Material Handling by Dr.-Ing. Daniel Kitaw

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MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

By

Dr.-Ing. Daniel Kitaw


Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Addis Ababa University
PART ONE

INTRODUCTION

1
CHAPTER ONE
THE BASICS OF MATERIALS HANDLING
EQUIPMENTAND THEIR SELECTION
1.1 Definition

Materials handling can be defined as the art and science of conveying, elevating,
positioning, transporting and packaging and storing of materials regardless of size, form
and weight which effect a saving in money, time and place. The reference to materials
handling as an art and science is made, because the solution of most handling problems is
not susceptible to a single definite answer but depends largely on the experience and
judgement of individual materials handling engineer. Modern analytical methods and
engineering data, formula statistics and standards are becoming increasingly helpful in
arriving at a definite answer for some aspects of the problems. This makes modern
materials handling increasingly scientific, but it still remains to a large degree an art.

Materials handling equipment is of a vital importance in the economical and efficient


performance of all modern industrial operations, where materials are handled and re-
handled from their source, through manufacturing and processing. In many cases,
materials handling equipment is the only possible means of moving materials because of
their characteristics or for other reasons such as location, safety and capacity
requirements. In fact in many plants the predominant operation is the handling of
materials from their raw state until they become finished products (Fig.1.1). Materials
handling equipment, whether a single unit or a complex system can link various
processes together and synchronize them in a manner not possible by any other means.

In short consider an industrial plant as a black box. The input (raw material or semi-
finished product) is unloaded, stored in the raw material store, fed into the handling
equipment in the plant, processed and finally the output (semi-finished or finished
products) again stored in the finished product store until loading it to the destination
required.

2
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 3
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INPUT INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT


FACILITY

CONTROL

Fig.1.1 Flow of Materials in an Industrial Facility

1.2 Unloading and Feeding Equipment for Bulk Material

Unloading common carriers or other means of transportation is an important operation


in most plants which consume or process bulk materials. Such materials may be
received in trucks, trailers, ships, boats, barges, and various types of cars such as mine
cars, hopper bottoms, gondolas, and boxcars. Requirements may vary from one or two
cars per week to sixty or more cars per hour.

Operation of unloading equipment may vary from seasonal or intermittent use at some
mines, grain elevators, and small plants, to the severe "day in, day out" service at steel
mills and large steam generating stations. Docks, piers, terminals and other bulk
transfer stations require a high degree of dependability and usually high capacities for
maximum economy.

Selection of the most effective and economical unloading equipment depends upon
the type of carrier to be unloaded, the characteristics and condition of the material, the
unloading rate, annual tonnage, the means of moving cars or barges to and from
unloader, and, in the case of large ships, the cost of demurrage.

The average unloading rate, in cars per hour, includes both the unloading cycle and
the time required to move cars to and from the unloading operation. The most
effective use of unloading equipment often requires haulage machines or car spotters
to reduce the delays of such movements. Also, feeding and conveying equipment is
more economical when the hopper, into which the car is unloaded, is large enough to
contain sufficient material to continuously feed the system while cars are shifted to
and from the unloading operation.

Unloading of free flowing material seldom requires considerations other than those of
capacity and appropriate type of equipment (Fig.1.2, a, b, c, d, e, and f). Sluggish or
sticky materials often require car shaker for quick, clean discharge of hopper cars, or a
rotary dumper for higher capacities. Frozen coal or ore may require thawing to free it
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 4
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from car sides, after which the discharge of moderate capacities of frozen lumps may
usually be accelerated by a car shaker. Higher capacities of frozen material can best
be unloaded with a rotary car dumper.

Various types of bucket elevator unloaders are also available for unloading ships of
grain, barges of coal and other free flowing materials at capacities up to 2000 or more
tons per hour.

Fig.1.2 Unloading Equipment

After the unloading process, the material is stored in the raw material store. Then a
uniformly controlled feed is necessary for the most effective performance of most
bulk conveying systems and for may processing operations. Selection of the most
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 5
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suitable type of feeders depends upon the required capacity, as well as the size,
flowability, moisture content and other characteristics of the material. Before
dispatching, the material is packed and stored in the finished product store.

Fig.1.3 Feeding Equipment

1.3 Classification and Application of Materials Handling Equipment

It is clear that materials handling plays a vital role in industrial plant operations. A
good materials handling system is flexible, compatible and reliable. By flexibility we
mean that the handling equipment has the capacity to respond or confirm to new
situations easily, while compatibility requires the number of varieties of models and
makes of equipment to be reduced. The ability of materials handling equipment and
system to operate safely, frequently and reliably has become increasingly important.
A good handling system may have the following benefits.

i. Reduce cost by
- Utilizing space to better advantage
- Increasing productivity
- Making a few number of effective movements
ii. Reduce waste by
- Eliminating damage to materials during the handling process.
- Maintaining proper control over the in-and-out of stock handling
process
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 6
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iii. Improve working conditions by


- Providing safer working conditions
- Reducing worker fatigue
iv. Improve the efficiency of the plant by
- Providing a better organization of storage facilities

The general field of materials handling may be technically divided into five distinct
functional divisions or spheres of activity and into three main groups according to
their design features. The five distinct functional divisions or spheres of activity are:

1. Bulk handling: It involves the extracting, handling and storage of bulk materials
including gases liquids, semi-liquids and solids. These processes apply particularly
in the processing, basic heavy industries, and in the mine and construction
industries.
2. Unit handling: In manufacturing operations it covers the handling of formed
materials in the initial, intermediate and final stages of manufacture. It involves the
handling of unit loads ranging from pins to locomotives.
3. Packaging: Covers the design, selection and use of in process containers, and
includes packing of semi-finished and finished products.
4. Warehousing: The area covered by warehousing includes the receiving, storing,
shipping of materials in any form, and at any point in the process of manufacture
and distribution.
5. Carrier Handling: It covers the loading, securing, transporting, unloading and
transfer of all kinds of materials in highway trucks railway cars, barges, ships,
airplanes and at carrier terminals.

The three groups of materials handling equipment classified by their design features
are indicated in Fig.1.4.

a. Hoisting Equipment: A group of machines with lifting gear intended for moving
loads mainly in batches. This type of equipment is intended mainly for unit loads.
Hoisting machinery, cranes and elevators belong to this group.
b. Conveying Equipment: A group of machines, which may have no lifting gear
and which move load in a continuous flow. They are intended for bulk and unit
loads one at a time. All conveyors including pneumatic and hydraulic conveyors
belong to this group.
c. Surface and Overhead Equipment: A group of machines, which may not be
provided with lifting gear and which usually handle loads in batches. Trackless
trucks, narrow-gauge cars belong to this group.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 7
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MATERIALS
HANDLING
EQUIPMENT

Hoisting Conveying Surface &


Equipment Equipment Overhead Equipment

Fig.1.4 Classification of Materials Handling Equipment According to Design


Features

The application of materials handling equipment is very wide. It is worthwhile to list


a few of them.

1. Manufacturing Industry: The handling of all kinds of materials in the process of


manufacturing represents probably the largest single field for the extensive use of a
wide range of materials handling equipment.
2. Building Construction Industry: The architect must familiarize himself with the
many aspects of building planning and construction that involves the proper
receiving sorting, storing and moving of materials.
3. Heavy Construction Industry: Modern materials handling methods and
equipment for handling construction materials and for large-scale movement of
earth and road building operations have greatly influenced civil engineers in the
planning and performance of heavy construction works.
4. Mining Industry: In both underground mines and open pit operations, the use of
new materials handling methods and equipment in the extraction, handling and
transportation of coal and ore have cut the cost of extracting the materials mined to
a mere fraction of the former expenditure.
5. Food Industry: The proper choice of materials handling method and equipment
highly influences industries like grain, flour, cereal, meat packers, sugar mills,
breweries, canning plants, bakery and confectionery, ice and cold storage.
6. Automotive and Transportation Industry: This is the area where recent
developments of materials handling equipment is widely applied. This category
includes industries as automobile, railroad, truck aircraft, ships, etc.

1.4 Typical Hoisting and Conveying Equipment

Materials handling plays an important part in industrial economy. It is an integral part


of most modern industries. Great steam plants would not be possible with out coal
handling equipment, nor could steel, paper, chemical, cement and manufacturing
plants function without them. Some of the typical materials handling equipment are
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 8
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given below. Fig.1.5 depicts a typical hoisting machines like screw jack, electric
hoists, capstans, pulleys, bridge cranes and crane trolley. The components and the
theory of those will be dealt from Chapter Two to Chapter Six, in Part Two of this
text.

An introduction on conveyors and their applications along with figures are given
below (Fig.1.6 to Fig.1.13). Details of these conveyors are discussed in Part Three of
this text (From Chapter Seven to Twelve).

a) Screw Jack b) Electric Hoists

c) Electric Capstan (Horizontal Drum) d) Rope Pulleys


The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 9
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e) Single-grider Bridge Crane

g) Crane on a power-driven truck h) Wall Jib Crane

Fig.1.5 Typical Hoisting Machines

a. Belt Conveyors: They are suitable for handling many materials in a wide rang of
sizes, over long distances up and down slops. They are outstanding for low power
requirements, high capacities, simplicity and dependable operation. Material is
carried on belt running over anti-friction idler rolls.

Fig. 1.6 Belt Conveyor


The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 10
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b. Oscillating Conveyors: They are adapted to handling hot abrasive stringy and
irregular shaped lumpy materials as well as dusty materials or those that cannot be
exposed. They have leak-proof trough in which there are no moving parts and can
be enclosed and sealed for dust-proof or gas tight operation. They are made in
three types for light, medium and heavy-duty service.

Fig.1.7 Oscillating Conveyor

c. Apron Conveyors: They handle many kinds of materials but are particularly
suitable to those which are heavy, abrasive or lumpy. Bladed overlapping carrying
pans are usually mounted on two strands of chain operating on track they are self
feeding and can be used on combined horizontal and inclined paths.

Fig.1.8 Apron Conveyor

d. Screw Conveyors: They are adapted to a wide range of bulk materials of fine and
moderate sizes. They consist of helically formed flights on revolving shafts,
generally mounted in stationary, enclosed troughs which may be water or steam
jacketed for cooling, drying, etc. The rotation of the screw advances the material.

Fig.1.9 Screw Conveyor


The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 11
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e. Flight Conveyors: They use scraper plates or flights, carried by one or two strands
of chain to push coal or other nonabrasive material align in troughs which may be
horizontal, inclined or a combination of both. Discharge may be over the end or
through the gates at intermediate points.

Fig.1.10 Flight Conveyor

f. Bucket Elevator: They are probably the most widely used methods for elevating
bulk materials. Various types of design are available to meet the requirements of
different materials and operating conditions. Buckets are mounted on chain or belt.
They receive material at the boot and discharge it over the head wheel by
centrifugal action or by gravity. The centrifugal discharge types are normally used
for free flowing, fine to medium size lump materials. Those discharging by
gravity, which comprise positive discharge, continuous bucket and internal
discharge types, are generally used for materials more difficult to handle due to
large lumps, sluggishness, fragile or similar characteristics.

Fig.1.11 Bucket Elevator


The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 12
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g. Wide Chain Drag Conveyor: They are simple and satisfactory for handling saw
dust, wood chips and abrasive materials such as ash. Single strands of wide drag
chains slide the material in steel, hard iron or concrete troughs.

Fig.1.12 Wide Chain Drag Conveyor

h. Pneumatic Conveyor: This term generally identifies a pneumatic pipeline


conveyor into which dry, pulverized materials are fed mechanically and their
transportation to the destination by the expanding energy of compressed air. The
basic units of such a system are:

− A positive airlock feeder


− The piping system
− The product receiver
− The air supply, either a positive pressure blower or an air compressor
− Dust filters

Fig.1.13 Pneumatic Conveyors

1.5 Selection of the Proper Equipment

Various Materials Handling Equipment (MHE) can perform the same operation. The
success of an individual handling equipment or of a complete system depends largely
upon its suitability for the material it must handle. Usually there are various
alternative methods for handling materials in any given facility. The question is, how
does one go about selecting the right approach? The following sequence of steps is a
recommended approach for solving materials handling problems.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 13
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a) Identify and define the problem.


b) Collect relevant data.
c) Analyze the data.
d) Evaluate alternative
e) Choose the preferred solution.
f) Apply the solution

a. Identifying the Problem

Identifying a materials handling problem is not always an easy task. Often problems
in a plant are attributed to other factors, such as production or quality control, when
the underlying cause actually stems from the handling approach being used.

Checklists given below can be used as a starting point and aid in spotting handling
problems in an existing plant. The checklists of this type should not be relied on in
themselves; sometimes they can be misleading. However, in general they do help to
spot symptoms that are associated with poor materials handling practices.

- Crowded operating conditions


- Cluttered aisles
- Cluttered docks
- Poor housekeeping
- Jam-ups in service departments
- Backtracking in materials flow
- Obstacles in materials flow
- Manual loading and unloading
- Manual handling or loads weighing more than 25 kg
- Two-man lifting jobs
- Excess temporary storage
- Excess time spent retrieving stored goods
- Unused building cube space
- Excessive rehandling (too much picking up, setting down)
- Single pieces handled instead of unit loads
- Production delays
- Idle equipment and machines
- High damage rate
- High demurrage charges
- High indirect labor costs
- Skilled employees waste time handling materials
- Materials handling equipment more than 10 years old

A good starting point in evaluating the quality of materials handling in an existing


facility is to take a plant tour, armed with a clipboard and checklist. While trying to
spot signs of inefficient materials handling, the observer should also try to see if
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 14
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relationships can be noted between the different problems. First, the engineer or
analyst should look for relationships between problems within an operating section or
department. The next step is to look for relationships among problems in different
departments. It is important that handling efficiency be optimized throughout the
facility, not just within one isolated department.

b. Defining the Problem

Once a problem has been identified, the next important step is to define it fully. The
problem definition must include its scope. For example, suppose that considerable
clutter and confusion exist at a work area on the shop floor of a plant. What is the
scope of the problem? Is it limited to the work area itself, and attributable to a lack of
on-site storage facilities, or poor workplace handling practices? Or, might the problem
also encompass the way materials are being delivered from the receiving area, or from
the adjacent department? Perhaps the delivery of materials should be in an even flow
throughout the day, rather than in large, staggered increments. Possibly the difficulty
is caused by a poor layout of the production area.

The problem definition should, wherever possible, contain quantitative information.


How many meters is the adjacent department away from the work site? How many
square feet of floor space, or cubic feet of space, have been allocated to storage? How
many different parts and tools are involved, and how have they been organized before
delivery to production?

c. Collecting Relevant Data

Answers to some of the necessary question may not be immediately available.


Rather, some data collection and analysis may be necessary in order to uncover the
desired information. Often information must be developed regarding the flow of
materials through the facility, along with the types of moves that take place. Care
must be taken to ensure that the data being generated and collected are reliable. The
solution that is eventually developed can be only as good as the data on which it is
based.

d. Analyze the Data

A good first step in analyzing the data is to consider the 20 Principles of Materials
Handling. These principles are a distillation of accumulated experience and
knowledge on the part of many practitioners and students of materials handling. As
with any such listings, they should be viewed as general principles that can be used as
a starting point in developing a solution. However, they do not represent absolute
rules in any sense. Rather, they should be combined with other factors before arriving
at a solution. For example, although the use of gravity should be encouraged
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 15
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whenever practical, in certain applications powered conveyors are clearly the


preferred solution when compared with gravity chutes.

The Twenty Principles of Materiel Handling

1. Orientation Principle: Study the system relationships thoroughly prior to


preliminary planning in order to identify existing methods and problems, physical
and economic constraints, and to establish future requirements and goals.
2. Planning Principle: Establish a plan to include basic requirements, desirable
options, and the consideration of contingencies for all material handling and
storage activities.
3. Systems Principle: Integrate those handling and storage activities which are
economically viable into a coordinated system of operation including receiving,
inspection, storage, production, assembly, packaging, warehousing, shipping and
transportation.
4. Unit Load Principle: Handle products in as large a unit load as practical.
5. Space Utilization Principle: Make effective utilization of all cubic space.
6. Standardization Principle: Standardize handling methods and equipment
wherever possible.
7. Ergonomic Principle: Recognize human capabilities and limitations by designing
material handling equipment and procedures for effective interaction with the
people using the system.
8. Energy Principle: Include energy consumption of the material handling systems
and material handling procedures when making comparisons or preparing
economic justifications.
9. Ecology Principle: Minimize adverse effects on the environment when selecting
material handling equipment and procedures.
10. Mechanization Principle: Mechanize the handling process where feasible to
increase efficiency and economy in the handling of materials.
11. Flexibility Principle: Use methods and equipment which can perform a variety
of tasks under a variety of operating conditions.
12. Simplification Principle: Simplify handling by eliminating, reducing, or
combining unnecessary movements and /or equipment.
13. Gravity Principle: Utilize gravity to move material wherever possible, while
respecting limitations concerning safety, product damage and loss.
14. Safety Principle: Provide safe material handling equipment and methods which
follow existing safety codes and regulations in addition to accrued experience.
15. Computerization Principle: Consider computerization in material handling and
storage systems, when circumstances warrant, for improved material and
information control.
16. System Flow Principle: integrate data flow with the physical material flow in
handling and storage.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 16
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17. Layout Principle: Prepare an operational sequence and equipment layout for all
viable system solutions, then select the alternative system which best integrates
efficiency and effectiveness.
18. Cost Principle: Compare the economic justification of alternate solutions in
equipment and methods on the basis of economic effectiveness as measured by
expense per unit handled.
19. Maintenance Principle: Prepare a plan for preventive maintenance and
scheduled repairs of all material handling equipment.
20. Obsolescence Principle: Prepare a long range and economically sound policy for
replacement of obsolete equipment and methods with special consideration to
after-tax life cycle costs.

e. Evaluating Alternatives

Once appropriate data have been assembled and analyzed, the engineer can begin
developing and evaluating alternative solution plans. The elements of a materials
handling solution include people, equipment, facilities, money, and time. Thus,
formulation of a solution involves questions of the following type:

- How many operators will be involved?


- What kind of training will they require?
- How many supervisors will be needed?
- How large a maintenance staff will be needed, and what types of skills
should they have?
- What types of equipment will be used?
- What are the power requirements?
- Will a new additional building be required?
- How soon can we get on stream?
- How much will it cost?
- What is the expected return on investment?

To answer these and related questions both technical and economic factors must be
considered. Usually the primary technical factor is a thorough knowledge of the types
of handling equipment available, their advantages and disadvantages for specific
applications, their purchase, installation, and operating costs, and their adaptability to
different situations. Plant visits, seminars, short courses, trade shows, and business
publications are all good sources of information.

f. Choosing the Solution

Whenever possible, tests should be applied to various alternative approaches. In some


cases, alternative schemes might be tested with simulation models or other
quantitative techniques. In other cases, particularly those involving bulk solids,
laboratory or pilot-plant runs may provide required data. The various proposed
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 17
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solutions should also be tested against economic criteria. Factors such as cash flow,
investment, tax, credit, and income tax must always be taken into account.

The proper choice of MHE requires knowledge of the operational characteristics of


the various MHE and a thorough understanding of the production process and
organizational setup of the enterprise.

The principal technical factors for the choice of types of MHE are the following:

1. Kinds and properties of load to be handled:


i. Unit loads: for these types of loads their form, weight, convenient bearing
surface or parts by which they can be suspended, brittleness, temperature,
etc. are to be noted.
ii. Bulk loads: for these types of loads lump size, tendency to cake, volume,
specific weight, temperature, chemical properties etc. are to be known.
2. Required hourly capacity: The knowledge of hourly capacity is essential for the
determination of the type of the operation. The operation can be either continuos
or intermittent.
3. Direction and length of travel: the direction can be, horizontal inclined or
vertical. The distance that the load moves may range from few millimeters to
thousands of meters.
4. Methods of stacking loads at the initial, intermediate and final points: Mostly
unit loads are stored in stacks and shelves while bulk loads are stored in piles and
bins.
5. Characteristics of production process involved in moving loads: This is the
most important factor to affect the choice of MHE for the movement of materials
is closely linked with the manufacturing process.
6. Consideration of specific local conditions: This may include the shape and the
size of area, the type and design of the building, the possible arrangements of
processing units and ambient conditions, dust, humidity, temperature, pressure,
etc.
7. Economic and other considerations: This may include capital outlay,
operational cost, considerations for further expansion, period of existence, kind of
energy available and safety and operational convenience.

After technical and economic factors have been considered, however, another set of
factors that must be dealt with are the intangibles. Often, these items can tip the
scales in one direction or another. Typical intangibles include the following:

- Increase in morale
- Job enrichment
- Improved customer service
- Compatibility with company philosophy
- Operating feasibility (considering availability of labor and skills)
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 18
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- Operator comfort
- Ability to cope with changing conditions
- Adaptability to future changes in technology
- Adaptability for expansion (or reduction)
- Quality of service
- Reputation with customers and vendors
- Durability of equipment

Simulation and other methods of computer analysis can be used to help evaluate
feasibility of alternatives. It is important, however, that the assumptions, underlying
any model and the relationships represented in it, are thoroughly understood.

g. Applying the Solution

Once a preferred solution has been identified, the major challenge is developing the
implementation plan. Obviously a different degree of effort and expertise is required
for obtaining a hoist, a section of conveyor, or a shelving section, as is the case for
planning an engineered materials handling system. Depending on the complexity of
the job, assistance may be required from equipment manufacturers, distributors,
consultants, and systems contractors.

