 74
oc.

The accuracy of the particular figures can be checked by

the following calculation based on the assumption that the
heat lost by the cooled cement equals the heat gained by
the heated air. The amount of heat in each case is obtained
by multiplying the mass (M) of each component by its
specific heat (S) and by the change in temperature. The
resulting final tempera ture is marked as t1. The product
quantities are expressed as kg/min. The heat lost by the
cement as it cools in the separator to the final temperature
t1 is:
Mean temperature of the three components is 84 °C; the
difference between the calculated and the given
temperatures is only 3 deg. or roughly 3 %, which is
negligible for these conditions. The calculation illus trates
the degree of accuracy of the figures given in the flow chart
of the grinding circuit.

Cement cooling in Heyd-air separator

Heyd [132] quotes the following figures for cement cooling

with air in the mechanical air separator of his design:

Cooling in Fuller’s cement cooler

Fig. 10.20. shows a cement grinding circuit where cooling

of the circulating load is performed in a special cement
cooler which the manufacturer calls Fluidized Material
Cooler [133]. This cement cooler is basically a circular tank
containing cooling tubes. The tubes are connected to form
circuits. The number of tubes and circuits vary with the
diameter of the cooler. Water  enters each circuit from a
supply header and exits to a discharge header that may
either be connected to a sewer or recycled through a
cooling tower. At the bottom of the tank below the tubes is
a sloping bottom equipped with a porous medium. The
porous medium is compartmented with an air supply to
each compartment. That may be var ied by means of
butterfly valves, to control fluidiza tion in the cooler. The
fluidized material cooler reduces the temperature  of  the
material throughout the grinding  circuit to approximately
 80 ac and thus minimizes  the possibility  of  gypsum
 dehydration. At the same time the finished cement
temperature is between 50 o C and 65 o C, depending on
cooler size, temperature of cooling water and capacity. No
cool ing in the air separator is necessary.

If the mill product is cooled adequately (to prevent gypsum

dehydration) by mill water spray or in a separator, a
fluidized material cooler may be utilized to cool just
finished cement.