Generally the following steps are involved in implementing a materials handling


systems project.

1. Develop specifications
2. Evaluate supplies
3. Evaluate bids
4. Select supplies
5. Award contracts

1. Develop specifications

It is most important that the bid specification be written, be well organized, and spell
out clearly and precisely what various vendors will be bidding against. Even in a
small job, involving only a few pieces of equipment, competitive bids can vary widely
in price if vendors do not understand clearly what the specifications are to which they
must bid. As a minimum, requests for bids should be accompanied by scaled drawings
whenever appropriate. If larger systems are involved, consultants are often brought in
to assist with bid preparation.

2. Evaluating Suppliers

For a materials handling system of any significant size, qualifying those suppliers that
will be invited to submit bids is an important part of the bid preparation process.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 19
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Evaluation of supplier capabilities is also a factor when subsequent bids are being
evaluated. Depending on the scope of the project, it might be a good idea to tour the
prospective supplier's facilities, with the following questions in mind.

- What is the condition of the supplier's plant?


- How well organized are plant operations?
- What is the condition and age of equipment?
- How good is the quality control?
- How busy is the supplier?
- Will his workload permit him to give proper attention to my project?
- What full-time skills are available in mechanical, electrical, and structure
crafts?
- How about data processing capabilities?

If possible, customers of the supplier also should be visited to see how their systems
are working out. If possible, operators and mechanics should be interviewed, as well
as supervisory and managerial personnel, in order to get a balanced viewpoint.
Information about the following matters should be sought:

- How smooth was the system installation and start-up?


- Did the supplier assist in setting up a training program for the user's
personnel?
- How helpful was the supplier in setting up a maintenance program and
spare parts inventory?
- Was the supplier effective in solving problems that surfaced during
installation and start-up?
- Did supplier personnel have adequate skills, and were the same people
available throughout the duration of the project?
- Is the system delivering what was promised in terms of performance and
uptime?

3. Evaluating the Bid

An important part of evaluating competitive bids is making sure that all vendors are
bidding to the same specifications. This job is made easier when well-written, precise
specifications are prepared in advance. Otherwise, prices quoted may have no relation
to duty classification or construction grade of equipment quoted.

In the case of a large system or facility, a performance specification may be the basis
on which prospective suppliers bid. This type of specification spells out the type of
performance required (pallets per hour handled, number of picks per hour, etc.), but
does not necessarily restrict the supplier to the type of approach to be used. Rather,
the burden is on the bidder to suggest the approach to be taken.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 20
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4. Selecting the Supplier

When such a performance specification is evaluated, a meticulous cost analysis is an


important if not the major part of the evaluation. Operating costs as well as initial
costs must be evaluated carefully for every alternative approach. Anticipated
maintenance costs and spare parts inventory costs are among the items to be included
in the operating cost category. In a surprisingly large number of cases, the initial cost
of a system does not represent the overriding consideration when compared against
total life-cycle costs.

Obviously, absolute cost figures should be balanced against perceptions of overall


supplier capabilities. A supplier presenting the lowest overall cost bid may also carry
the lowest overall confidence level. Qualitative judgements must be made at this
point. In some cases, numerical point rating systems might be applied to help factor
such issues into the evaluation.

5. Awarding the Contract

Once the supplier has been selected and the winning bid chosen, the contract must be
awarded. Often the success of the system fails down at this point. Practicality must be
kept in mind when the contract is drawn up. The important thing is that the system
meets performance specifications, on time, and within budget. The supplier should not
be bogged down with an overly restrictive contract that limits his abilities to perform.
On the other hand, the needs of the customer, as identified and approved by top
management, must not be compromised. Basically, the contract should be viewed as a
tool for helping both parties-the customer and the supplier-in managing the project. A
good materials handling contract generally contains the following elements.

- Objectives of the system


- Modes of operation
- Environmental factors (temperature, atmosphere, seasonal factors)
- Description of loads to be handed, along with volume and throughputs
- Target date for system to be operational at specified performance level
- Designated responsibility on the part of supplier and user for insurance,
safety, scheduling, and life protection
- Warranty details
- Supplier and user share of project management responsibilities
- Acceptance criteria
- Terms of payment
- Procedures for handling system changes and new requirements
- Spare parts stocking manuals
- Supplier support activities and training materials
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 21
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1.6 Review Questions

1. Define what Materials Handling Equipment (MHE) are, and describe their
applications.
2. What factors will be considered when selecting the most effective and economical
unloading equipment?
3. State the factors that have to be considered while selecting efficient and suitable
types of feeders.
4. List down some of the benefits obtained from implementing a good material
handling system.
5. Discuss the three main groups of material handling equipment when they are
treated according to their design features.
6. Describe the necessary steps that are involved in implementing a material
handling systems project.
PART TWO
HOISTING EQUIPMENT

Hoisting equipment serves the purpose of moving loads vertically as well as transferring
them from a definite point of area covered by the equipment into another desired area. These
production machinery operate intermittently alike conveyors, which do operate
continuously. Structurally it is of diverse nature and may be classified accordingly to the
construction, application and the kind of work performed.

The breakdown of the hoisting equipment might mean the dropping of the lifted load which
could endanger life, thus quality materials are used that strictly conform to manufacturing
specifications and are selected on the basis of certificates provided by metal suppliers. The
component parts and units of hoisting equipment include: Flexible hoisting appliances;
Pulleys, pulley systems, sprockets and drums; Load handling attachments; Stopping and
braking devices; Drivers (motors); Transmissions; Transmission components (axles, shafts,
bearings, clutches, etc.); Rails and travelling wheels; Machine structures (crane frames) and
Control devices.

22
CHAPTER TWO
THEORY OF HOISTING EQUIPMENT

2.1 Introduction

There are different types of hoisting equipment whose accurate classification is difficult.
Classification is made based on various characteristics. This may be according to the type of
movement, i.e., the path made by the load travelling in the various planes, or the
classification may be according to their purpose. They are designed, in their application, to
the specific operating conditions.

There are three groups of hoisting equipment having the following main distinctive features.

i. Hoisting machines: a group of periodic action devices designed as self-lifting


gear and for hoisting and moving loads or as independent mechanisms of cranes or
elevators.
ii. Cranes: a combination of separate hoisting mechanism with a frame for lifting
and/or moving loads.
iii. Elevators: a group of periodic action machine intended for raising loads with
guide- ways.

Hoisting equipment can be of a stationary, portable or travelling type; most cranes and
elevators are either stationary or travelling. The main technical parameters of hoisting
machines are:

- Lifting capacity: the maximum safe load the machine is designed to handle;
- Dead weight of the machine: the total weight of the machine with out the load;
- Speed of various movements: this may be of the hoisting speed, the bridge travel
speed and the trolley travel speed;
- Lifting height: the height to which the load is intended to be raised;
- Geometrical dimension of the machine.

Hoisting machines are periodic-action machines and their hourly capacity can be determined
from:

Qhr = n × Q (2.1)

where n = number of machine cycles per hour

23
Theory of Hoisting Equipment 24
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Q = weight of live load [tons]


Qhr = hourly capacity [tons/h]

When handling bulk material, the weight of live loads is:

Q = V ×ϕ ×γ (2.2)

where V = capacity of bucket, grab etc [m3]


ϕ = filling factor
γ = specific weight [t/m3]

The total load lifting capacity of the machine will be:

Qtot = Q + G (2.3)

where Q = live load [tons]


G = weight of bucket, grab, etc. [tons]

The number of cycles per hour is:

3600
n= (2.4)
∑t

where ∑ t = ∑ t op + t idle
∑ t op = t st + t cs + t r
t op = operation time
t st = starting time
t cs = constant speed time
t r = retardation time
t idle = time lost in grabbing and discharging the load
t = cycle time [seconds]

2.2 Duty Characteristics of the Handling Mechanisms

Mechanisms are rated for a duty depending on their utilization. If any of the utilization
factors (Table 2.1) characterizing a certain duty appears to be more than the actual value, the
mechanism in question should be rated for a heavier class of duty. The duty of hoisting
mechanism is derived by the full load lift demand factor, yearly and daily utilization factors
of the mechanism and the duty factor. The factors acting on the operating conditions of
hoisting equipment are:
Theory of Hoisting Equipment 25
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1. Load on the machine


2. Its annual and daily utilization
3. Relative duty factory (DF): the period during which the machine is switched on
4. Ambient temperature

Depending on the duty (operating conditions) handling mechanisms are classified into four
groups.

Light duty =L
Medium duty =M
Heavy duty =H
Very Heavy duty = VH

Table 2.1 Duties of Hoisting Machinery

Mean Utilization of Mechanism


By Load Duty Factor Temperature
Duty By Time (DF)
0
K load % C
K year K day

Light L 0.5 0.25 0.33 15 25


Medium M 0.5 0.5 0.67 25 25
Heavy H 0.75 0.75 0.67 40 25
Very Heavy VH 1.0 1.0 1.0 40 45

Mean lifting capacity utilization:

Qm
K load = (2.5)
Qn

where Qm = mean value of load [tons]


Qn = nominal load [tons]

In cases where the weight of the handling attachment, G, is greater than or equal to one-fifth
of the live load, the value of K load becomes:
Theory of Hoisting Equipment 26
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Qm + G
K load = (2.6)
Qn + G

Yearly utilization factor:

Days in operations per year


K year = (2.7)
365

Daily utilization factor:

Hours in operations per day


K day = (2.8)
24

Hourly utilization factor:

Time - on in an operational hour(min)


K hr = (2.9)
60

Mean utilization of the machine per working cycle:

t op
DF = 100% (2.10)
t op + t idle

The ratio of the period, t op , when the mechanism is at work in the course of the duty
cycle to the total period of the cycle, t op + t idle , is the yardstick to indicate the intensity of
operations of the mechanism. The ratio is termed duty factor. Units and parts of hoisting
machinery are designed in accordance with the expected performance of the actual duty
of the mechanism in question. Recommended lifetime values for principal units of
hoisting machinery are given below.
Theory of Hoisting Equipment 27
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Table2.2 Service Life of Hoisting Machinery Parts

Service Life, h, years Total Time-on, T, hours×103


Duty Rolling Rolling
Contact Gear Shafts Contact Gear Shafts
Bearings Trains Bearings Trains
Light 10 15 25 1.0 1.5 2.5
Medium 5 10 15 3.5 7.0 10.0
Heavy 3 8 10 5.0 13.0 16.0
Very Heavy 3 5 10 10.0 16.0 32.0

The total time-on, T, of a mechanism throughout its life, h (in years) required for endurance
calculation is given by:

DF
T = 365K year × 24 K day × K hr × ×h (2.11)
100

The number of switching-on operations for an electric drive per hour has been accepted as:

Light duty = 60 operation/h


Medium duty = 120 operation/h
Heavy duty = 240 operation/h
Very Heavy duty = 300-720 operation/h

2.3 Review Questions

1. What are the three main groups of hoisting equipment? Discuss the main distinctive
features.
2. Discuss the main technical parameters of hoisting machinery.
3. What operational factors are considered in designing or selecting of hoisting
equipment?
CHAPTER THREE
FLEXIBLE HOISTING APPLIANCES
3.1 Introduction

The needs of hoisting machinery in pliable members are met widely by hemp rope,
welded and roller chains, and steel wire ropes. The applications of hemp ropes as pliable
members are limited due to their strength and lack of reliability. They are mainly used as
means of slinging the load to the hook. In this chapter, we deal with hemp ropes, welded
and roller chains, and steel wire ropes.

3.2 Hemp Ropes

Because of their poor mechanical properties (rapid abrasion, inadequate strength, rapid
damage from sharp materials and atmospheric effects, etc.), they can be recommended
only for hand-operated hoisting machinery (rope pulleys). The diameters of the sheaves
over which the rope runs should be at least 10d, where d is the nominal rope diameter.
By the mode of manufacture and number of strands, hemp ropes are classified as plain-
laid or cable-laid, the latter being twisted from three ordinary ropes.

3.2.1 Selecting hemp ropes

Hemp ropes are frequently impregnated with tar to make it water proof. By so doing the
rope displays better resistance to external effects (weather) but it becomes heavier and its
strength is reduced.

Fig.3.1 Cross-sections of Hemp Ropes

F =
πd 2 σ
br
4

where F = load on the rope [kgf]


d = nominal rope diameter [cm]

For white rope σ br = 100 kgf/cm2 and for tarred rope σ br = 90 kgf/cm2.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 29
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3.3 Welded and Roller Chains

3.3.1 Welded Load Chains

They are widely used in hoisting installations as pliable members. The main dimensions
of the links are (shown in Fig.3.2).

where t - pitch of the chain equal


to the inside length of
the link
d - diameter of chain bar

B - chain outside width


Fig.3.2 Main Dimensions of a Welded Chain

Depending on the ratio between the pitch and the diameter of the chain bar, welded
chains are classified into:

i. Short-link chains with t≤3d


ii. Long-link chains with t>3d

Manufacturing accuracy divides welded chains into:

i. Calibrated - with permissible deviation from the nominal size within


t ± 0.03d and B ± 0.05 d
ii. Uncalibrated - with permissible deviation from the nominal size within
t ± 0.1d and B ± 0.1d

Production Methods

Welded chains are formed from oval steel links in the sequence shown in Fig.3.3. Links
for welded chain are formed by a number of methods. The most common of these are
hammer (forge) and electric resistance welding.

i. By hammer (forge) welding: the chain bar is formed by forging to chain


shape, then the ends are forge welded.
ii. Electric resistance welding: for electric resistance welding (Fig.3.4) the link
is made of two butt-welded half links.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 30
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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.3.3 Sequence in the Manufacturing of Welded Chains: (a) Blanks cut-steel


bar, (b) Pre-bent blanks, (c) Chain assembles prior to welding and (d) Chain
with welded links

Chains are manufactured in the required (standardised) size and length and joined by
connecting links(Fig.3.4). After manufacturing, the chains are annealed. Welded chains
are tested by a test load equal to half the breaking load, which should not produce in
them any permanent set.

Fig.3.4 Connecting Links of Load Chains

Application

Because of the shortcomings, welded chains are used only in some hand-operated
mechanisms (where Dmin > 20 d ) and in few power-driven mechanisms
(where Dmin > 30 d ). Preference is given to calibrated chains for their contact is
smoother while moving on pulleys or drums.

They are employed for low capacity hoisting machines (hoists, winches, hand-operated
cranes, etc.), they are also used as the main lifting appliance and as hand driven chains
for traction wheels (d = 5 to 6mm at a speed of v = 0.6 to 0.75m/s).
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 31
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Disadvantages of welded chains

- Heavy weight
- Susceptibility to jerks and overload
- Sudden failure
- Intensive wear at the link joints and
- Low safe speed of movement

Advantages of welded chains

- Good flexibility in all directions


- Possibility to use small diameter pulleys and drums
- Simple design and manufacture

Selection of Load Chains

The actual stress calculation is very difficult. This is due to the fact that the links welded
chains are statically determinate with respect to external forces and three-fold statically
indeterminate with respect to internal stress. Chains are checked for tension taking a
higher safety factor to take care of the complexity of the problem.

Fbr
Fs = (3.2)
K

where Fbr = breaking load [kgf] (given in manufacturer's catalogue and


in standards)
K = factor of safety
Fs = safe load carried by chains [kgf]

The most intensive wear, which reduces the chain strength, occurs at the internal bent
section of the links acting as joints for the traction chain. The wear intensity depends on
the ratio of the connecting pitches; tension and speed of chain; the angle of the relative
turn of links as they pass around the sheaves, environment etc. Because of the additional
bending stresses and the three-fold statically indeterminate internal stresses, the safety
factor K should be taken from 3 to 8.

3.3.2 Roller Chains

Roller chains are composed of plates hinge-jointed by pins and rollers. For light loads,
two plates (Fig.3.5) are used; for very heavy loads the number of plates can be increased
up to 12.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 32
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Fig.3.5 Simple Roller Chain with Two Plates

The plates can be secured on the pins by several methods like retainer rings, pins, etc. as
shown in Fig.3.6 below.

Fig.3.6 Fastening the Plates on the Roller Pins

Applications

Roller chains are used for hand-operated hoists and power-driven winches and hoisting
mechanisms of high load lifting capacity, operating at low speed, if the weight is lifted
between guide-ways.

Advantage of roller chains

Roller chains are superior to welded chains in a number of ways such as:

- The reliability of operation is higher since the plates are solid


- Roller chains have good flexibility and can therefore be used on small
diameter sprockets with small number of teeth (with which smaller size can
be obtained) which affects the driving torque at the sprocket shafts
- The friction in the joints is considerably less than that in the joints of welded
chains
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 33
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But roller chains should not be allowed:

- To carry weight acting at an angle to the plate (to prevent excessive wear and
pin breakage)
- To be used in dusty premises (unless the chain is sealed by cover which
would cause excessive wear
- To wind on a drum as are operated in conjunction with sprockets

The maximum allowable speed of roller chain is v = 0.25m/s.

Selection of Roller Chains

Equation 3.2 is employed for the calculation of safe load carried by the chain. The values
of the factor of safety K, the ration D/d (D is diameter of the drum or sprocket and d is
diameter of the chain bar or diameter of the roller) and the number of teeth on the
sprockets for welded and roller chains are tabulated below (Table 3.1). The values of
Fbr for each standardised chain are given in the concerned tabulations of standards and
manufacturers catalogue.

Table 3.1 Data for the Selection of Chains

Factor Minimum
of Ratio Number
Chains Drive Safety, (D/d) of Teeth on
K Sprocket
Welded calibrated and uncelebrated Hand 3 20 5
power 6 30 5
Welded calibrated on sprocket Hand 4.5 20 -
sheaves power 8 30 -
Welded uncalibrated (sling) passing - 6 - -
around the load
Welded uncalibrated (sling) not - 5 - -
passing around the load
Roller - 5 - 8

3.4 Steel Wire Ropes

The needs of hoisting machinery in pliable members are met predominantly by steel
wire ropes (Fig.3.7). The wire is drawn cold and given heat treatment as well as
chemical treatment between the drawing stages in order to obtain required strength,
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 34
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structure, appearance and surface finish. Steel wire ropes are extensively used in hoisting
machinery as flexible lifting appliances. Comparing to chains they have the following
advantages.

- Lighter weight
- Less susceptibility to damage from jerks
- Silent operation even at high speeds
- Greater reliability in operation

The wire rope becomes fuzzy long before rapture (unlike chains, which break at once)
for the outer wires break before the inner once (due to bending stresses and additional
contact compressive stresses). Wire ropes are made of steel having σ ult = 130 to 200
kgf/mm2. While manufacturing steel wire rope, they are subjected to special heat
treatment, which is combined with cold drawing imparts high mechanical properties to
the steel wire rope.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.3.7 Steel Wire Rope Construction

The manufacture of wire ropes is done by a special machine. This is performed first by
twisting separate wires into strands and then the strands are formed into a "round"
rope. Wires are cold drawn and given heat treatment between drawing stages. The
strands are laid on a core made of hemp, asbestos or a wire of soft steel. Normally
steel wire ropes consist of 6 or 8 strands and a core. Each strand consists of 19 or 37
wires.

3.4.1 Kinds of Wire Ropes

Bright, uncoated wires are used for cranes working in dry premises. Galvanised wires
(zinc coated) are used for cranes operating in damp premises to prevent corrosion, but
the coating reduces the strength by 10%.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 35
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Fig.3.8 Steel Wire Rope Lays

Wire ropes formed from strands are known as double lay ropes. They are the most
popular types used in hoisting machinery. The lays of the rope classifies the wire ropes
into:

i. Cross-of regular lay ropes: the direction of the twist of the wires in the strand
is opposite to that of the strands in the rope (Fig.3.8a). Such ropes have the
widest application.
ii. Parallel or long lay ropes: the direction of twist of wire and strand is the
same (Fig.3.8b). This is more flexible and resists wear better, but tends to
spring. Parallel lay ropes are used in lifts and other hoisting equipment with
guide-ways and also for haulage ropes.
iii. Composite or reverse laid ropes: the wires in two adjacent stands are
twisted in the opposite direction (Fig.3.8c).

1. General Purpose Steel Wire Ropes

a. Ordinary (one size-wire) construction: the strands are twisted of wires of


the same diameter (Fig.3.7a). In this case the wires in the covering layer will
repeatedly cross over the inner wires there by creating zones of increased unit
pressure which shortens life.
b. Warrington type compound rope: is twisted of strands with different wire
diameters (Fig.3.7b & c) keeping the proportional pitch of every layer, thus
crossovers are eliminated and the unit pressures are greatly reduced.

2. Non-spinning Wire Ropes

Each individual wire and strand being laid is performed to correspond to its disposition
in the rope. As a result unloaded wires are not subject to internal stresses and do not
tend to spin.

Advantages over the general purpose wire ropes:


Flexible Hoisting Appliance 36
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- Uniform load distribution over the individual wires, which reduces internal
stresses to a minimum
- Better flexibility
- Less wear of the wire ropes running over drum or sheaves (wires and strands
do not project from the contour, outer wires wear uniformly, broken wires
remain in their initial position)
- Greater operation safety

The disadvantage of non-spinning wire ropes is that it is more expensive.

3. Steel Wire Ropes with Flattened Strands

They are usually made from five flattened strands with a flattened wire core; the strands
are laid on the hemp core (Fig.3.9a&b). Thus they experience more uniform pressure.
Such ropes are used where the rope is subjected to intensive abrasion and wear. These
ropes have a larger area of contact with the pulley or drum with smaller compression,
abrasion and wear.

(a) (b)

Fig.3.9 Ropes with Flattened Strands

4. Locked-coil Steel Wire Ropes

The construction of a locked coil rope is different from that of the others. A locked coil
rope consists of an outer layer formed of specially shaped wire and an inner single lay
spiral rope (Fig.3.10a, b & c). Locked-coil wire ropes are used in cable-ways and cable
cranes; they are never met within hoisting machines. In the case of semi-locked coil
ropes the outer layer is a combination of shaped and round wires (Fig.3.10d).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.3.10 Locked-coil Ropes


Flexible Hoisting Appliance 37
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They have the advantage over the other wire ropes due to the fact that they have
specific features of smooth surface, tightly packed wires and little wear. However,
their shortcoming is due to their little flexibility.

Ropes should be replaced if a definite number of broken outer wires are detached over
the length of one lay (or pitch of strand). The following tables show the number of
wire breaks over the length of one pitch, after which the rope should be discarded
(Table 3.2 & Table 3.3).

Table 3.2 Safety Factors and Allowable Broken Wires as to the Construction of Wire
Rope for Lifts

Rope Construction

Initial Factor 6 × 19 = 144 + 1c1 6 × 37 = 222 + 1c1


of Safety of Cross Laid Parallel Laid Cross Laid Parallel Laid
Rope for
Tension Number of wire breaks over the length of one pitch after which
the rope should be discarded
Up to 9 14 7 23 12
9-10 16 8 26 13
10-12 18 9 29 14
12-14 20 10 32 16
14-16 22 11 35 17
above16 24 12 38 19

Table3.3 Safety Factors and Allowable Broken Wires as to Construction of Wire Ropes
for Cranes and Hoists

Rope Construction

6×19=144+1c 6×37=222+1c 6×61=366+1c 18×19=342+1c


Initial
Factor Cross Parallel Cross Parallel Cross Parallel Cross Parallel
Laid Laid Laid Laid laid Laid Laid Laid
of Safety
Number of wire breaks over the length of one pitch after which the rope should be
discarded

Up to 6 12 6 22 11 36 18 36 18

6 to 7 14 7 26 13 38 19 38 19

above 7 16 8 30 15 40 20 40 20
1
Six strands of 19 wires in each plus one core.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 38
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3.4.2 Selecting Steel Wire Ropes

Individual wires in a loaded bent rope experience a complex stress consisting of tension,
bending, twisting stresses combined with mutual compression and rubbing of the wires
and strands. Thus the total stress can be determined analytically only to a certain degree of
approximation. Besides that, as the ropes run over pulleys and drums, the outer wires are
subjected to abrasion which in turn, reduce the total strength of the rope. Experiments
have shown that life of a rope is greatly affected by fatigue. A wire rope can withstand
only a definite number of bends during service life.

Depending on the number of bends, the corresponding rope life can be found from the
ratios:

Dmin Dmin
and
d δ

where Dmin = minimum diameter of pulley or drum


d = rope diameter
δ = wire diameter

Investigations have shown that at the constant ratios ( Dmin /d and Dmin /δ) rope life is
approximately inversely proportional to the number of bends, where one bend equals the
transition of the rope from its straight position into a bent or from a bent position to a
straight one. Reverse bending reduces the rope life approximately double of the straight
(single) one or it is equal to two single bends towards the same side.

In other words the number of bends is obtained by the number of points (pulleys and
drums) where the rope runs on and off, the bends in the same direction at these points are
considered single bends and if the direction varies or the bend reversed, then it is counted
as double bend. The number of bends can be found with sufficient accuracy if diagram is
plotted like on the Fig.3.11 above.

If loads are suspended on multiple crane pulleys, the development of the system shows the
number of bends. In a symmetrical system when a compensating pulley is used, the total
number of bends must be divided by two. The bends on the compensating pulley are not
considered, i.e. the rope is at stand - still while the load is lifted.

To obtain the same rope life, the effect of the number of bends should be compensated for
by an appropriate change in the ratio Dmin /d. Table 3.4 below illustrates the values of
Dmin /d as a function of the number of bends.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 39
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Fig.3.11 Development and Diagram of Bends for Pulley Systems

Table3.4 Values of Dmin /d as a Function of Number of Bends

No. of bends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Dmin /d 16 20 23 25 26.5 28 30 31
No. of bends 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Dmin /d 32 33 34 35 36 37 37.5 38

Strength of Wire Rope

On the basis of the accepted load suspension method we use the above Table 3.4 to find
Dmin /d. The area of the wire rope is the sum of the cross-sectional area of each individual
wire multiplied by a filling factor of 2.25. This is to compensate for the area of the core
material and the area in-between the wires (true only for one-size wire ropes).

πd 2 πδ 2
= i × 2.25
4 4

d = 1.5δ i (3.3)

where i = number of wires in the wire rope


δ = diameter of one wire
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 40
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Total stress in the loaded wire rope in its bent part is the sum of the tensile and bending
stress.

S Mc
σ Σ = σ ten + σ ben = +
A I

2 1 M M 2E
= = ⇒ =
Dmin ρ EI I Dmin

δ Mc 2E δ Eδ
c= ⇒ σ ben = = ⋅ =
2 I Dmin 2 Dmin

σ br S δE'
σ ∑
= = + (3.4)
K A Dmin

where σ br = ultimate breaking strength of rope wire material [kgf/cm2]


K = rope factor of safety
S = tension in the rope [kgf]
A = useful area of the cross-section [cm2]
I = moment of inertia [cm4]
M = bending moment [kgf.cm]
c = centroid [cm]

3
E' = E = Corrected rope elastic modulus ≈ 800,000kg/cm2
8

E = elastic modulus of rope wire material = 2,100,000kg/cm2

⎛ d ⎞
E' ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
S E' δ S ⎝ 1.5 i ⎠ S E' σ br
Thus: σ ∑ = + = + = + = (3.5)
A Dmin A Dmin A D K
1.5 i × min
d

Rewriting the equation for the required useful area:

S
A= (3.6)
σ br d E'
− ×
K Dmin 1.5 i

After specifying and selecting K, and selecting the number of wires depending on the rope
construction, and at a definite σ br and d/ Dmin , the above formula may be used to find the
rope cross - sectional area. After finding "A" we select a rope with the nearest
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 41
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characteristics (from Table3.5) first checking whether its ultimate strength
σ br corresponds to that accepted in the formula. The number of wires in the rope is
determined by the accepted design.

For ropes most frequently used in hoisting machinery, except compound laid ropes, i.e. for
ropes with 114, 222, 296 wires, the formula assumes the following form.

S
A114 = (3.7)
σ br d
- × 50000
K Dmin

S
A222 = (3.8)
σ br d
− × 36000
K Dmin

S
A296 = (3.9)
σ br d
− × 31000
K Dmin

The selection ropes by its breaking strength Fbr referred to the total cross-section of the
rope will be obtained from the following relations: Fbr = σ br × A . Thus,

S × σ br
F114 = σ br × A114 = (3.10)
σ br d
− × 50000
K Dmin

S × σ br
F222 = σ br × A222 = (3.11)
σ br d
− × 36000
K Dmin

S × σ br
F296 = σ br × A296 = (3.12)
σ br d
− × 31000
K Dmin

The values of d and δ in the selected rope need not be checked further, since the effect of
these values is taken fully into account in the design formula.

The strength calculation for ropes subjected to only tensile forces are made according to
equation 3.2.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 42
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Fbr
Fs =
K

where Fbr = actual breaking strength [kgf]


Fs = maximum permissible tensile force in the rope [kgf]
K = factor of safety (Table3.6)

The maximum working tensile force due to the load in the rope parts of a load pulley
system, Fs is found from the formula.

Fbr Q
= (3.13)
K nηη1

where Q = weight of load being raised [kgf]


n = number of pulleys
η = pulley efficiency (Table 3.7)
η1 = the loss due to rope stiffness in coiling on drum ≈ 0.98

The minimum permissible diameter of a drum or pulley is found from the relationship:

Dmin = e × d (3.14)

where d = rope diameter [mm]


e = factor depending on the rope construction and duty of hoisting
mechanism
Dmin = minimum pulley or drum diameter [mm]

Table 3.6 Values of K and e for Different Operating Conditions

Drive Duty K e
Hand Light (L) 4.5 18
Light (L) 5.0 20
Power Medium (M) 5.5 25
Heavy (H) 6.0 30
Very Heavy (VH) 6.0 30

The diameter of the compensating pulley is considered to be 40% less than the diameter of
the rotating pulleys carrying the load.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 43
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Table 3.7 Values of Pulley Efficiency

Single Pulley: Multiple Pulley: Efficiency of


No. of Rotating Pulleys No. of Rotating Pulleys
Sliding Rolling
Friction Friction
1 2 0.951 0.971
2 4 0.906 0.945
3 6 0.861 0.918
4 8 0.823 0.892
5 10 0.784 0.873

3.5 Fastening of Chains and Ropes

Various methods are used to secure the ends of chains and ropes. However, hemp ropes
are fastened by a number of methods of which only the connection with the help of eyelet
thimbles is recommended because of the strength of the rope material.

a. Fastening Welded Load Chains

A split yoke and a bolt are used to attach the chain to the hook (Fig.3.12a). In the case of
fastening two chains strands a crosspiece and forked eyes is implemented (Fig.3.12b).

(a) (b)

Fig.3.12 Fastenings of Welded Load Chains


Flexible Hoisting Appliance 44
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b. Fastening of Roller Chains

Roller chains are connected to the trolley frame by means of a special link having bigger
pitch and hole for bolted connection. This is to say that the pitch l1 is greater than l and the
hole diameter d 1 is bigger than the nominal pin diameter (Fig.3.13).

Fig.3.13 Fastening of Roller Chains

c. Fastening of Wire Ropes

The rope is secured in a tapered socket so as to attach it to any part of the hoisting
mechanism. The sequence of operation is depicted in Fig.3.14. The end of the rope is
tightened at points a and b. The upper one (a) is removed and the strands opened and
broomed. After cutting the hemp core the wires are bound together at a' and a" . Finally
the end of the rope is pushed into the socket and molten lead is poured into the socket after
removing a' and a" .

Fig.3.14 Sequence of Operation for Fastening of a Wire Rope


Flexible Hoisting Appliance 45
___________________________________________________________________________________
d. Tapered Wire Rope Socket

The strength calculation of a tapered wire rope socket requires the checking of
geometrical dimensions of the socket which would withstand the critical stresses. The
lateral force F on the socket walls can be calculated as:

Fig.3.15 Geometry of a Tapered Wire Rope Socket

Q
F=
2sin α

pA
F=
2

where p = unit pressure on the socket wall ≤ 115kgf/cm2


A = bearing area [cm2]

l (d1 + d 2 )π
A=
2

Hence

pl (d1 + d 2 )π
F=
4

r1 − r2 d 1 − d 2
l= =
sin α 2sinα

We have

Q p( d 1 + d 2 )( d 1 − d 2 )π
F= =
2 sin α 4 × 2sinα
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 46
___________________________________________________________________________________

p( d 12 − d 22 )π
Q=
4

4Q
p= (3.15)
(d − d 22 )π
2
1

Assuming d 2 to be equal to d (wire rope diameter) the value of d 1 becomes

4Q
d1 = +d2 (3.16)

The value of h can be determined by using the following formula

Q
h= (3.17)
πd × τ sh

where τ sh =125kgf/cm2

e. Socket Wall Thickness

The thickness of the socket walls is calculated considering the socket as a cylinder with
internal pressure p.

σ br + 0.4p × 2
d ex = d in (3.18)
σ br − 1.3p × 2

where d ex = external diameter [cm]


d in = internal diameter [cm]
σ br = safe breaking stress [kgf/cm2] (for steel castings σ br = 400 to
700kgf/cm2)
p = internal pressure found from equation 3.15.

The factor 2 is used for safety due to the fact that the lead fillings do not contact the wall
uniformly. For example the values to be substituted for d ex are d3 and d4, while for d in the
substitutable values are d 1 and d 2 depending on whether the calculation is made for the
lower or the upper part of the cone. The wall thickness is equal to
( d 3 − d1 ) cosα .
2
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 47
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3.6 Load Suspension Appliances

The tensions in the slings are functions of the permissible included angle between sling
legs. If the load is suspended from two legs of a sling (Fig.3.16a) and the weight lifted is
Q
Q, the tension S in each leg of the sling is: S = .
2 cos α

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.3.16 Determining the Forces Acting in Sling Legs

For four legs (Fig.3.16c) loaded symmetrically

Q
S1 = S 2 = S 3 = S 4 = (3.19)
4 cos α

h
We know that cos α =
l

Ql
Thus S1 = S 2 = S 3 = S 4 = (3.20)
4h

For m legs

1 Q Q
S= × =K×
cos α m m

1
where K =
cos α
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 48
___________________________________________________________________________________
a. Hemp Rope Slings

Hemp ropes are more flexible than wire ropes and as a result they can easily be tied into
knots. This makes the application of rigidly twisted white hemp ropes, for suspending
loads on crane hooks, wider. However, care must be taken of sharp corners that can
damage the ropes by protecting it with soft pads or special corner-piece protective devices.
For white rope σ all = 50kgf/cm2 and for tarred rope σ all = 45kgf/cm2. Some of the typical
knots are given in Fig.3.17.

Fig3.17 Various Types of Knots of Hemp Ropes

b. Chain Slings

Ordinary uncalibrated welded chains with eye and hook (Fig.3.18) are used as chain
slings. The slings may pass under the load or it may pass several times around the hook
while the free part of the chain is connected to the hoisting equipment hook.

Fig.3.18 Chain Slings


Flexible Hoisting Appliance 49
___________________________________________________________________________________
c. Steel Wire Rope Slings

Steel wire rope slings are used for handling heavy loads (Fig.3.19). In comparison to chain
slings they weigh less, but are too rigid to twist. Care must be taken when handling objects
with sharp edges so as not to damage the slings. Furthermore, while hoisting, rope slings
should be well secured as the object may alter the position in the sling during its
movement. Thus it is recommended to use safety factor K >10 if rope slings are passed
around the load and K >6 for slings which do not encircle the load.

Fig.3.19 Slings of Steel Wire Ropes


Table 3.8 Wire ropes for Materials Handling Equipment (According to DIN 655)

Rope dia. Wire dia. Metal cross- Weight (kgf/m) Strength of the wire rope in (kgf) if the strength of the wire in
Design (DIN655) d ±5% (mm) δ (mm) section (mm2) ±5% (kgf/mm2)
2
130 kgf/mm 160 kgf/mm2 180 kgf/mm2
6.5 0.4 14.3 0.15 1860 2300 2550
6x19=114 wires 8.0 0.5 22.4 0.21 2900 3600 4050
+1core 9.5 0.6 32.2 0.30 4200 5150 5800
12.5 0.8 57.3 0.54 7450 9150 10300
A 16.0 1.0 89.5 0.85 11650 14300 16100
19.0 1.2 128.9 1.22 16750 20600 23200
22.0 1.4 175.5 1.66 22800 28050 31600
10 0.45 35.3 0.34 4600 5650 6350
6x37=222 wires 13 0.60 62.8 0.59 8150 10050 11300
+1core 16 0.75 98.1 0.93 12750 15700 17650
22 1.00 174.4 1.65 22650 27900 31400
B 24 1.20 251.1 2.38 32650 40200 45200
30 1.50 392.3 3.72 51000 62750 70600
40 1.80 564.9 5.36 73450 90400 101700
16 0.6 83.7 0.84 10900 13400 15050
8x37=296 wires 19 0.7 113.9 1.14 14800 18200 20500
+1core 21 0.8 148.8 1.49 19350 23800 26800
27 1.0 232.5 2.32 30250 37200 41850
C 32 1.2 334.8 3.35 43500 53550 60250
40 1.5 523.1 5.24 68000 83700 94150
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 29
___________________________________________________________________________________

Table 3.9 Principal Design Values for Single Hooks

Lifting Area of Distance b/n Radius of Radius of Distance b/n zero line Distance b/n zero
capacity critical centroid and mouth a/2 hook Design area [cm2] Shape factor and centroid line and inner
Q[tons] section A inner contour Xc [cm] curvature χ= -2(f1-f2)/A γ =ρχ/(1+χ)[cm] contour h2 = xc
[cm2] [cm] ρ [cm] - γ [cm]
f1 f2
0.25 3.44 1.13 1.5 2.63 0.138 0.278 0.081 0.196 0.934
0.5 5.87 1.56 2.0 3.56 0.227 0.488 0.089 0.292 1.268
1.0 10.26 1.98 2.5 4.48 0.437 0.919 0.094 0.384 1.596
1.5 17.52 2.63 3.0 5.63 0.760 1.578 0.0935 0.481 2.149
2.0 28.70 3.30 3.5 6.80 1.381 2.800 0.098 0.610 2.690
3.0 41.10 3.96 4.0 7.96 1.690 3.970 0.110 0.787 3.173
5.0 58.00 4.61 4.75 9.36 2.930 5.720 0.0961 0.820 3.790
7.5 77.80 5.40 5.5 10.90 3.551 7.730 0.108 1.060 4.340
10.0 104.00 6.28 6.4 12.78 4.250 10.500 0.120 1.185 5.095
3.7 Review Questions

1. Why are hemp ropes recommended only for hand operated hoisting machinery?
2. What are the conditions for classifying welded load chains short-link chains and
long-link chains?
3. Discuss the methods of dividing welded chains by using their manufacturing
accuracy.
4. State the applications and limitations of welded chains.
5. The actual stress calculation of a load chain is very difficult. Why?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of roller chains.
7. Steel wire ropes are commonly used in hoisting applications than chins. Why?
8. State the advantages obtained when using non-spinning wire ropes than a general
purpose wire ropes.
9. Discuss the different kinds of wire ropes.
CHAPTER FOUR
PULLEYS, SPROCKETS, DRUMS
AND
LOAD HANDLING ATTACHMENTS
4.1. Introduction

Pulleys are either fixed or movable in design. Fixed pulleys are used to change the
direction of the flexible appliance while movable pulleys are used to gain mechanical
advantage or speed. Several fixed and movable pulleys are combined in order to form a
pulley system for a gain in force or a gain in speed.

4.1.1 Fixed Pulleys

α= 180°
α
z(z o)

z(z o) β
R

Q
R P R
P P

Q z(z o)
Q

Fig. 4.1 Single Fixed Pulley


∴ Zo ≈ Q

Disregarding the resistance of the pulley, the pulling force Z 0 equals Q i.e. Z 0 = Q
without considering pulley resisting. But in reality due to the pulley resistance, Z 0 > Q,
the resistance being partly due to the stiffness of wire rope and partly due to frictional
resistance in the bearings.

The rope, due to its rigidity, is first deflected (Fig.4.2) by an amount e to the outside on
the running-on part and approximately the same amount to the inside on the running-off
part.

50
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 51
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Momentum equilibrium:

a. Resistance due to the stiffness of the wire


rope

α=180° (R cos ϕ + e)Q = (R cos ϕ − e )Z


ϕ
Z R cos ϕ + e
ϕ =
Q R cos ϕ − e
2R

e
1+
R cos ϕ
e = (4.1)
e e
P d 1−
R cos ϕ

z(zo) Q ⎛ 2e ⎞
Z = Q⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ (4.2)
⎝ R cos ϕ ⎠

Fig.4.2 The Deflection of the Wire Rope on a Pulley

b. Resistance due to friction

We know that

P = Q + Z 0 ≈ 2Q (4.3)

The resisting moment due to frictional resistance:

d'
M = P⋅μ ⋅ (4.4)
2

Frictional resistance in the bearings:

d' d'
N = (Q + Z ) × μ = Q×μ (4.5)
2R R

where d' = pulley axle diameter


μ = coefficient of friction
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 52
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c. Total pulling force:

Z = Q(1 + resistance due to regidity + resistance due to friction )

⎛ 2e d' ⎞
Z = Q⎜⎜1 + + μ ⎟⎟ (4.6)
⎝ R cos ϕ R⎠

Z
The magnitude of = ε is called pulley factor of resistance, and
Q
1
= η is the pulley efficiency.
ε

Thus
2e d'
ε = 1+ +μ
R cos ϕ R

2e
where is stiffness (rigidity) of rope and it can be empirically
R cos ϕ
determined by experiment and was found to be:

2e d
≈ 0.1 .
R cos ϕ D − 10

where d - rope diameter [cm]


D - pulley diameter [cm]

4.1.2 Movable Pulleys

Movable pulleys are classified into two, namely pulleys for a gain in force and pulleys for
a gain in speed. These pulleys have movable axles to which either a load or the force is
applied.

a. Pulleys for gain in force: The distance that effort moves is double that of the load,
and the speed at which the load is raised is half of that of the effort.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 53
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Z(Z) 0

s 0

s
where c = speed of force
c v = speed of load
s = distance the force moves
h = distance the load moves
v
h Q

Fig.4.3 Single Movable Pulley for a Gain in Force

s=2h
c=2v
Resistance:

Z + So = Q , Z = ε So = ε (Q –Z)

Z = εQ - εZ

ε
Z= Q
1+ ε

Q
Z 2 1+ ε
η= o = = (4.7)
Z ε 2ε
Q
1+ ε

Q
where Z o = for ε ≅ 1.05, η ≅ 0.975
2

b. Pulleys for gain in speed: The effort is applied at the axle of the pulley and moves at
half the speed of the load. The distance moved by the by the load is twice that of the
effort.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 54
_______________________________________________________________________________________

h
s=
2

v
c=
v 2

Z = Q + S 0 = Q + Qε = Q(1 + ε )
h z(z)0

s 0
s
Q
c

Fig.4.4 Single Movable Pulley for a Gain in Speed

Zo 2Q 2
η= = = (4.8)
Z Q(1 + ε ) 1 + ε

For ε ≅ 1.05, η ≅ 0.975

4.2 Pulley Systems

Fixed pulleys and movable pulleys are combined to form pulley systems. The systems
can be for a gain in a force or a gain in speed.

4.2.1 Pulley systems for gain in force

Pulleys for a gain in force can further be divided into rope running of a fixed pulley and
rope running of a movable pulley (Fig.4.5&4.6).

a. Rope running off a fixed pulley

The number of parts of the line on which the weight is suspended is also equal to the
number of pulleys Z. The transmission ratio i of the system is equal to z.

Neglecting pulley resistance

Q
Z0 =
z
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 55
_______________________________________________________________________________________

and the actual effort Z is given by

Q Qε ∑
Z = =
zη ∑ z

where η ∑ = resultant pulley efficiency of the pulley system


ε ∑ = resultant resistance factor of the pulley system

z(z)0 z(z) 0

s 2 s 1 s 1 s 2 s 3

Q
Q

Fig.4.5 Pulley System for a Gain in Force (Rope Running of a Fixed Pulley)

The total tension in the rope is

Q = S1 + S 2 + S 3 + K + S n

S1 S1 S
= S1 + + 2 + K + n1−1
ε ε ε

⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞⎛ ε n −1 ⎞
= S1 ⎜ + + 2 + K + n −1 ⎟⎜⎜ n −1 ⎟⎟
1
⎝ ε ε ε ⎠⎝ ε ⎠

(
= S1 ε n−1 + ε n− 2 + K + ε + 1 ) 1
ε n −1
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 56
_______________________________________________________________________________________

= S1
1
n −1
(ε n −1
+ ε n−2 + K + ε + 1 )
ε
The sum in the brackets is a series of a geometric progression

ε n −1
(ε )= ε −1n
n −1
+ ε n−2 + K + ε + 1 ) = ε (
ε −1 ε −1

1 εn −1
Q = S1 ⋅
ε n −1 ε −1

Q
or S1 = (4.9)
1 εn −1

ε n −1 ε − 1

Since Z = S1ε and n = z ‚ the resultant efficiency of the pulley system will be:

Zo Q Q
η∑ = = = (4.10)
Z Z .z Q
× εz
1 εn −1

ε ( n −1 ) ε − 1

1 1 ⎛ εn − 1⎞
= × ⎜⎜ ⎟
ε n −1 εz ⎝ ε − 1 ⎟⎠

1 ⎛ εn −1⎞
Total efficiency = n ⎜ ⎟
ε × z ⎜⎝ ε − 1 ⎟⎠

The pulling force (effort)

Qε ⎛ ε −1 ⎞ z ⎛ ε −1 ⎞
Z = S 1ε = = Qε n ⎜ n ⎟ = Qε ⎜ z ⎟ (4.11)
1 ⎛ ε − 1⎞
n
⎝ ε − 1⎠ ⎝ ε − 1⎠
⎜ ⎟
ε n −1 ⎜⎝ ε − 1 ⎟⎠

The distance travelled by the point of the rope where the effort is applied is equal to

s = zh

and the speed of the rope is


Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 57
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c = zv
where h = the height the load is lifted
v = is the speed of the load

b. Running of a movable pulley

When the rope runs off a movable pulley in a pulley system of z pulleys, the number of
rope parts on which the load is suspended is equal to one plus the number of pulleys.

Transmission ratio:

i = z +1

The ideal effort:

Q
Z0 =
z +1

The actual effort:

Q
Z=
η ∑ (z + 1 )

s s
3 2
s 2
s 3 s 4

z(z)
0 z(z)
0

s 1
s 1

Fig. 4.6 Pulley System for a Gain in Force (Rope Running off a Movable Pulley)
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 58
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Employing the previously obtained equation (4.6) for S1 ,

Q
S1 =
1 ⎛ ε n −1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
ε n −1 ⎜⎝ ε − 1 ⎟⎠
For Z = S1 ,

Q Q 1 1 εn −1
η = = = × ( n −1 ) × (4.12)
Z ( z + 1) ⎛ z +1 ε ε −1


⎜ ⎟
⎜ Q ⎟( z + 1)
⎜ ( 1 ) εn −1⎟
⎜ ε n −1 × ⎟
⎝ ε −1 ⎠

Since n = z + 1 ,

1 ε ( z +1 ) − 1
Total efficiency, η ∑ = ×
ε z ( z + 1) ε −1

Total load on the last leg

Q
Z=
η

(z + 1 )
Q
Z=
⎛ ε ( z +1 ) − 1 ⎞
⎟( z + 1)
1
⎜⎜ z ×
⎝ ε ( z + 1) ε − 1 ⎟⎠

ε −1
Z = Qε z (4.13)
ε ( z +1)
−1

s = h( z + 1)

c = v( z + 1)

In hoisting mechanism of winches and cranes, the pulling effort Z=Sz+1 usually equals the
tension of the rope coiled around the drum. The system of pulleys running off a movable
pulley is the most frequent one in hoisting equipment. Considering a factor of resistance
ε = 1.05 ‚ the efficiency curve for various number of pulleys is shown in figure 4.7
below.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 59
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1.0

ηEfficiency,
0.9

0.8
0 2 4 6 8

Number of pulleys

Fig. 4.7 Efficiency of Pulley System

4.2.2 Pulley System for a Gain in Speed

Pulley systems for a gain in speed are usually used in hydraulic and pneumatic lifts to
move the load faster than the piston as shown in Fig. 4.8.

Z(Z o)
Q

Fig. 4.8 Pulley System for a Gain in Speed

The working effort Z provided by a hydraulic or pneumatic means is applied to a


Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 60
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Q.z
movable frame while the load is suspended at the free end, Z = . For the case shown
η ∑

in Fig. 4.8 we have:

1 1 1 1
=i = ; C = v; s = h
z 4 4 4

Example 4.1

It is required to determine the power requirement of the electromotor used in the


operation of the elevator of Fig. 4.9. The elevator moves at a linear velocity of 0.7m/s.

Given that - Cabin weight ( FA ) = 800kg


- Counter weight ( FC ) = 450kg Cm ω
O1 r
- Tensioner ( FT ) = 1820kg
- Pulley diameter (D) = 500mm

Determine the power requirement


FA
Fc
i. neglecting the rigidity of the wire rope
O2
ii. considering the rigidity of the wire rope
Finally compare the power requirements FT

obtained in both cases.


Fig.4.9 Schematic Representation of an Elevator

Solution:

The system configuration, without considering the stiffness of the wire rope (Fig. 4.10a)
and taking into account the rigidity of the wire rope (Fig.4.10b&c), may be schematically
represented in the figure below.

i. Neglecting the rigidity of the wire rope:

On the lower pulley with the tensioner (fig. 4.10a)

F1 + F2= Fr
-FT r + F2 (2r)=0
F2= 8927 N
F1= FT - F2 =8927 N
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 61
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Furthermore, from Fig. 4.11,


Cm
O1
F3= FA +F1=16775 N r

F4= FC +F2=13341 N

F1 F2 Cm
Taking moment about O1
e e O1 r

F3 r - Cm - F4 r = 0 FA
Fc

O2 e e
After inserting the values and solving for Cm, O2 r

we get Cm = 858.5 Nm. F3


FT F4
FT

v =ω ×r a) b) c)

v 0.75 rad
ω= = =6
r 0.125 s
Fig.4.10 Free Body Diagram of the System
The required power C mω ≅ 5151W ≈ 5.2kW

ii. Considering the rigidity of the wire rope, the value of e may be safely assumed to be
equal to 5mm. On the lower pulley with the tension (Fig. 4.10a)

F1 + F2 =Fr
FT (r-e) + F2 (2r)=0
F2= 8749 N F4
F3
F1= FT- F2 =9106 N F3 F4

From Fig.4.11, we have

F3 = FA +F1= 16954 N FA FC
F4 = FC +F2 = 13164 N FA FC

Taking moment about the centre of the upper wheel: F1 F2


F1 F2

F3 (r + e) – Cm –F4 (r-e) = 0
Fig.4.11Free Body Diagram of the Wire Rope
From which we have Cm= 1098 Nm.

v 0.75 rad
ω= = =6
r 0.125 s
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 62
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The required power: C m ≈ 6588W = 6.6 KW .

Comparing the two values obtained, we can clearly see that the power requirement has
increased by about 20% when the rigidity of the wire rope is taken into consideration.

4.3 Design of chain and Rope sheaves and Sprockets

4.3.1 Rope Sheaves

Rope sheaves are usually made in the form of casting or weldment. They can be of a
fixed, movable and compensating design. The minimum diameter ( Dmin ) of the sheave
should be at least ten times the diameter of the hemp rope. Whereas Dmin for wire rope
should be

Dmin ≥ e1 ⋅ e2 ⋅ d

where e1 = factor depending on the hoisting device and its service


(Table 4.2).
e2 = factor depending on the rope construction (Table 4.1).
d= wire rope diameter

Care should be taken to keep the last rope contact point ε inside the groove so as to avoid
rope run off with sharp bends.

Table 4.1 Values of e2 as to rope construction

Rope Construction Factor e 2


Ordinary 6x19=114+1 core: Cross laid 1.00
Parallel laid 0.90
Compound 6x19=114+1 core:
a) Warrington
Cross laid 0.90
Parallel laid 0.85
b) Seale:
Cross laid 0.95
Parallel laid 0.85
Ordinary 6x37=222+1 core:
Cross laid 1.00
Parallel laid 0.90
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 63
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Table 4.2 Permissible Values of K and e1

No Types of hoisting mechanism Drive Operating Conditions Factor Factor


K e1
I Locomotive, caterpillar-mounted, tractor Hand Light 4 16
&track-mounted pillar cranes(including Power Light 5 16
excavators operating as cranes), cranes Power Medium 5.5 18
&hoisting mechanisms at construction sites Power Heavy &very heavy 6 20
&temporary jobs

II All other types of cranes and hoisting Hand Light 4.5 18


mechanisms Power Light 5 20
Power Medium 5.5 25
Power Heavy &very heavy 6 30

III Hand-operated winches with a load-lifting


capacity of up to 1 ton mounted on various
automotive vehicles (automobiles, trucks,
etc.) - - 4 12
IV Trolley hoisting - - 5.5 20
V Clamshell mechanisms(except for pulleys
in grabs) for hoisting mechanisms of item I
- - 5 20
VI Ditto, for hoisting mechanisms of item II - - 5 30

The allowable angular deviation of the wire rope α max is calculated by

2 tan β
tan α max < (4.14)
D
1+
0.7 K

Where α = deviation of the rope from the plane of the sheave.


Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 64
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β α

K ε
D

d
Fig.4.12 Fleet Angle of Running-off Rope

Compensating pulleys, as they are stationary in operation, have smaller dimensions about
60% of the minimum pulley diameter. As a rule sheaves are freely mounted on rolling
bearings of bronze bushings. Lubrication is applied to the unloaded part of the bearing
surface in the sheave. The ratio of the hub length to the diameter of the axle is assumed
l
within the range: = 1.5 to 1.8 . The bushings of the sheaves can be checked for unit
d
pressure by:

Q
P= (4.15)
d ⋅l

where l = length of the bushing


d = diameter of the sheave axle
Q = acting load

Depending on the peripheral velocity of the sheave hub hole surface, unit pressures
should not exceed the following values:

Table 4.3 Values of Unit Pressure as a Function of Velocity

V[m/s] 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8


P[kgf/cm] 75 70 66 62 60 57 55 54
V[m/s] 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 -
P[kgf/cm] 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 -
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 65
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4.3.2 sheaves and Sprockets for Chains

1. Sheaves for welded chains: These sheaves are usually made of cast iron. They are
mainly used for hand operated hoists and rarely they are used for power driven devices.
The minimum diameter of the chain sheave may be calculated by:

D ≥ 20 d for hand driven


D ≥ 30 d for power driven

where d= diameter of the chain bar

The efficiency of a chain sheave is η = 0.95. The resistance of welded chains running
over sheaves to bending is ordinarily determined from the formula:

d
W =Q μ (4.16)
R

where R = radius of the sheaves


μ = coefficient of friction in the line joints (μ ≈ 0.1 to 0.2)
Q = tension in the chain.

2. Sprockets for Welded Chains: Sprockets are used as driving chain wheels of hand
operated hoists and winches. Sprockets are manufactured with small number of teeth.
Resistance of the chain to bending is determined using equation 4.13.

The diameter of the sprocket can be found as follows:


t+d
From triangle AOC
t

2 2
A AO = OC + AC
C
⎛t + d ⎞
2
R α/4 R = a2 + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
a
α
360 0
α=
O
z

Fig.4.13 Sprocket for Welded Chains where z = number of teeth


Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 66
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Expressing the value of a in terms of α , t and d, for small z = (4 ≤ z ≤ 9)

2 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
t ⎟ +⎜ d
2R = ⎜ ⎟ (4.17)
⎜ 90 0 ⎟ ⎜ 90 0 ⎟
⎜ sin ⎟ ⎜ cos ⎟
⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠

where t = inside length of the link


d = diameter of the chain bar
z = number of sprocket teeth; the minimum number of teeth z = 4

For z > 9 and for sufficiently small chain bar diameter (d ≤ 16) then the second terms in
the previous formula can be neglected and

2
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
t t
D≈ ⎜ ⎟ = (4.18)
⎜ 90 0 ⎟ ⎛ 90 0 ⎞
⎜ sin ⎟ sin⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠

3. Sprockets for Rollers chains: Sprockets are manufactured from cast iron and forged
steel of steel castings. They are mainly used for hand-operated hoists and winches. From
triangle AOC of Fig.4.11.
t
A
t Ac 360
D= ; AO = ; α= C
180 α Z
sin sin
z 2

where t = pitch measured along the cord
z = teeth number; z min = 8 O
η = 0.95
Fig. 4.14 Sprockets for Roller Chains

If the load is to be raised to considerable heights, for long chains, the winches are
equipped with special chain collectors, for this purpose pins with elongated journals are
inserted in required distance.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 67
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4.4 Rope Drums

For hemp ropes, short length of drum is used with several layers of coils. The flange of
the drum should extend above the upper layer of rope by at least one rope diameter. The
drums are usually of the plain type with D ≥ 10 d and η ≈ 95 .

Drums for steel wire rope are made of cast iron and rarely of steel castings. Helical
grooves are always used for wire ropes.

Number of turns on the drums (z)

Hi
z= +2 (4.19)
πD

where i = ratio of the pulley system


D = drum diameter
H = height to which the load is raised

The value 2 in equation 4.16 is added to account for the d t

idle (or holding) turns. Length of the helix on the drum:


c
l = z×t w
D

where t is the pitch


Fig.4.15 Helical Grooves in Rope Drums

Leaving a length of about 5t for both sides flanges, the full length of the drum L is:

⎛ Hi ⎞
L=⎜ + 7 ⎟t (4.20)
⎝ Dπ ⎠

If two ropes are coiled on the drum, the full length of the drum will be

⎛ 2 Hi ⎞
L=⎜ + 9 ⎟t + l 1 (4.21)
⎝ πD ⎠

where l 1 is the space in the middle of the drum (minimum of 3t).

The wall thickness of cast iron drum can be approximated by using the following
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 68
_______________________________________________________________________________________

formula:

w= 0.02D + (0.6 to 1.0) cm (4.19)

4.4.1. Strength of the Drum: During operation the drum is subject to the combined
action of torsion bending and compression, where the effect of the latter is much
larger.

p One-half ring is separated from the body


s with the thickness of w and with the
width equal to the pitch s. The tension
ϕ forces S are effective on the separated
dϕ ring. The force bearing on an element of
an area is dA = sR dϕ and dS = (d A) p.
R
Where p is the normal pressure on a unit
S drum surface. S is the sum of dS on the
w
vertical projection.
S

Fig.4.16 Forces Acting on a Drum

π π
2 S = 2 ∫ 2 Rdϕ ⋅ sp cos ϕ = 2 Rsp ∫ 2 cos ϕdϕ
0 0

2 S = 2 R ⋅ sp

S 2S
p= =
Rs Ds

From Lames formula: At the inner surface

D 2 + d0 2 D2
σ in = pin − 2 p out (4.23)
D 2 − d0 2 D 2 − d0 2

At the outer surface

D 2 + d0 2 D2
σ out = 2 pin − p out (4.24)
D 2 − d0 2 D 2 − d0 2
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 69
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where σ in = internal stress


σ out = external stress
pin = internal pressure
p out = external pressure
D = internal diameter
d o = outside diameter

Considering the forces in Fig.4.13 we have:

pin = 0 , pout = p , do = D − 2 w

D2
σ in (comp ) = −2 p out
D 2 + d0
2

2S D2 − 4 SD
σ comp = −2 × 2 =
Ds D − d 0 2 s (D + d )(D − d 0 )

D + d 0 ≈ 2 D and D − d 0 ≈ 2w

− 4 SD S
σ comp = = (4.25)
S 2 D ⋅ 2 w sw

Allowable compressive stresses:

For cast iron 15-32 σ all = 1,000 kgf/cm2


cast steel σ all = 1,600 kgf/cm2
welded drums (St 42) σ all = 1,800 kgf/cm2

Allowable bending stresses:

For cast iron σ all = 230 kgf/cm2


steel casting σ all = 1,800 kgf/cm2
welded drums σ all = 1,400 kgf/cm2

As per attaching ropes on drums, ropes are fastened on drums by means of setscrews,
adjustable fastening and with the aid of fastening plate.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 70
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1. Friction Drums for Ropes: Friction drums are rope-driving drums in which motion is
transmitted by friction between the rope and drum. They have the advantage of being
able to raise loads for great heights and are used for winches and railway cars.
Friction drums are capable of handling long ropes by means of a small drum. There
are three types of friction drums.

a. Simple friction drums: they are provided with helical grooves for the rope, which
coils around them in one or several turns.

s 1 s 2

Gear Pinion

s 1
s 2

Friction drum

Fig.4.17 Single Friction Drum

Tension ration between on coming and running off parts of simple rope is described by
Euler’s formula:

S1
= e μ 2πn (4.26)
S2
where S 1 = on coming force
S = running off (can be regulated by hand)
2

: = coefficient of friction
n = number of coils
e = 2.718 the base of the natural logarithm

F = S 1 − S 2 peripheral force on drum


Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 71
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Simple friction drums are used for

- the drives of trucks in rotary cranes with variable radius


- load transfer bridges
- cable cranes
- moving ratio and cars at docks and ports
- hoisting anchors and hauling various loads

b. Double-Drum Friction Drive: In this case the rope is wound several times around
two parallel drums rotating in the same direction and driven by a single motor. The
tension force in the parts of the rope is

S1 S1
S2 = μπ
; S3 = μπ
(4.27)
e η1 e ⋅ η 12

S1 S1
Sn = μπ
S n +1 = μπ
e ⋅ η n −1 e ⋅η n

where S 1 = tension on the on coming leg of rope


S 2 , S 3 = tension in the intermediate parts
S n +1 = tension in the running off parts
π = arc of contact of the rope on one drum
n = bearing areas in contact between the rope and both drums
η 1 = 0.995 = efficiency taking into account the rigidity of the rope
in one encirclement (disregarding the losses in the bearings).

s 1 sn+1

s 1

sn+1

I II

Fig.4.18 Double Friction Drum


Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 72
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Total peripheral force on both drums

F = S 1 − S n +1

The load on drum shaft I is

QI = S 1 + S 2 + S 3 + K + S n

and on drum shaft II is

QII = S 2 + S 3 + S 4 + K + S n +1

Losses in the bearings are

W = (QI + QII )μ 1
d
D
where μ 1 = coefficient of friction in the bearings
d = diameter of the bearing journal
D = diameter of the drum.

The total efficiency of the drive is

S1
η=
F +W

c. Capstan: Capstans are usually arranged vertically, driven by an electromotor through a


worm gear drive and used to move railway cars. The rope is attached to the car by
means of a hook. During operation the rope winds around the capstan barrel which
revolves. The effort in the running off part of the rope helped by the operator can be
calculated using equation 4.23.

s 2

s 1

Fig. 4.19 Capstan


Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 73
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S
S2 = 1
μ 2 πn
e

where n is the number of turns.

Since the wall of the capstan barrel is inclined, and axial down word force always arises,
helping the rope not to jump off the capstan barrel.

4.5 Load Handling Attachments

The load is usually handled by means of chain or rope slings attached to hooks of which
the two most popular design are standard (single) and Ramshorn (double) hooks.
Standard and Ramshorn hooks may be flat-die or closed-die forged or else made of a
series of shaped plates.

One-piece forged hooks are used for lifting loads up to 100tons while triangular and
laminated hooks can be employed to carry over 100 tons. Hooks are forged from law
carbon steel. In the process of production hooks are carefully annealed after forging and
machining. The inner diameter of the hooks should be greater than twice the diameter of
the standard wire rope which suspends the load. Generally hooks have trapezoidal
sections made wider on the inside for better material utilisation.

4.5.1 Forged Standard Hooks

The design process of a forged standard hook begins with tentative assumptions of the
proportions of a hook. In the subsequent stages the hook is checked for strength and all
the proportions tentatively assumed are finally polished.

A simple forged standard hook is shown in Fig.4.20. The diameter a and the overall
proportions of a standard hook are given.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 74
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e1

e2 e1

Q
Fig. 4.20 Forged Standard Hook

1. Calculating Hook Dimensions

For the shank:

4Q
σt = ≤ σ all = 500kgf/cm2
πd 1
2

The minimum height of the hook nut is determined from the permissible compressive
stresses (Fig. 4.21) in the thread and is given by:

p all × Area = Q

Area =
(
π d0 2 − d12 )× n , and n =
H
4 t
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 75
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Q = p all ⋅
(
π d0 − d1 H
2


2
)
4 t

4Qt
H =
(
π d0 − d 21
2
)p
(4.28)

where t = thread pitch


t d0 = major diameter of thread
d1 = minor diameter of thread
P = safe unit compression stress
h = thread height
H = nut height
n = number of threads

Fig.4.21 Hook Thread Dimensions

For steel on steel, Pall = (300 to 350) kgf /cm2

For small lifting capacity less than 5 tons, hook are provided with “Vee” thread and for
high lifting capacity greater than 5 tons preference is given to trapezoidal or buttress
thread.

The unit stress on the saddle (Fig. 4.20) of the hook can be found from

Q M M 1 γ
σ = + + ⋅ ⋅ (4.29)
A Ar Ar x γ + r

where σ = unit stress for the fibre at a distance y from


the neutral axis [kgf/cm2]
Q = load on the hook [kgf]
A = area of the critical cross-section here cross-section I [cm2]
r = radius of curvature of the neutral axis at
the critical cross-section[cm]
x = factor depending on the shape of the cross-section and the
curvature of the beam
y = distance from the fibre to the neutral axis. y is negative if the
fibre is between the centre of curvature and the natural axis;
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 76
_______________________________________________________________________________________

and is positive if the fibre is on the other side of the neutral


axis,[cm]
M = bending moment [kgf.cm]. M is positive if it cause the hook
curvature to increase (its radius decrease) or negative if the
curvature decreases.

Since the load tends to open the hook, R2


R1

M = −Q.r = −Q(0.5 a + e1 ) d
d2 d1

r ⎡⎧ R2 ⎫ R2 ⎤
χ = −1 + ⎢⎨b2 + (b1 − b2 ) ⎬ ln − (b1 − b2 )⎥ b2 b1
A ⎣⎩ d ⎭ R1 ⎦

1 y
χ=− ∫
A y+r
dA r

Fig. 4.22 The Critical Cross-section I-II

2. Tensile Stress in the Inner Fibre

Substituting
M = −Q(0.5 a +e1 )
r = 0.5a + e1
Y = −e1
and h = a

In the equation 4.26 for σ, we obtain

Q Q(0.5a + e1 ) (0.5 + e1 ) ⋅ 1 ⋅ y
σI = − −Q
Α Αr Ar χ y+r

Q ⎡ (0.5a + e1 ) ⎛ 1 y ⎞⎤
= ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟⎥
A⎣ r ⎝ χ y + 1 ⎟⎠⎦

Q 1 2e1
σI = ⋅ ⋅ ≤ σ safe all - maximum tensile stress
A x a

i.e. the maximum unit tensile stress of the inner fibres of the section is:
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 77
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Q 1 2e1
σt = ⋅ ⋅ < σ all
A χ a

3. Compressive Stress in the Outer Fibre

Substituting

M = −Q (0.5 a + e1 )
r = 0.5 a + e1 ; h = e1 + e2
r = 0.5 a + h − e 2
and y = e2

In the equation 4.26 for σ, we obtain

Q 1 e
σ II = − ⋅ × 2 < σ all - maximum compressive stress
A χ a
+h
2
In the above calculations the maximum tensile, σ I and compressive, σ II stresses, the
allowable stress σ all should not exceed 1500 kgf/cm2.

4.5.2 Solid Triangular Eye Hooks

Solid triangular eye hooks are usually employed in cranes with high lifting capacity (over
100 tons) and occasionally in medium power cranes. The major problem faced by using
these hooks is that slings carrying the load must be passed through the eye. They are
produced by forging in one piece.

Bending moment in the bow (from investigation):

Ql
M1 ≈
6
Bending moment where the sides adjoin the bow

Ql
M2 ≈
13
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 78
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Fig. 4.23 Solid Triangular Eye Hook

Tensile force acting on the sides:

Q
P=
α
2 cos
2

where α = angle between the inclined sides


l = bow spans measured along the neutral line of the sections.
Q = load

Compressive force P1 acting on the bow is

Q α
P1 = tan
2 2

Maximum stress in the bow

M bend P1
σ= + < σ all
w A
Ql
where M bend ≈ + P1 x [kgf.cm]
6
w = Sectional modulus[cm3]
A = Cross-sectional area [cm2]
x = moment arm of the compressive force P1
The safe stress σ all = 800kgf/cm2
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 79
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4.5.3 Hinged Triangular Hooks

In handling heavy loads, preference is given to hinged triangular hooks. This is due to the
fact that hinged triangular hook does not have the difficulties, both in manufacturing and
in service, encountered by using solid triangular eye hook.

Unit stress in the links (assuming the bow in suspended on four links)

Q
σt = (4.30)
α
4 cos ⋅A
'

Permissible value of σ t is σ t ,all =1,200 kgf/cm2.

The unit stress in the bow (assumed as a curved beam)

p1 M M e
σ= + + ⋅ 1 (4.31)
A AR xAR R − e2

Q
where M = + P1 ⋅ x
2
Q α
P1 = tan
2 2
e1 = distance between the neutral axis
and the fibres carrying the greatest load.

Fig. 4.24 Three-Joint Built-up Hooks

2 4 6
1⎛ a ⎞ 1⎛ a ⎞ 5 ⎛a⎞
For an ellipse x = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ (4.32)
4⎝ R⎠ 8⎝ R⎠ 64 ⎝ R ⎠

where a is the major axis of the ellipse or the diameter of a circle.


The shank eye stress is check by Lame Formula of equations 4.25 and 4.26.

p (D 2 + d 2 )
σt =
D2 + d 2
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 80
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Q
where p =
α
4 cos b ⋅ d
2

b = eye width

4.6 Crosspieces for Hooks

The pivoted crosspiece in the side plates of casings is usually reinforced with straps or
shackles made of plate steel. The crosspiece is forged from steel and provided with
turned trunnions at the ends. The diameter of the hole for the hook shank must be larger
than the shack itself.

Fig.4.25 Crosspiece for Hooks

The maximum bending moment is

l Q Q d1 Q ⎛ d ⎞
M max = ⋅ − ⋅ = ⋅⎜l − 1 ⎟ (4.33)
2 2 2 4 4 ⎝ 2⎠

M max
σb =
W

I h
where W = section modulus = ; c=
c 2
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 81
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1 bh 3 1 d2h3
W = -
12 ⎛ h ⎞ 12 ⎛ h ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠

h 2b h 2 d 2 h2
= − = (b − d 2 ) (4.34)
6 6 6

6 M max
σb = ≤ σ all
h (b − d 2 )
2

σ all = 600 – 1000 kgf/cm2 for good quality carbon steel

4.6.1 Trunnions

The bending moment for the crosspiece trunnions is

Q⎛S ⎞
M2 = ⎜ + S1 ⎟ (4.35)
2⎝2 ⎠

where S = shackle thickness


S 1 = side plate thickness
M2
σb = ≤ σ all for bending
W

πd 3
W =
32

Unit pressure between the casing and trunnions is

Q
p= (4.36)
2 d (S + S 1 )

Example 4.2

Select by calculation the ropes, pulleys and drum required for an electric overhead
travelling crane with a lifting magnet of the hoisting equipment shown below in fig.4.22.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 82
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Given data:

Lifting capacity Q=5,000kg


Lifting height H=8m
Weight of lifting magnet G=2,000kg
Weight of lifting tackle Go=120kg
Number of rope parts Z=4
Medium service duty

Solution:

1. Maximum tension in the rope:

(Q + G + G0 )
F=

Fig.4.26 Hoisting Equipment

where η is efficiency of the pulley system ≈ 0.94

F=
(5000 + 2000 + 120 ) ≈ 1,900 kg
4 × 0.94

Since the lifting height is small, we disregard the weight of the rope.

Dmin
2. The number of rope bends and the ratio :
d

According to Fig.3.11, the number of bends for a pulley system in diagram (a) will equal
D
to n = 3. From Table 3.4 and with n = 3 , min = 23 .
d

3. The rope cross-section:

Taking the design of the rope with number of wires i = 222 , σ b = 16000 kg/cm2, safety
factor K=6(Kmin=5.5 medium duty), then

4. Choice of the rope:


F
A( 222 ) =
⎛ σb d ⎞
⎜⎜ − × 36000 ⎟⎟
⎝ K Dmin ⎠
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 83
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1900
= = 1.725cm 2 ( 172.5 mm 2 )
⎛ 16000 1 ⎞
⎜ − × 36000 ⎟
⎝ 6 23 ⎠

According to DIN standard (Table 4.8) the nearest value of the cross-sectional area A for
a rope with 222 wires is 174.4mm2. Therefore, rope diameter, d = 22mm, wire diameter, δ
= 1mm, breaking load of the rope = 27,900kg.

The maximum permissible tension in the rope should not exceed

F 27 ,900 kg
Sw = = = 4 ,650 kg
K 6

Since the maximum tension is 1,900kg, then the choice of the rope is correct.

5. Diameter of the drum and lower pulley in the block frame:

The minimum permissible diameter of the pulley is given by Dmin = e1 e2 d and from
Table 4.1 and 4.2 taking the value of e1 = 25, e2 = 1.

Dmin = e1 e2 d = 25 × 1 × 22 = 550 mm., we take D = 600mm.

6. Diameter of the compensating pulley:

Since the diameter of the compensating pulley can be 40% less than the diameter of
blocks carrying the load, D1 = 0.6 D = 0.6 × 600 = 360 mm., we take D1 = 400mm.

7. Radius of grooves on the drum: from the table below a standard grove has r1 = 9mm.

8. Pitch of the groove helix on the drum: from the table below the pitch is s = 19mm.

9. Number of turns on each side of the drum:

Hi 8×2
Z= +2= + 2 = 11turns
πD 3.14 × 0.6
10. Full length of the drum:
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 84
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⎛ 2 Hi ⎞
L=⎜ + 9 ⎟ s + L1
⎝ πD ⎠

= (2( z − 2 ) + 9 )s + L1 = (2(11 − 2 ) + 9 ) × 27 + 100 = 829 mm.

where L1 is free space between the right and left-hand groove(equal


approximately to the distance between the lower pulleys of the block
frame). We take L1 =100mm.

11. The wall thickness of a cast-iron drum:

ω = 0.02 D + (0.6 K1.0 ) cm


ω = 0.02 D + 1 = 0.02 × 60 + 1 = 2.2 cm(22mm).

Table 4.4
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 85
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Example 4. 3

Calculate thee strength of a hook crosspiece shown in the figure below. Useful load lifting
capacity Qc = 5,000kg and weight of the hook and grabbing tongue G =1,000kg.
( take σ b = 600 … 1000kg./cm2 )

S1 = 8

Fig. 4.27 Crosspiece of a Hook

Solution:

Q 1

Q/2 Q/2
d2
h

d1
L b

Critical cross-section
1. Strength calculation of the crosspiece:

The maximum bending moment is

M b max =
Q
(L − 0.5d 1 )
4

where Q = Qc + G

=
6,000
(22 − 0.5 × 11) ≈ 24,750kg.cm.
4
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 86
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The moment of resistance


W = (b − d 2 )h 2
1
6
= (14 − 5)6 2 ≈ 54cm 3
1
6

Then the unit stress in the crosspiece is

M bmacx
σb =
W
24,750
= ≈ 460kg / cm 2 which is permissible.
54

2. Checking the crosspiece trunnions:

The bending moment for the crosspiece trunnions is

Q S + S1
M2 = ×
2 2

where S = shackle thickness and


S 1 = side plate thickness

6 ,000 4 + 0.8
M2 = × ≈ 7 ,200 kg .cm
2 2

The moment of resistance is

π 3
Wtr = d
32
π
= × 5 3 = 12.5cm 3
32

The unit stress in the trunnion is

M 2 7 ,200
σ2 = = ≈ 576 kg . / cm 2 which is permissible.
Wtr 12.5
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 87
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Q 6 ,000
The unit pressure on the trunnion is P = = ≈ 125kg . / cm 2
2d (S + S 1 ) 2 × 5(4 + 0.8 )
which is quite negligible.

4.7 Review Questions

1. Describe and classify pulley systems.


2. For what purposes do we use sheaves for welded chains, and sprockets for welded
and roller chains?
3. Describe the three types of friction drums.
CHAPTER FIVE
ARRESTING GEAR AND BRAKES
5.1 Arresting Gear

Arresting gear is used to hold the load being lifted without interfering in the hoisting
process but preventing the load from coming down due to gravity.

5.1.1 Ratchet Gearing

Ratchet gearing consists of ratchet gear and pawl. The teeth in the ratchet are so
arranged that the ratchet runs free when the load is being raised. There are two basic
ratchet and pawl arrangements. The first one is an arrangement with external teeth
(Fig. 5.1) and this can be further divided into an arrangement with pulled pawl pivot
and with pushed pawl pivot. The second division is an arrangement with internal teeth.

The ratchet is fitted with the shaft of the drive and a pawl whose pivot receives support
from a fixed structural part. The pawl engaging the ratchet assists its motion
consequently that of the drive when the load is being lowered, but does not impede
ratchet operation in hoisting. Best engagement is obtained at a point of contact between
the tangent passing through the pawl pivot and the outside diameter of the ratchet
wheel. In this case, pressure on the pawl is directed along the peripheral force.

Fig. 5.1 Ratchet Gearing with External Teeth


Arresting Gear and Brakes 92
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The ratchet teeth number is dependent upon the purpose and design. The following
values are some examples.

z = 6 to 8 for rack and pinion jacks


z = 12 to 20 for independent ratchet arresters
z = 16 to 25 and more for ratchet brakes

1. Teeth of the Ratchet

The linear unit pressure is the guiding factor for the determination of the length of the
teeth (width of pawl bearing area). Furthermore the teeth is checked for bending.

F
b=
p

where b = width of pawl (or length of


teeth)
p = peripheral force linear unit
pressure
= 50 to 100 kg/cm for steel pawl
and cast iron ratchet wheel
= 150 to 300 kg/cm for steel pawl
and steel ratchet wheel
Fig. 5.2 Ratchet Teeth

2T
Tangential force F =
D

where T = transmitted torque


D = ratchet diameter

Fh
σb = usually a = m , h = 0.75 m and b = ψm , D = z m
a 2b
6

a 2b 2T
σb = ⋅h
6 D

πD = z × t
Arresting Gear and Brakes 93
______________________________________________________________________________________
t
D=z
π
t
or D = z ⋅ m where =m
π

2T
(0.75m ) = m 2 ψm σ bend
zm 6

9T T T
m=3 ≈ 2×3 = 2× (5.1)
zψσ bend zψσ bend 3 ⎛b⎞
z ⎜ ⎟σ bend
⎝m⎠

The coefficient ψ depends on the material of the ratchet.

Table 5.1 Values of the Coefficient ψ as a Function of the Material.

b
Material of Ratchets ψ=
m
0.33 or 0.55 % C cast steel 1.5 - 4
0.3 % C steel or 0.45 % C with additive 1 - 2

2. Checking for Eccentricity

The pawl is either checked for eccentric compression or tension.

M bend F
σ= +
W A

where M bend = F ⋅ e1

and the sectional modulus is :


b ⋅ x2
Fig.5.3 Ratchet and Pawl Arrangement W =
6
Arresting Gear and Brakes 94
______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Pawl Pin

Pawl pin is considered as cantilever beam subject to bending. The maximum bending
moment is given by:

⎛b ⎞
M bend = F⎜ + a ⎟
⎝2 ⎠

M bend
σ bend =
W
⎛b ⎞
F ⎜ + a ⎟ = W ⋅ σ bend
⎝2 ⎠
πd 3
= ⋅ σ bend
32

2T ⎛ b ⎞
⎜ + a ⎟ = 0.1d ⋅ σ bend
3

zm ⎝ 2 ⎠

20T (0.5b + a )
d ≥3 Fig.5.4 Ratchet Pawl
zmσ bend

20T (0.5b + a )
d ≥ 2.713 (5.2)
zmσ bend

The pin is subjected to impact loading, thus we take reduced safe bending stress.
σ bend = 300 to 500 kgf/cm2. The best conditions for a pawl sliding over the ratchet teeth
are obtained (Fig.5.5) when ϕ > ρ , where ρ is the friction angle.

Fig. 5.5 Pawl Sliding over the Ratchet


Arresting Gear and Brakes 95
______________________________________________________________________________________
Consider Fig. 5.5:

= 0 ⇒ (T − μN )L cos ϕ − Fμ 1
d
∑M A
2
=0

where T = Fsin ϕ , and N = Fcos ϕ and μ 1 = coefficient of friction


between the pin and the hub

F (sin ϕ − μ cos ϕ )L cos ϕ − Fμ 1


d
=0
2

( )
FL sin ϕ cos ϕ − μ cos 2 ϕ − Fμ 1
d
2
=0

⎛ sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎞ 1 d
FL⎜⎜ − μ ⎟⎟ − Fμ 1 = 0
⎝ cos ϕ ⎠ cos ϕ
2 2
2

⎛ μ1d ⎞
tan ϕ − μ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ a very small number but + value
⎝ 2 L cos 2
ϕ ⎠

But μ = tan ρ where ρ is angle of friction

dμ 1 dμ 1
tan ϕ − tan ρ = since is a positive value
2 L cos 2 ϕ 2 L cos 2 ϕ

tan ϕ − tan ρ > 0 and ϕ > ρ

From practical experience the value of ϕ for best condition ranges from 120 to 180.

5.1.2 Friction Arresters

Friction arresters operate noiselessly compared to the operation of toothed arresting


gear. However, the pressure on the pawl pivot and shaft is considerably high. Thus
they have a limited application.
Arresting Gear and Brakes 96
______________________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 5.6 Friction Arrester

To avoid unidirectional action, the arrester is always provided with two pawls arranged
at diametrically opposite points. In Fig.5.6, the angle 2α of the engagement gear ranges
from 450 to 500. The coefficient of friction μ is taken to be 0.1 and the angle ϕ is 150.

The pressure on the pawl pivot is F0:

F
F0 =
tan ϕ

5.1.3 Roller Ratchets

This mechanism arrests the load within a minimum distance. The whole system relies
on friction for its successful operation. A roller wedged between the follower and the
driver is subject to the action of normal forces N 1 and N 2 and tangential friction
forces μ 1 N 1 and μ 2 N 2 . With the roller in equilibrium, the resultant force R1 = R2 . For
equilibrium; thus N 1 = N 2 .

Fig. 5.7 Design Diagram of a Ratchet Roller


Arresting Gear and Brakes 97
______________________________________________________________________________________
The transmitted torque is

⎛ D⎞
T = zμ 2 N 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠

where z = number of rollers (usually z = 4)


μ = coefficient of friction, μ ≈ 0.06 .( μ 1 for the roller and the
driver and μ 2 for the roller and the follower)

α
When μ = tan ρ > tan (the case of locking)
2

N≤
2T
(N = N 1 = N 2 )
α
zD tan
2

For greater reliability, the force acting on one roller is assumed as

2T
N= (5.3)
α
zD tan
2

The length of the roller is

N
l=
p

where p = linear unit pressure, and its allowable value is 450 kg/cm
for hardened quality steel (e.g.: C15...C60).

Table 5.2 Main Dimensions of Roller Ratchets

Power Transmitted Diameter Diameter Length of Number Wedging


at 100 rpm N 100 of Bush of Roller Roller of Roller Angle
[hp] D[mm] d [mm] L[mm] z
0.25 102 12.7 19.0
0.50 107 15.9 23.8
1.00 152 19.0 29.4 4 70
1.50 178 22.2 33.3
2.00 203 25.4 38.1
Arresting Gear and Brakes 98
______________________________________________________________________________________
Roller ratchets are selected using the formula

100 N 100
N safe =
nK

where n = rpm
K = safety factor (1.5 to 2)

5.2 Brakes

In hoisting machinery, brakes are employed for controlling the speed of load lowering
and holding the suspended load at rest. Brakes can be classified into three according to
the purpose and into two according to their operational characteristics.

Depending on the purpose, brakes can be classified as

- parking (holding) brakes


- lowering brakes or
- combined type for both holding and /lowering/ controlling the speed.

From operational aspect they can be classified as

- operated brakes: It includes shoe, band, cone, disk and ratchet brakes with
safety handles.
- automatic brakes: This includes centrifugal brakes (to control speed) and
brakes applied by the weight of the load.
In the following section we will deal with shoe brakes and band brakes.

5.2.1 Single Shoe Brakes

Single shoe brakes are used to retard or stop unidirectional motions. This unidirectional
action of a single shoe cause bending in the brake shaft, and single shoe brakes are
employed only for retarding small torques in hand drive where the diameter of the
shaft does not exceed 50mm.

The pressure exerted by the cast iron shoe on the brake wheel (Fig.5.8) should be such
that the friction force produced on the surface of the wheel counter balance the
peripheral force

2T
N ⋅μ ≥ =F.
D
Arresting Gear and Brakes 99
______________________________________________________________________________________

P P P

Acting on the Drum Acting on the Drum Acting on the Drum


μN μN μN
F F F

N N N
l

μN μN μN
a
Acting on the Shoe Acting on the Shoe Acting on the Shoe

I
I I
b
b=0
b

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.8 Diagrams of Single Shoe Brakes

Force P at the end of the brake lever depends on the position of pivot I. The friction
force μN acts relative to the brake wheel in a direction opposite to F.

For case (a), taking moment about I,

∑ M I = 0 = P ⋅ l ± μN ⋅ b − N ⋅ a = 0 ; + counter clockwise & - clockwise

aN m μNb N
P= = (a m μb ) (5.4)
l l

F
but μN = F ; N=
μ
P=
F
(a m μb )
μl

F⎛a ⎞
P= ⎜⎜ m b ⎟⎟ where the upper sign refers to counter clockwise wheel
l ⎝μ ⎠
rotation

For case (b),


Arresting Gear and Brakes 100
______________________________________________________________________________________
a Fa
P=N =
l μl

For case (c),

F⎛a ⎞
P= ⎜⎜ ± b ⎟⎟ where the upper sigh refers to counter clockwise wheel
l ⎝μ ⎠
rotation

In actual designs the self-braking effect should be avoided for single shoe brakes i.e.
a
cases (a) and (c) act arresters when b = . This does not happen in the case of (b).
μ

5.2.2 Double shoe Brakes

The are extensively used in hoisting mechanisms and travelling mechanisms, as they
produce no bending moment in the brake shaft. Electrically driven winches and cranes
are designed almost exclusively with double shoe brakes.

A
C
R

Ft
FN

Brake Released Position

Gl G
Gar

Fig. 5.9 Diagram of a Double Shoe Brake

The brake is applied by weight G and released by an electromagnet. Thus the


permanently applied brake is released only when the electromagnet is switched on. When
it is disengaged it will have the position represented by the broken lines as can be seen in
Fig. 5.9.
Arresting Gear and Brakes 101
______________________________________________________________________________________
Brake Wheels

Cast iron wheels are used for hand operated hoists, and for power driven ones cast steel
wheels are employed. The width of the wheel is 5 to 10 mm greater than the width of the
shoe. Brakes wheels are always finned for better heat dissipation and provided with holes
between the fins for more rapid air circulation and for more effective heat dissipation.

Brake shoes

Wooden brake shoes may be used for hand operated devices and are attached to the lever
by means of bolts. Cast iron shoes are made for mechanical drives and provided with
special brake linings. The linings may be secured by rivets or counter sank rivets.

Brake linings

Brake linings should have high coefficient of friction, retain braking capacity at
temperatures up to 3000C, effectively resist wear at the highest speed, unit pressures and
temperatures, easily yield to treatment and finally have low cost. It is necessary that
brake linings satisfy the above mentioned requirements

The most regular lining material is made of rolled band made of non-textile asbestos,
rubber and sulphur; and produced on rolling machines. Rolled band is manufactured up to
8 mm thick and 100mm wide and can withstand high temperature.

Table 5.3 Experimental Values of Coefficient of Friction μ

Unit Pressure, Kg/cm2


Materials
μ Holding Lowering

Cast Iron on Cast Iron 0.15 20 15


Steel on Cast Iron 0.15 20 15
Asbestos Brake Band (Type A) on Cast Iron or Steel 0.37 6 3
Asbestos (Type B) on Steel or Cast Iron 0.35 6 3
Rolled Band on Cast Iron or Steel 0.42 6 4
Wood on Cast Iron 0.30
Wood on Steel 0.25
Leather on Cast Iron 0.20
Bronze on Cast Iron 0.17
Bronze on Steel 0.16
Bronze on Bronze 0.18
Arresting Gear and Brakes 102
______________________________________________________________________________________

Static Calculation Method for Shoe Brake Design

Fig. 5.10 Diagram of a Shoe Brake Applied by a Weight

The total peripheral braking force produced by both shoes (Fig.5.10) in the rubbing
surface is:

2 M br
T=
D

Force to apply the brake force F1 is:

(T1 + T2 ) D = M br = (μN 1 + μN 2 ) D
2 2


D
(N 1 + N 2 )
2

Taking moments about the pivots:


Arresting Gear and Brakes 103
______________________________________________________________________________________
F1 l − N 1 l 1 + μN 1b = 0

F1 l
N1 = i.e., normal force on the left lever shoe.
l 1 − μb

F1 l
and in the same way N 2 =
l 1 + μb

D ⎛ F1 l F1 l ⎞ μDF1 l ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
M br = μ ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ + ⎟
2 ⎝ l 1 − μb l 1 + μb ⎠ 2 ⎝ l 1 − μb l 1 + μb ⎟⎠

μDF1 l 2l 1 μDF1 ll 1
= ⋅ 2 =
l1 − μ2b2 l1 − μ2b2
2
2

M br l 1 − μ 2 b 2
2
M br l 1
F1 = ⋅ ≈ ⋅ (5.5)
μDη ll 1 μDη l

(as μ 2 b 2 is a small value)

Unit pressure between the wheel and the shoe of the left lever is:

N1
p= < p safe where A = shoe contact area
A

Normal force on the right lever shoe is:

F1 l
N2 =
l 1 + μb

M br (l 1 + μb )(l 1 − μb )
F1 = ⋅
μDη ll 1

M br (l 1 − μb )
N2 = ⋅
μDη l1
Arresting Gear and Brakes 104
______________________________________________________________________________________
As for N 1 > N 2 , the unit pressure built at N 2 is not needed to be checked.

Since N 1 and N 2 are not equal, the brake shaft is subjected to the action of a bending
force.

ΔS = S 1 − S 2 , S 1 = N 1 + T1 , S 2 = N 2 + T2
2 2 2 2

After appropriate transformations,

2 M br
ΔS = b 1 + μ2
Dl 1

The vertical component of the bending forces is:

2 M br μb
ΔS v = T1 − T2 =
Dl 1

The horizontal component is

2 M br b
ΔS h = N 1 − N 2 =
Dl 1

To eliminate the forces bending the brake shaft, the design of shoe brakes should meet
the following requirements:

1. The axle of the shoe should be aligned with the wheel centre.
2. The shoes should be symmetric with respect to the line which connects their axes.
3. The pivots of the lever should be arranged at equal distance from the wheel
centre.

Forces acting on the (brake levers) rods are:

F1
R=
cos α

F = F1
e
(F1 ⋅ e = F ⋅ k )
k

Q = R 2 + F 2 + 2 RF sin α
Arresting Gear and Brakes 105
______________________________________________________________________________________
The forces in the supporting pivots of the braking lever:

Y = T1 + F1 tan α

x = N 1 − F1 , z = N 2 − F1

⎛e ⎞
w = T2 + F1 ⎜ + tan α ⎟
⎝k ⎠

The weight applying the brake G wt is:

− (Gl f + Gar c )η
ea
F1
ηk
G wt =
d

where Gl = weight of braking lever


Gar = weight of the armature
η = 0.90 to 0.95 efficiency of the break lever system.

Table 5.4 Maximum Permissible Unit Pressures for Shoe Brakes

Unit Pressure [kgf/cm2]


Materials of Rubbing Surfaces Holding Brake Lowering Brake
Cast iron on cast iron 20 15
Steel on cast iron 20 15
Steel on steel 4 2
Asbestos brake band on metal 6 3
Rolled band on metal 6 4

5.3 Band Brakes

In band brakes the braking torque is obtained due to friction of flexible band over the
surface of the brake wheel. Band brakes are designed as simple, differential and
additive-action types. The brake consists of a drum about which is wrapped a flexible
steel band lined with some friction material like ferrodo. The resistance of friction due
to all friction forces acting on the surface of contact with the drum is equal to the
difference in the forces S on and S off on the band ends, and this force equalises the
peripheral force F, i.e.
Arresting Gear and Brakes 106
______________________________________________________________________________________
F = S on − S off

Fig. 5.11 Diagrams for Determining Tension in the Band and


Unit Pressure on the Drum

From Euler's formula:

S on = S off ⋅ e μα (5.6)

= (S on − F )e μα

S on = S on ⋅ e μα − F ⋅ e μα

( )
S on e μα − 1 = Fe μα

Fe μα
S on = (5.7)
e μα − 1

F ⋅ e μα
S off = S on − F = −F
e μα − 1

⎛ e μα − e μα + 1 ⎞
S off = F ⎜⎜ μα
⎟⎟
⎝ e −1 ⎠

F
S off = μα
(5.8)
e −1
Arresting Gear and Brakes 107
______________________________________________________________________________________
The maximum unit pressure between the band and the rake drum arises at the point of
application of the tension S on and decreases (Fig. 5.11) gradually to the point of
application of S off of the band.

The pressure per unit surface 1cm long and b cm wide can be found;

The maximum unit pressure, p max is

S on
p max = (5.9)
R ⋅b

and the minimum unit pressure, p min is

S off
p min = (5.10)
R ⋅b

where b = width of band


R = radius of drum

If the length of contact between the band and drum is

α0
l = 2 πR
360 0

The rubbing surface A is

α0
A = b ⋅ 2πR
360 0

p max + p min
If p= denotes the mean unit pressure, the braking power is
2
N br = A ⋅ p ⋅ vcr ⋅ μ
where vcr =critical slipping speed

Unit braking power, N unit is

N br
N unit = pvcr = (5.11)

Arresting Gear and Brakes 108
______________________________________________________________________________________
To avoid excessive wear of the band or lining at the on coming end p max should not
exceed the values indicated in the following table.

Table 5.5 Safe Unit Pressures in kg/cm2

Material of Rubbing Surfaces


Type of Steel Band on CI or Asbestos Brake Band on Wood on CI
Brake Steel Drum Steel or CI Drum Drum

Holding 15 6 6

Lowering 10 3 4

5.3.1 Simple Band Brakes

In a simple band brake the on coming end of the band is fixed ( S on is fixed) and the
brake lever experiences only force S off which creates a moment a × S off .

From equation 5.7, we have

F
S off = μα
e −1

Peripheral force is:

2 M br
F= ;
D

M br = actual braking torque

Fig. 5.12.Diagram of a Simple Band Brake

The magnitude of the weight on the braking lever G is:

S off ⋅ a − Gar ⋅ l
G= (5.12)
l1
Arresting Gear and Brakes 109
______________________________________________________________________________________
In band brakes the shaft is subjected to additional force from band tension, and the
resultant force on the shaft is:

Q = V2 +H2

where V = Vertical force V = S on y + S off y


H = Horizontal force H = S onx + S off x

The required pull of the magnet is:

a
F = S off (5.13)
l

Brake lever travel at the linkage with the electromagnet armature is:

l
h = εα (5.14)
a

where α =in radian


ε = the radial departure of band from drum; usually,
0.8-1.5mm. (distance of release)

The work done by the electromagnet is:

1
W= F ⋅h where the coefficient 0.75 is to account for the
0.75
utilisation of the armature stroke.

Example 5.1

Design a simple band brake with a ratchet wheel for a band-operated winch.

Given data:
- Actual braking torque, Mbr = 1,500kgf.cm
- Diameter of the brake drum, D = 30cm
- Width of band, b = 50mm
- Lever arms were assumed to be equal to a = 50mm, l 1 = 700mm and
l 0 = 800mm
- Take μ = 0.15, α = 2250 , eμα = 1.8
Arresting Gear and Brakes 110
______________________________________________________________________________________

Solution:

1. The peripheral force on the surface of the brake drum is


2 M br 2 × 1,500
F= = = 100kgf .
D 30

2. The tension in the running-off end is (Refer equation 5.8)

F 100
S off = = = 125kgf .
e − 1 (1.8 − 1)
μα

3. The magnitude of the weight on the brake lever is (Equation 5.12 without the weight
of the armature)

S off ⋅ a 125 × 50
G= = = 10 kgf .
l1 700

4. The effort applied by the operator on the brake lever when l 0 = 800mm is

l1 700
F =G = 10 × = 8.75 kgf which can be easily accomplished.
l0 800

5. The travel of the brake lever (at full release) at the point of fastening of the
Running-off end (refer equation 5.14)

2π × 225 0
hrel = εα = 1.25 × = 5mm.
360 0

and at the point where the operator’s effort is applied is calculated using

l0 800
h = hrel = 5× = 80 mm.
a 50

6. The tension in the on-coming end of the band is (Refer equation 5.6)

S on = S off ⋅ e μα = 125 × 1.8 = 225 kgf .

7. In checking the brake for maximum unit pressure (Refer equation 5.9)
Arresting Gear and Brakes 111
______________________________________________________________________________________
S on 225
p max = = = 3kg / cm 2
Rb 15 × 5

which is much below the safe limit (for a lowering brake-up to 15 kg/cm2).

8. The unit tensile stress in the band (taking b = 50mm, s = 3mm, d = 8mm) is
S on 225
σ = = = 220 kgf / cm 2
(b − 2d )s (5 − 2 × 0.8 )0.3
which is permissible for steel CT 3

9. Checking the strength of the band fastenings. The unit shearing stress in the rivets is

S on 225
τ= = = 75 kgf / cm 2
πd 2
3.14 × 0.8 2
n1 n 2×3×
4 4

(the number of shearing planes n1 = 2, and the number of rivets n = 3)

The unit compressive stress on the rivets is

S0n 225
σ com = = = 315 kgf / cm 2
nds 3 × 0.8 × 0.3

both stresses are below the safe limits of steel CT 2.

10. Module of the ratchet wheel. Because of the small diameter of the brake drum, the
number of teeth can be taken as z = 16 and (take ψ = 2.5 and [σ bend ] = 300 kg / cm 2
for steel), then the module is found by using equation 5.1.

M br 1,500
m = 2×3 = 2×3 = 10 mm
zψ [σ bend ] 16 × 2.5 × 300

11. The peripheral force on the outside diameter of the ratchet wheel is

2 M br
p per =
Dx
The ratchet wheel diameter is D x = zm = 16 × 10 = 160 mm , therefore
Arresting Gear and Brakes 112
______________________________________________________________________________________
2 M br 2 × 1,500
p per = = = 190 kgf .
Dx 16

12. Pressure on a unit length of the ratchet wheel tooth. The tooth width is
bx = ψm = 2.5 × 10 = 25mm., consequently,

Pper 190
p= = = 75 kgf / cm 2
bx 2.5

13. The diameter of the ratchet wheel pawl pivot is found by using equation 5.2.

M br ⎛ bx ⎞
d powl = 2.71 × 3 ⎜ + a⎟
zm[σ bend ] ⎝ 2 ⎠

1,500 ⎛ 2.5 ⎞
= 2.71 × 3 ⎜ + 0 .5 ⎟
16 × 1 × 300 ⎝ 2 ⎠

= 22mm

5.3.2 Differential Band Brakes

In these brakes both ends of the band are attached to the brake lever. They are called
differential for their braking torque is determined by the difference caused by the
tension of the band ends relative to the pivot axis of the braking lever.

Moment equation relative to the pivot: Fl − S off a 2 + S on a1 = 0

The braking effort F is

S off a 2 − S on a1
F=
l

S off a 2 − S off e μα a1
=
l

Fig.5.13 Diagram of a Differential Band Brake =


(
S off a 2 − e μα a1 ) (5.15)
l
Arresting Gear and Brakes 113
______________________________________________________________________________________

Replacing S off by peripheral force P

P a 2 − a1 e μα
F= ⋅ μα (5.16)
l e −1

When a 2 − a1 ⋅ e μα < 0 , F becomes negative the brake becomes an automatically


operating arrester.

At the point of application of the force F, travel of the brake lever h is given by

l
h = εα (5.17)
a 2 − a1

5.3.3 Additive-Action Band Brake

In this case, both ends of the band are fastened to the brake lever on arms of equal
length ( a1 = a 2 = a )

The moment equation a Low the pivot is

Fl − S on ⋅ a − S off ⋅ a = 0

F=
a
(S on + S off ) (5.18)
l

=
a
l
(
S off e μα + S off )

=
aS off
l
(e μα + 1)
Hence F = S on − S off = S off e μα − S off

F=
(
a e μα + 1 )
P
(
l e μα − 1 ) (5.19) Fig.5.14 Diagram of Additive-

action Band Brake


Arresting Gear and Brakes 114
______________________________________________________________________________________
The travel of the brake lever h is given by

εαl
h= (5.20)
2a

S0n
p max =
R ⋅b

5.4 Thermal Calculations of Shoe Brakes

The amount of energy absorbed by the brake in the course of one hour directly affects
the wear of the wheel and linings and also the heating of the wheel. The brake, thus,
should have the size so as to overcome the damages caused by overheating and serve
the purpose it is designed for.

The unit wear per hp-hr also depends on a number of other factors such as material of
the wheel and linings, unit pressure, peripheral speed and to a large degree, the
temperature of the brake wheel.

Due to the presence of too many dependent variables, the tentative expectation of brake
life is very uncertain. Thus experimentally established values of pv and pvμ are
employed as initial data for such calculations where p is unit pressure on the working
surface; v is peripheral speed of the brake wheel; and μ is friction coefficient which is
a function of speed, temperature, and materials involved in the frictional contact i.e.
μ = f (v, t, material couples, etc.)

With this in mind, it is more appropriate to determine the size of the brake wheels by
calculating the extent they are heated. It is further assumed that the brake wheel is
mounted on a shaft rotating at a high speed to ensure optimal conditions of heat
dissipation.

5.4.1 Lowering Brake

The potential energy lost by a falling load is changed into kinetic energy and then into
heat energy which must be dissipated by the brake wheel into the atmosphere by
radiation and heat exchange with enveloping streams of air.

The amount of heat dissipated by radiation during one hour is approximately:


Arresting Gear and Brakes 115
______________________________________________________________________________________

⎡⎛ 273 + t 1 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 273 +t 2 ⎞ 4 ⎤
Q1 = [C1 S 1 + C 2 S 2 ]⎢⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kcal / hr (5.21)
⎣⎢⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦⎥
where S 1 = area of a smoothly polished of the brake wheel rim (not enveloped
by air) [m2]
S 2 = area of the two surfaces of the brake wheel [m2]
C1 = radiation constant for smoothly polished steel surface, C1 ≈ 1.3
C 2 = radiation constant for a dull steel surface C 2 ≈ 4.3
t 1 = maximum permissible temperature of the brake wheel as allowed
by the material of linings [0C]
t 2 = ambient temperature [0C]

Amount of heat dissipated during one hour due to heat exchange with natural air
circulation is

Q2 = α 1 S 3 (t 1 − t 2 )(1 − DF ) (5.22)

where DF is duty factor 0.15 - for light


0.25 - for medium
0.40 - for heavy
α 1 = coefficient of heat transfer with natural air circulation
(5 Kcal/m2 hr 0C)
S 3 = total surface of the brake wheel except for the part wrapped by
the shoe [m2]
t 1 and t 2 = temperature of the brake wheels and premises respectively [0C]

The total amount of heat dissipated during one hour due to heat exchange with forced
air circulation is:

[
Q 3 = (DF )(t 1 − t 2 ) × 6.14 S 4V0 0.78 + 2 S 1V1 0.78 + 2 S 2V 2 0.78 + K + 2 S nV n 0.78 ] kcal/hr

(5.23)

where according to Nusselt

α 2 = 6.14V0 0.78

and S 1 , S 2 , S 3 ,L , S n represent separate circular areas with mean velocities


V1 ,V2 ,V3 ,L ,Vn .
Arresting Gear and Brakes 116
______________________________________________________________________________________

S 4 is the sum of the inner and outer surfaces on the rim of the brake
wheel.

The total amount of heat dissipated during one hour is:

Qtot = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 kcal / hr

Qtot should be equal to the amount of heat liberated during absorption of the kinetic
energy in lowering the load in one hour.

Qtot = G1 HzηA kcal /hr (5.24)

where G1 = mean weight of the loads being lowered [kg]


H = mean height of load lowering [m]
η = Efficiency of hoisting mechanism
z = number of lowering operations per hr
1
A= , mechanical equivalent of heat [kcal/kg-m]
427

The above calculations are valid if the hoisting equipment operating conditions are
exactly known. However, this may not be the case.

If such data are not available, estimation may be made from the power rating N [hp] of
the motor actuating the hoisting mechanism.

If a load being lifted is X% of the total load-lifting capacity of the hoisting equipment,
then the average mean power in lowering is:

N low = Nη 2 X

The total amount of heat liberated in one hour is:

( ) ⎛ DF ⎞ 75
Qtot = Nη 2 X × 3600⎜ ⎟× = 316η 2 DFX kcal / hr (5.25)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 427

DF
where accounts for the time of lowering if lowering and hoisting
2
speed are same.
Arresting Gear and Brakes 117
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Table 5.6 Size of Wheels as a Function of Motor Power- Lowering Brakes

Brake Wheel Motor power in raising [hp] at n rpm*


Diameter Width Weight Moment of Moment of
Gyration inertia n=570 n=730 n=960
D [mm] B [mm] [kg] [kg.m2 ] [ kg.m /sec2 ]
250 80 16 0.7 0.018 7(197) 8(219) 9(248)
320 100 29 1.96 0.05 12(330) 13(370) 15(426)
400 125 53 5.5 0.14 21(610) 24(688) 28(790)
500 160 90 15.7 0.40 37(1055) 42(1195) 50(1383)
630 200 153 43.2 1.1 67(1925) 77(2196) - (2570)
800 250 203 86.4 2.2 122(3486) 144(4011) - (4730)

Note: * The figures in brackets indicate the amount of heat in kcal/hr dissipated at
1000C.

5.4.2 Travelling Brakes

Horizontal movements of a crane or a trolley may be retarded and eventually stopped by


these brakes. They may be employed in any travelling mechanisms provided with electric
braking gear.

The amount of heat liberated during one hour for z braking operations is:

⎡G V 2 Vt ⎤ 1
Qtot = z⎢ − W f br ⎥η kcal / hr (5.26)
⎣g 2 2 ⎦ 427

where G = weight of crane or truck [kg]


g = gravitational acceleration [m/sec2] = 9.81 m/sec2
W f = resistance to motion [kg]
t br = braking time [sec]
η = actuator efficiency

The amount of heat dissipated can be calculated as for holding brakes of hoisting
equipment and the heat that can be dissipated i.e. Q1 + Q 2 + Q3 must equal or exceed the
total amount of heat liberated Qtot .
Arresting Gear and Brakes 118
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Table 5.7 Size of Wheels as a Function of Motor Power- Travelling Brake

Brake Wheel Motor Power [hp]

Diameter Width n = 570 rpm n = 730 rpm n = 960 rpm


D[mm] B [mm] travelling speed travelling speed travelling speed
[m/min] [m/min] [m/min]
90 120 180 90 120 180 90 120 180
250 80 18 13 9 20 15 10 22 17 11
320 100 29 23 15 33 26 17 37 29 19
400 125 50 40 27 56 45 30 65 52 35
500 160 80 65 45 90 73 50 105 85 59
630 200 130 110 80 150 125 90 -- -- --
800 250 210 180 138 250 210 160 -- -- --

Note: The above table is complied for 80 - 100 braking operations per hour for a
travelling mechanism mounted on sliding friction bearings.

5.5 Review Questions

1. Describe and classify pulley systems.


2. For what purposes do we use sheaves for welded chains, and sprockets for welded
and roller chains?
3. Describe the three types of friction drums.
CHAPTER SIX
HOISTING AND TRAVELLING GEAR
6.1 Introduction

In any lifting drive, the hoisting mechanism is considered to be the vital element.
Irrespective of design it incorporates the drive, the transmission, the drum or sprocket, the
flexible appliance, the grabbing attachment, the brake, and the structure to support these
components.

Hoisting mechanisms are subdivided into three groups:

i. Hand power drives


ii. Individual power drives
iii. A common drive for several mechanisms

6.2 Hoisting Gear

6.2.1 Hand Power Hoisting Mechanisms

The efficiency of the mechanism shown in Fig.6.1 is the ratio between the useful lifting
work and all the work done. The motion is transmitted from the handle I through three pairs
of speed reducing gears to a drum fitted on shaft IV.

Useful work:
A0 = Qh (6.1)

where Q = weight of load


h = distance travelled by load

Work done:
A = Ks (6.2)

where K= actual effort applied by operator


s = path of the force K corresponding to the path of Q

119
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 120
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Efficiency:

η = A0 (6.3)
A

Qh
=
Ks

Qv
=
Kc

Ko
=
K

Ko
=
K o +W

where W = total resistance due


to friction in the mechanism Fig.6.1 Hand Power Hoisting
Mechanism
c = the speed of the point of application
of the drawing effort (30 to 45 m/min)

Effort applied by operator:

Qh Qv
K= = (6.4)
ηs cη

Total efficiency:

η = η pull .η drum .η 3gear

where η pull = pulley efficiency ≈ 0. 94


η drum = drum efficiency ≈ 0. 98
η gear = efficiency of one pair of gears ≈ 0. 99
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 121
_______________________________________________________________________________________

The total transmission ratio of the mechanism i is:

moment of load M Q QR
i= = = ,
moment of force ⋅ η M k ηKa

Q
with pulley available Q should be replaced by the tension in the rope S = .
2
The lifting speed:

Kc
v=
Q

6.2.2 Hoisting Mechanism with an Individual Electric Drive

The operating mechanism is similar to that of hand driven hoisting mechanism except that
the crank I of Fig. 6.1 is replaced by the electric motor in Fig.6.2.

At a constant lifting speed, (v = constant) the power in hp developed by the electric motor is:

Qv
N= (6.5)
75η

The torque on the motor shaft [kg-cm] is:

N
M ′ = 71,620 (6.6)
nmotor

where nmotor = motor shaft rpm

The transmission ratio between


the motor and the drum is:

motor speed nmotor


i= =
drum speed ndrum

Fig.6.2 Electric Drive Hoisting Mechanism

The speed of the rope on the drum is:


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 122
_______________________________________________________________________________________

v drum = v ⋅ i pull

where i pull = pulley transmission ratio ( i pull >1 for gain in force)

Drum Speed [rpm]:

V drum
ndrum =
πD

where v drum = speed of the rope on the drum [m/min]


D = drum diameter [m]

6.3 Travelling Gear

6.3.1 Rail Travelling Mechanisms

Travelling mechanisms of crane trolleys can be divided into three groups with:

1. Hand-operated drive
2. Individual power drive
3. Rope power drives

1. Hand Trolleys

Motion is transmitted from wheel I due to the effort K through two pair of gears (Fig.6.3) to
the travelling wheels, wheel III.

Fig.6.3 Travelling Mechanism of Crane Trolleys


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 123
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Wheel load:

Q + Go
a) P max = (6.7)
4

where Q = weight of the load


Go = weight of trolley

b) When the load is suspended asymmetrically in trolleys with two hoists, the
force exerted on the wheels is approximately equal to:

G o Q b2
P max = A ≈ + . (6.8)
4 2 b

G o Q b1
P min = B ≈ + . (6.9)
4 2 b

Moment of Resistance

If the resistance to motion in a horizontal direction


is denoted by W- the moment of resistance
relative to the axle of the wheel at steady motion is:

Fig.6.4 Diagram for Determining


Resistance to Motion
d
M = WR = (Q + G o ) μ + (Q + G o ) k
2

d
= (Q + G o ) ( μ + k) (6.10)
2

where d = diameter of wheel journal [cm]


μ = coefficient of friction in journal
k = coefficient of rolling friction

Q + Go d Q + Go
W= ( μ + k) = ( μd + 2k) (6.11)
R 2 D
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 124
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Coefficient of resistance to motion or traction force:

W
ω= (6.12)
Q + Go

μd + 2k
= [kgf/ton]
D

where D = diameter of travelling wheel

Additional resistance due to the friction on the flanges of wheels:

W = β (Q + G o )tons . w (6.13)

where β = 1.25 - 1.4 for sliding bearing


β = 2.5 - 5.2 for rolling bearing

Fig.6.5 Values of Traction Factors (Coefficient of Resistance to Motion)

The transmission ration between the driving and driven shafts is:

M WR
i= =
ηMo η kRo
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 125
_______________________________________________________________________________________

The total efficiency of the mechanism η is given by:

η = η o .η 2 gear η tw

where η o = efficiency of operating wheel ≈ 0.93


η gear = efficiency of one pair of gear
η tw = efficiency of travelling wheel ≈ 0.97

The travelling speed is:

60 × η ⋅ K ⋅ c ⋅ Ro
v= (6.14)
M

Where c = mean peripheral speed of operating wheel (c = 0.8 – 1.0 m/s)


K = effort applied by operator
Ro = wheel radius of crank handle [cm]

2. Crane Trolley with an Individual Electric Drive

The motion transmission principle is similar to that of hand operated crane trolley of Fig.6.3
except that the manual effort K is replaced by an electromotor as can be seen in Fig.6.6.

Fig.6.6 Diagram of the Travelling Mechanism of an Electrically Driven Crane Trolley


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 126
_______________________________________________________________________________________

At a steady motion the power developed by the motor is:

Wv
N= (6.15)
75η

where η = total efficiency of the machine


W = resistance to motion
= β (Q + G o )tons ⋅ ω

The transmission ratio is:

motor speed n
i= = mot (6.16)
travelling wheel speed ntw

The speed of the travelling wheel is:

v
n= (6.17)
πD

where v = speed in [m/min]


D = wheel diameter in [m]

6.3.2 Travelling Mechanisms of Overhead Travelling Cranes

1. Hand Propelled Overhead Travelling Cranes

The components of such mechanisms are generally designed on the same lines as for crane
trolleys. Motion is transmitted from the operating wheel mounted on the main transmission
shaft through two parallel gear trains to two travelling wheels (that are fixed to gears) of the
crane. They are secured on the cross girders of the frame (Fig.6.6).

The wheel loads of the overhead travelling crane are variable in magnitude which depend on
the position of the trolley. In an ordinary four-wheeled crane, the maximum force acting on
the wheels arises when the loaded trolley is located in the so-called dead section of the span.
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 127
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Fig.6.7 Travelling Mechanism of a Hand-propelled Overhead Travelling Crane

To determine the maximum force acting on a travelling wheel of a four-wheeled crane

G L (Q + G o )
L P max - × - (L - e) = 0
2 2 2

G Q + Go L - e
P max = + ( ) (6.18)
4 2 L

G Q + Go e
Similarly, P min = + .
4 2 L

where G = weight of the crane (without trolley)


Go = weight of the trolley

The resistance to motion:

W = β (Q + Go + G )tons ω

μd + 2k
where ω = and
D
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 128
_______________________________________________________________________________________
β = 1.4 to 1.8 .

The transmission ratio:

M WR
i= = (6.19)
η M o η KRo

η = η o η gear η tϖ

Speed of the travelling mechanism:

60ηKcRo
v= [m/min]
WR

where c = mean peripheral speed of the operating wheel (0.8 to 1 m/s)


Ro = crank handle radius
M = moment of resistance to motion referred to the shaft of the
travelling crane[kg-cm]

2. Electrically Driven Overhead Travelling Cranes

Fig. 6.8 Diagram of an Overhead Travelling Crane Mechanism

Cranes with big lifting capacity and a wide span are usually provided with eight (and more)
travelling wheels on pivoted trucks to eliminate a statically indeterminate system in finding
wheel loads.
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 129
_______________________________________________________________________________________

For four-wheeled overhead travelling cranes, the wheel load is determined as for hand
propelled overhead travelling cranes.

Resistance to motion W is:

W = β (Q + G + G o )ω

which neglects resistance to motion due to a head wind. The resistance due to a head wind
must be considered for cranes which operate in the open. The power developed by the
motor, transmission ratio, and speed of the travelling wheels are determined as for the hand-
propelled overhead travelling cranes.

The maximum moment arises when the loaded trolley is in the dead section of the span.

⎡ G Q + Go
M ' dII = ⎢ + (L − e )⎤⎥ωR (6.20)
⎣2 L ⎦

To eliminate slippage, the driving wheels of travelling mechanisms of cranes and trolley
should be checked for adhesion.

The adhesive force between rails and wheels is:

Z = ∑ Ff
where f = coefficient of adhesion
dry rail: f = 0.15 - 0.20
wet rail: f = 0.10 - 0.12
∑ F = sum of the minimum forces acting simultaneously on the driving
wheels

G Q + Go e
P min = + ×
4 2 L

To overcome friction:

d
Z > W - ∑ Fμ
D
Adhesive force should be higher than the resistance forces in motion minus friction forces in
the bearings. The above equation can be written as

Z = αW
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 130
_______________________________________________________________________________________

where α = adhesive force safety factor. The recommended value of α ≅ 1.3 .


Power developed by the electromotor:

Wv
N=
75η

3. Travelling Mechanisms of Cantilever and Monorail Cranes

Fig. 6.9 Diagram of a Cantilever Crane

The maximum force acting on the vertical travelling wheels is:

max V Q + Go + G
F ver = = (6. 21)
2 2

where V = vertical thrust


Q = weight of the load
G = weight of crane (without trolley)
Go = weight of trolley

The maximum force acting on the horizontal rollers is:

H1 = (Q + G o ) a + G e1 V e
F hor =
max
= × (6.22)
2 2 h1 2 h1
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 131
_______________________________________________________________________________________

where H 1 = horizontal thrust

The resistance to motion W is:

Q + Go + G d (Q + G o ) a + G e1 d
W= ( μ 1 + k) + 2 ( μ 2 + k) (6.23)
R 2 R2h1 2

Ve
= Vω + ω
h1

e
= ωV (1 + )
h1
where d 1 and d 2 are diameter of the hinges

6.4 Operation of Hoisting Gear during Transient Motion

Each working movement of a crane comprises the period of starting (acceleration), the
steady or established motion and the stopping (braking). The first and last periods are
distinguished by transient motion.

Acceleration requires additional work to start the parts of the crane mechanisms and the load
from rest; during stopping the additional work of the moving parts is absorbed by the brake.
Hence during acceleration the crane motor is loaded more than unsteady motion. The design
of the brakes should also take into account the inertia forces involved.

Dynamic Load

If a body with a moment of inertia I revolves with a variable angular speed, the dynamic
torque causing the change in speed is:

dw
M dyn = I
dt

dw
where = angular acceleration
dt

According to d'Alambert's principle, the motor torque is expressed by:

dw
M = M st + M dy = M st + I
dt
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 132
_______________________________________________________________________________________

where M st = moment of static resistance referred to the motor shaft.

Using the moment of gyration:

GD 2
I = mr 2 =
4g

where r = radius of gyration


D = diameter of gyration
g = 9.81 m/s2

The product GD 2 is known as the moment of gyration:

dw GD 2 dw
M dyn = I = . (6.24)
dt 4g dt

This formula applies only for analysing a single revolving system. To use it to analyse a
system, comprising both revolving links and links in rectilinear motion, the system should
be replaced by an equivalent system which revolves at a certain single angular speed. For
this purpose all the movements are referred to the movement of a single link, usually the
motor shaft, on the basis of constant kinetic energy.

With reference to Fig.6.10, considering only rotating links, the kinetic energy of the
equivalent system equals:

2 2 2 2 2
I rr w = Iw + I 1 w1 + I 2 w2 + ..... + I n wn (6.25)
2 2 2 2 2

where I rr = moment of inertia of the equivalent system referred to the motor


shaft.
w , I = angular speed and moment of inertia of the motor armature,
clutch, and other components on the motor shaft.
w1 , w2 , w3 ,K , wn = angular speeds of gears, shafts and other rotating parts of the
mechanism mounted on their respective shafts.
I 1 , I 2 , I 3 ,K , I n = moment of inertias of the different parts of the mechanism
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 133
_______________________________________________________________________________________

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 6.10 Diagrams of Mechanisms: (a) Hoisting, (b) Travelling, (c) Slewing 1-Electric
Motor Armature, 2- Worm Drive, 3- Pulley System, 4-Turning Wheel, 5-Slewing
Axis, 6-Boom, 7- Motor Shaft

Introducing the corresponding moments of gyration,

n1 2 n 2 n 2
( GD 2 )rr = GD 2 + G1 D12 ( ) + G 2 D 22 ( 2 ) + .... + G n D 2n ( n ) (6.26)
n n n

n n n
For = i1 , = i2 ,...., = in
n1 n2 nn

2 2 2
G 1 D1 G 2 D 2 G
( GD 2 )rr = GD 2 + 2
+ 2 + ....+ n 2D n (6.27)
i1 i2 in

Since in > i2 > i1 , the further the link is removed from the motor shaft, the less it will
contribute to the moment of gyration.

The effect produced by the rotating parts of the mechanism can be accounted by taking a
somewhat greater moment of gyration for the parts mounted on the motor shaft.

( GD 2 )rr ≅ δ GD2 (6.28)


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 134
_______________________________________________________________________________________

where δ = coefficient for accounting the effect of the parts of the


transmission mechanism ,1.1 - 1.25.

Denoting the rectilinear mass by m' , weight by G ' and velocity by v, the kinetic energy is:

1 ( GD 2 )r ,rect × ω 2
′ 2
mv =
2 4g × 2

where (GD 2 )r ,rect = moment of gyration of the equivalent system used


instead of the rectilinear system.

Accounting for the losses in the transmission mechanism,

m′ v 2 ( GD 2 )r ,rect × ω 2
= (6.29)
2η 4g × 2

G′ 2ππ
m′ = , w=
g 60

365 G ′ v2
( GD 2 )r,rect = [Acceleration] (6.30)
n η
2

Upon retardation, the kinetic energy of the link in rectilinear motion is transmitted to the
motor shaft and is partly absorbed in the drives. Therefore when the mechanism is braked.

m′ v2 ( GD2 )r,rect × ω 2
η=
2 4g × 2

365 G ′ v2
( GD 2 )r,rect = 2
η [Retardation] (6.31)
n

For the whole system, the moment of gyration of the equivalent system is

( GD 2 )r = ( GD 2 )r,r + ( GD 2 )r,rect

The dynamic torque for acceleration or retardation of the whole system with rotary parts and
parts with rectilinear motion, as referred to the motor shaft, is
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 135
_______________________________________________________________________________________

( GD2 )r dw ( GD2 )r dn
M dyn = = . (6.32)
4g dt 375 dt

2πn
where ω =
60
Equation 6.32 is the equation of motion which holds for acceleration and retardation.

The motor torque in starting M mot is used to overcome both the static resistance and the
inertia forces, in travelling and hoisting mechanisms.

M mot = M st + M dyn (6.33)

For hoisting mechanism, in braking,

M br = M st + M ' dyn

For travelling mechanism, during braking, the moment of forces resisting motion M ' st acts
opposite to the direction of rotation and helps in retarding, so that

M ' dyn = M ' st + M br

or M br = M ' dyn − M ' st

where M br = actual braking torque comprising the electric braking torque


and mechanical braking torque
'
M st = moment of static resistance referred to motor shaft

N mot
M ' st = 71620 kg.cm (Starting)
n mot
where nmot = motor speed [rpm]
N mot = motor power developed at steady motion [hp]

Acceleration

For hoisting gear:


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 136
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Qv
N mot =
75η

For travelling gear:

Wv
N mot =
75η

where Q = weight of load being raised [kg]


W = resistance to motion [kg]
v = speed [m/s]
η = total efficiency of mechanism
M ' st = moment created by load in hoisting mechanism or moment
created resisting forces in travelling mechanism

Retardation

N br
M ' st = 71620 kg-cm (Braking)
nbr

where nbr = braking shaft rpm


N br = static braking power
For hoisting gear:

Qv
N br = η hp
75

for travelling gear:

Wv
N br = hp
75η

Starting and Braking Time

Considering that M st is constant, independent of the speed and considering M mot and M br
as constant values we obtain M dyn and M ' dyn to be constant. Then from the equation for
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 137
_______________________________________________________________________________________

dn
M dyn , we obtain that is constant i.e. the speed of the shaft increases with time, from
dt
which:

dn n
for starting: =
dt t s
where t s = starting time

dn n
for braking: =
dt t br
where t br = braking time

( GD 2 )r dn ( GD 2 )r n
M dyn = × = × (6.34)
375 dt 375 t

For starting:
( GD 2 )r . n
ts = (6.35)
375 M dyn

The braking time for hoisting gear, according to equation 6.33, is:

( GD2 )r . n
t br = (6.36)
375 ( M br − M ' st )

and for travelling gear

( GD2 )r . n
t br = (6.37)
375 ( M br + M ' st )

On the basis of the above formulas, the value of the dynamic torque in acceleration is given
by:

δ GD2 n 0.975 G ′ v2
M dyn ≅ + (6.38)
375 t s n t sη

and the dynamic torque in retardation is:


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 138
_______________________________________________________________________________________

δ GD 2 n 0.975 G ′ v 2 η
M '
dyn ≅ + (6.39)
375 t br n t br

where t s = 1.5 to 5 seconds for hosting machine


t s = 5 to 8 seconds for bridge travelling mechanisms
t br = 1 sec for mechanisms with lifting speed v <12 m/min
t br = 1.5sec for mechanisms with lifting speed v >12 m/min

When the path S travelled by the mechanism either in acceleration or retardation is given,
vt
the time t s or t br is determined from S = where v is the final speed of motion.
2

Calculating the starting and braking times

δ GD2 n 0.975 G ′ v 2
ts = + (6.40)
375 ( M mot - M st ) n ( M mot - M st ) η

For hoisting gear:

GD n
2
0.975 G ′ v 2
t br = + (6.41)
375 ( M br - M st ) n ( M br - M ' st )

For travelling gear:

δGD 2 n 0.975 G ′ v 2 η
t br = + (6.42)
375 ( M br + M ' st ) n ( M br + M ' st )

Increased efficiency of the mechanism requires that the times t s and t br be at the minimum.
For this reason motors for frequent starting are usually designed with small moments of
gyration. To reduce the times t s and t br :

1. The minimum permissible values for M mot and M br should be assigned so that the
motor can use its overload capacity to maximum advantage during acceleration
and retardation.
2.The starting torque can not be so much that would cause the wheels to slip on the
rail (off bridge or trolley).

Note: All the above equations hold true only for constant acceleration and retardation i.e.
with constant M mot and M br .
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 139
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The moments of inertia of various rotating bodies are given in Fig.6.11 and table 6.1below.

Fig. 6.11Moments of Inertia of Various Elements of Mechanisms

Table 6.1 Approximate Values of the Moments of Inertia of Couplings

Outer Shaft Hub Rim Weight Moment of


Diameter Diameter Length Width Inertia
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [kg] [Kg.cm/s2]

150 30 120 60 10 0.003


200 40 160 80 20 0.01
250 50 200 100 40 0.03
300 60 240 120 70 0.08
400 70 280 140 140 0.28
500 80 320 160 250 0.78
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 140
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Example 6.1

Determine the required power rating of the motors of an electric overhead travelling crane
for the assembly shop of an engineering plant.

Given data:

Lifting capacity Q = 5,000 kg


Span Lcr = 14 m
Load lifting (0r lowering) speed vload = 10 m/min
Trolley traverse speed vtrol = 45 m/min
Crane travelling speed vcr = 100 m/min
Power supply – three phase 380 v
Duty – medium ( DF = 25% )

Solution:

Selecting a motor for the hoisting mechanism

1. The required static power of the motor is

Qv 5,000 × 10
N= or N = = 13.8 hp
75η 75 × 60 × 0.8

The efficiency η of the hoisting mechanism is assumed equal to 0.8 with three gear drives.
From catalogues for selecting the most suitable electric motor; it will have the following
characteristics: Rated power, N rated = 15 hp; speed, n = 965 rpm; Permissible overload,
M max
= 2.5 ; Duty factor, DF = 25% ; Rotor moment of gyration,
M rated
( GD 2 )coupl = 0.78 kg-m2

2. The static moment of resistance referred to the motor shaft is

N 13.8
M st = 71,620 = 71,620 = 1,025 kg-cm = 10.25 kg-m
n 965

3. We next determine the dynamic torque in starting referred to the motor shaft. We select
a flexible coupling for the motor shaft with an external diameter of D = 250 mm. The
moment of inertia of such a coupling (according to Table 6.1) will be approximately
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 141
_______________________________________________________________________________________

equal to I = 0.03kg .m / sec 2 and the moment of gyration


( GD 2 )coupl = I × 4 g = 0.03 × 4 × 9.81 = 1.18 kg-m2;
hence the moment of gyration from the rotor and coupling on the motor shaft will be

GD 2 = ( GD 2 )rot + ( GD 2 )coupl = 0.78 + 1.18 = 1.96 kg-m2


The dynamic torque in starting is found from equation 6.38

δGD 2 n 0.975G ' v 2 1.15 × 1.96 × 965 0.975 × 5 ,000 × 10 2


M dyn = + = + = 1.99 kg-m
375t s nt sη 375 × 3 60 2 × 965 × 3 × 0.8

where t s = starting time=3s.


G ' = Q = weight of the system in rectilinear motion(weight of the load being lifted)

4. The required motor torque in starting is found from equation 6.33

M mot = M st + M dyn = 10.25 + 1.99 = 12.24 kg-m

5. The rated torque of the motor is

N rated 15
M rated = 716.2 = 716.2 ≈ 11.15 kg-m
n 965

6. Checking the motor for overload. The overload of the motor during starting
( M max = M mot ) is

M max M mot 12.24


= = ≈ 1.1 which is much below the safe overload (2.5).
M rated M rated 11.15

Selecting a motor for the trolley travelling mechanism

1. The resistance to motion is

W = β( Q + Go )w = 1.4( 5 + 2.7 )28 ≈ 302kg

where Go = weight of the trolley


w = traction factor; for D = 250mm and d = 60 mm , w = 28kg / t

2. The required static power of the motor is


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 142
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Wv 302 × 45
N= = ≈ 3.55hp
75η 75 × 60 × 0.85

The drive efficiency η is taken as 0.85 with two gear drives. The motor selected from
catalogues will have the following characteristics: rated power N rated = 4.1hp ; speed
n = 930 rpm ; duty factor DF = 25% , rotor moment of gyration ( GD 2 ) = 0.18 kg-m2.
The motor is checked for overload during the starting period in the same way as for crane
travelling mechanism.

Selecting a motor for the crane travelling mechanism

1. We determine the resistance to motion. The weight of the crane (with a length of
span Lcr = 14 m ) is taken equal to G + Go = 15tons .

Determining the resistance to motion we obtain

W = β ( Q + G + Go )w = 1.5( 5 + 15 )18.5 ≈ 555kg

where w = traction factor; (at D = 700 mm and d = 120 mm , w = 18.5 kg / t ).

2. Required static power of the motor

We take the same motor as for the hoisting mechanism.

3. The static moment of resistance referred to the motor shaft is

Wv 555 × 100
N= = = 14.5 hp
75η 75 × 60 × 0.85

N 14.5
M st = 71,620 = 71,620 = 1,078 kg-cm= 10.78kg-m.
n 965

4. The dynamic torque in the starting referred to the motor shaft is

δGD 2 n 0.975G ' v 2 1.15 × 1.96 × 965 0.975 × 20 ,000 × 100 2


M dyn = + = + ≈ 14.36 kg-m
375t s nt sη 375 × 3 5 × 60 2 × 965 × 0.85

where G ' = weight of the system in rectilinear motion (weight of loaded crane)
G ' = Q + Go + G = 5 + 15 = 20tons = 20 ,000 kg
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 143
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5. The required motor torque in starting is

M mot = M st + M dyn = 10.78 + 14.36 = 25.14 kg-m

6. Checking the motor for overload

The overload of the motor in starting is

M max 25.14
= ≈ 2.26 , a value below that specified by catalogues (2.5)
M mot 11.15

Example 6.2

Determine the braking torque for hoisting and travelling mechanisms of an electric
overhead crane.

The data are the same as in example 6.1.

Solution:

Determining the braking torque of the hoisting mechanism.

1. Static moment developed by the load on the brake shaft.

When the brake is mounted on the motor shaft the static braking power will be

Qvη 5 ,000 × 10 × 0.8


N br = or N = ≈ 8.9 hp
75 75 × 60

Hence, the static moment is

N br 8.9
M ' st = 71,620 = 71,620 = 662 kg .cm = 6.2 kg-cm
nbr 965

2. The dynamic torque in the braking referred to the brake shaft will be

' δGD 2 n 0.975G ' v 2η 1.15 × 1.96 × 965 0.975 × 5 ,000 × 10 2 × 0.8
M dyn = + = + ≈ 5.91 kg-m
375t br nt br 375 × 1 60 2 × 965 × 1

3. The torque required for braking is


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 144
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M br = M ' st + M ' dyn = 6.62 + 5.91 = 12.53 kg-m

4. Checking the braking torque by means of the braking coefficient we obtain

M br = M ' st β = 6.62 × 2 = 13.24 kg-m

where β = braking coefficient = 2, for medium duty ( DF = 25% ).


For further calculation the actual braking torque M br should have its largest value. i.e.,
M br = 13.24 kg-m

Determining the braking torque of the crane travelling mechanism

1. The resistance to motion disregarding friction of the travelling wheel flanges (without
coefficient β ) is

W = ( Q + G + Go )w = ( 5 + 15 )18.5 = 370 kg .

2. Next we determine the static moment of the forces resisting motion as referred to the
brake shaft. When the brake is mounted on the motor shaft the static braking power
will be

Wv 370 × 100
N br = = ≈ 9.7 hp
75η 60 × 75 × 0.85

Hence, the static torque is

N br 9 .7
M ' st = 71,620 = 71,620 = 720 kg-cm=7.2 kg-m
nbr 965

3. The dynamic torque in braking as referred to the brake shaft is found as follows.

We assume that half of the crane travelling wheels are braked; then the retardation path S
v
should not be less than S ≥ = 1.43m and the braking time will be:
70

2 S 2 × 1.43 × 60
t= = = 1.72 sec .
v 100

We take t br = 2 sec , thereby somewhat increasing the braking path S.


Hoisting and Travelling Gears 145
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The dynamic torque in the braking can be found from the formula

δGD 2 n 0.975G ' v 2η 1.15 × 1.96 × 965 0.975 × 20 ,000 × 100 2 × 0.85
M ' dyn = + = +
375t br nt br 375 × 2 60 2 × 965 × 2

= 26.7 kg-m

4. The torque required for braking will be

M br = M ' dyn − M ' st = 26.7 + 7.2 = 19.5 kg-m

this actual braking torque M br is used as the basis for designing the brake of the crane
travelling mechanism.

6.5 Review Questions

1. List the major components of a hoisting mechanism.


2. Discuss the major divisions/groups of hoisting mechanisms. State their major
differences.
3. What are the features of the different rail travelling mechanisms?
4. Discuss the different types of travelling mechanisms of overhead travelling cranes.
5. Discuss the working movement of crane mechanisms. What safety precautions are
needed to be taken in operating hoisting and travelling crane mechanisms?
6. What important factors do you consider in selecting and designing hoisting and
travelling mechanisms?
PART THREE
CONVEYORS
Conveying and elevating equipment serve a wide variety of purposes in practically every
industry where bulk materials are handled. Primarily, conveyors and elevators provide
transportation with a uniform flow from one operation to another, but they also provide the
means for performing many other functions, such as distributing the material to bins or
machines for weighing, mixing, filling, etc.

Many types of variations of conveying and elevating equipment have been developed to
meet the widespread needs of industry. They are suitable for handling a wide variety of
materials over a broad range of capacities.

The common objective is to design and/or select a conveyor that will deliver maximum
performance at minimum cost per ton of material handled. To do so, it is necessary to obtain
answers to the following key questions and to develop the facts necessary to determine the
types of conveyor that will suit the purpose for which it is to be designed and arranged.

1. What is the horizontal distance over which the material is to be conveyed?


2. What is the vertical height that the material is to be lifted or lowered?
3. What kind of material is to be handled and what is its weight per cubic meter?
4. What is the average required capacity in tons per hour?
5. What is the maximum required capacity in tons per hour?
6. How will the flow of material be controlled?
7. What are the dimensions of the largest lumps?
8. What percentage of the total volume to be handled will consist of this maximum size
lump?
9. Is the material hot, wet, dry, sticky, oily, abrasive, or corrosive? To what degree?
10. How many loading points are there and where are they located?
11. How is the material to be discharged from the conveyor: over the head pulley or through
a tripper?
12. How many discharge points are there and where are they located?
13. What would be the most convenient location for the drive?
14. What is the prime mover, an electric motor or an internal combustion engine?

146
15. If an electric motor, what are the current characteristics?
16. What is its output speed, and what is the size and key-seat of the output shaft of the
prime mover?
17. Is the material to be weighed in transit on the conveyor?
18. Do you wish to remove tramp iron from the material as it passes over discharged pulley?
19. Do you wish to sample the material as it is being conveyed or discharged?
20. What safety devices should be applied to the conveyor?

147
CHAPTER SEVEN
BELT CONVEYORS
7.1 Introduction

Belt conveyors occupy an outstanding position in the field of bulk materials handling.
They are the most versatile and widely used of all conveyors. They are suitable for
handling a wide variety of materials. The range of sizes, which may be handled, is
limited only by the width of the belt. Materials may vary from extremely fine chemicals
to lump ore, stone, coal or pulpwood logs. They can handle a wide range of capacities
over longer distance than possible with other types of conveyor systems.

In addition to their dependable and economic use as means of transporting bulk


materials, they are adaptable for performing numerous other functions such as weighing,
blending sampling and stock piling.

7.2 Belt Conveyor Components

The belt conveyor is composed of (Fig.7.1) the belt, the idlers, the pulleys, the drive
equipment, the take-up and the supporting structure. The belt is an endless moving
rubber-covered conveyor for transporting materials and is made up of fibers having
longitudinal strength for pulling the load, transverse strength for supporting the load. The
idlers, which carry and train the belt; the pulleys, with their shafts and bearings, which
propel the belt and change its direction of travel; the drive equipment for transmitting
power from the motor to the driving pulley or pulleys; the take-up to maintain the slack
side tension; and the structure which supports and maintains alignment of idlers, pulleys
and the drive.

Fig. 7.1 Schematic Representation of a Belt Conveyor

148
Belt Conveyors 149
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7.2.1 Conveyor Belting

The great majority of belt conveyors handling bulk materials use some type of rubber-
protected fibers or belts (Fig.7.2). The belt cover is made of special wear-and impact-
resisting rubber compound with cord breaker strips imbedded in tough rubber. The cover
to the fibers are designed to protect an expressive belt fiber at loading points when a
sharp heavy lump material is being handled under adverse loading conditions.

Fig.

7.2 Typical Cross-section of the Conveyor Belt

1. Cotton-Fabric Ply-Constructed Belting: This is the most widely used kind of rubber
covered conveyor belt, in which the fiber is made up of a number of layers or plies of
woven cotton fabrics of various weight. These fabrics have been impregnated with a
rubber compound known as "friction" rubber, which after vulcanizing, binds the plies
together.
2. Cord Belts: They are made up of longitudinal fibers or steel cords imbedded in
rubber and enclosed in an envelop of belt ducking to which the outer rubber covering
is attached, provide greater strength, more flexibility and somewhat greater impact
resistance than ply-constructed belts. The steel cord belt has the further very desirable
characteristic of low stretchability, making possible ever-increasing conveyor centers
and capacities.
3. Heat Service Belts: Special belts are available for jobs where hot materials must be
handled. They must retain their physical properties at temperatures up to 1200C and
resist abrasion by the conveyed material. These belts utilize carcasses of nylon,
polyester cotton, nylon or glass.

7.2.2 Belt Idlers

Idlers must be selected to properly protect and support the belt and load to be carried. A
wide variety of idlers are illustrated in Fig.7.3. The types of belt idlers with in the series
include 20-degree and 45-degree troughing rubber cushion, belt training, flat belt and
return idlers. Belt idler rolls can be furnished with shells of various materials. Rolls with
steel outer shells are used for the majority of installations and are usually the most
economical selection. Rolls with gray iron outer shells are recommended when handling
very abrasive materials or when a corrosion resistant material is required.
Belt Conveyors 150
____________________________________________________________________________________

Rolls with rubber tread are recommended to protect the belt by absorbing impact under
loading points, especially when large lumps and heavy materials are carried. The return
rolls with rubber tread are recommended where wet or sticky materials cling to the belt
or where resistance to corrosion and chemical action on iron or steel is required.

Fig. 7.3 Types of Idlers

7.2.3 Drives

Practically all belt conveyors are driven by an electric motor directly connected to a
speed reducer unit through a flexible coupling. A high-speed motor, which costs less and
occupies less space, is preferred to a slow speed motor. That is why there must be speed
reduction unit between the motor and the head shaft. The preferred drive location for a
Belt Conveyors 151
____________________________________________________________________________________

belt conveyor is that which results in the least minimum belt tension. For simple
horizontal and inclined conveyors this is usually at the discharge end. For inclined
conveyors the preferred location is usually at the load end. Typical drive arrangements
are shown in Fig.7.4 below.

Fig. 7.4 Belt Conveyer Drive Arrangements

7.2.4 Take-ups

Every belt conveyor must be equipped with a take-up to:

- Allow for stretch and shrinkage of the belt due to variation of temperature
and atmospheric pressure.
Belt Conveyors 152
____________________________________________________________________________________

- Insure that the maximum tension in the belt is sufficient to prevent undue sag
between idlers
- Insure that the tension in the belt in the back of the drive pulley is sufficient
to permit such pulley to transmit the load

The basic types of take-ups used for belt conveyors are automatic counter weighted type
(Fig.7.5a & b) and manually adjusted screw type (Fig.7.5c) for vertical or horizontal
travel. Arrangements and applications vary widely with conveyor requirements.

Fig. 7.5 Types of Take-ups for Belt Conveyors

7.2.5 Pulleys, Shafts and Bearings

Pulleys for belt conveyors are usually welded steel, drum types, for maximum strength,
minimum weight, and for resistance to shook during handling and operation. Welded
steel pulleys are made with straight and crown face in all combinations of diameters and
face width. They may be with rubber lagging either bolted or vulcanized. Pulleys for
shafts of small and moderate diameter are equipped with taper lock bushings for ease of
erection and to ensure and maintain a tight fit during operation.

The selection of the proper diameter of pulley is necessary to prevent separation of the
belt plies and/or excessive stress on the belt fabric plies as they flex around the pulley.
The factors involved in pulley diameter selection include the amount of wrap, belt
tension at the pulley, space available, characteristics of the materials handled, belt life
expectancy, shaft and bearing size and size and ratio of reducer.

The shaft and the pulley are treated as a single structure. The resultant force on the
bearing (shaft) is the vector sum of belt tensions, pulley weight, and weight of the shaft.
Fig.7.6 illustrates a graphical representation for a simple drive shaft arrangement subject
Belt Conveyors 153
____________________________________________________________________________________

R
to a combination of bending and torque. Note that the force on the shaft is opposite to
2
the direction of the resultant force R.

T=3800kg

t=1600kg

R 5250
Force on the shaft = = = 2625 kg
W=1300kg 2 2
T=3800
t=1600

R=5250 W=1300

Fig. 7.6 Shaft Size Determination

7.3 Typical Arrangements and Cross-sections

7.3.1 Paths of Travel

Many varied arrangements or paths of belt conveyors are possible. They can be any
combination of horizontal, ascending or descending paths. A few are illustrated in
Fig.7.7.

Fig. 7.7 Typical Belt Conveyor Paths


Belt Conveyors 154
____________________________________________________________________________________

The profile can be of a horizontal belt (Fig.7.7a), an inclined belt (Fig.7.7b), a compound
path (Fig.7.7c) with horizontal, ascending and again horizontal path when belt tensions
will permit on belt and space will permit vertical curves. When space will not permit a
vertical curve or when the conveyor belt strength requires two belts a profile of Fig. 7.7d
can be implemented.

7.3.2 Discharging Materials from the Belt

Belt conveyors can discharge material over end or at intermediate points. Some of the
arrangements are illustrated here.

Fig. 7.8 Material Discharge Arrangements

Tramp iron can be removed from materials carried on belt conveyor by either
permanent or electromagnetic pulley. The pieces of tramp iron are drawn to the belt
surface as they pass over the magnetic pulley. The pieces then fall free as the belt
leaves the pulley, falling into a chute or bin. Other types of separators may be
suspended over the stream of the material on the conveyor (Fig.7.9a). Still another
type is to use a combination of both the above mentioned types (Fig.7.9b).

Fig. 7.9 Magnetic Separation


Belt Conveyors 155
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7.3.3 Typical Cross-sections

The load carrying capacity of belt conveyors in determined by the width of the belt and
the shape of its loaded cross sections. The area of the loaded cross section is dependent
upon the shape into which the carrying run of the belt is formed and the angle of the
repose of the material being carried.

Fig. 7.10 Typical Cross-sections

a. Flat Belts on Flat Belt Idlers: They are especially used to transport materials, which
have steep angle of repose, and they are useful when the material is to be discharged at
intermediate points by ploughs or deflector plates.

b. Flat Belts on Continuous Plate: A continuous surface supporting the carrying run of
a belt is devised for light, mildly abrasive materials where smooth even travel is
essential.

c. Troughed Belts On 200 Idlers: The 200 through permits the use of the thickest belts
so that the heaviest materials and the maximum size lumps as coal, ore, earth and gravel
can be carried. It is the most widely used cross-section for lump materials.
Belt Conveyors 156
____________________________________________________________________________________

d. Troughed Belts on 450 Idlers of Equal and Unequal Length: They accommodate a
large cross-section of material than those operating on idlers with rolls slopping 200
degrees.

e. Troughed Belts on Continuous Plate: They convey many bulk materials in large
quantities than a flat belt. Covers are provided when handling dusty materials such as
carbon black.

7.4 Belt Conveyor Design Calculation

The design of a belt conveyor is greatly influenced by the material to be handled. The
characteristics and behavior of a variety of materials are given in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.

Table 7.1 Characteristics of Materials

Belt Wt. of Constants Max. Speed of Belt [m/s] Max. Dimensions of


Width Moving Materials [mm]
[mm] Parts Abrasive Non- abrasive Uniform Mixed
[kg/m] a b Material Material Size Size
300 20 0.080 30 1.5 2.00 50 75
400 24 0.085 35 1.5 2.25 70 100
500 32 0.090 45 2.0 2.25 90 150
600 38 0.095 50 2.5 2.50 110 200
700 46 0.110 60 2.8 3.00 130 250
800 55 0.115 75 3.0 3.50 150 300
900 65 0.120 90 3.0 4.00 170 350
1000 75 0.125 100 3.0 4.00 200 400
1100 82 0.130 110 3.0 4.00 230 450
1200 90 0.140 120 3.0 4.00 260 500

7.4.1 Basic Data Requirements

The successful performance of a belt conveyor depends on overall design that meets the
requirement. Hence it is necessary to consider the following basic data.

1. The material to be handled


2. Capacity peak or surge rate expressed in ton/hr
3. Path of travel
4. Feeding and discharge conditions
5. Operating conditions
6. Required life of installation
Belt Conveyors 157
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Preliminary Check

The first step in the design of a belt conveyor is to conduct a primary check if:

- the belt conveyor is suitable for the material?


- the angle of inclination is within safe limits? etc.

Table 7.2 Specific Weight of Bulk Materials and Maximum Permissible Inclination of
Belt Conveyors

Material Specific Weight Max. Inclination


Type Condition [kg/m3] [Degrees]
Clay Dry 1500
Wet 2000 20-22
Asphalt In Pieces 1250 16-18
Lime stone Powdered 1500 18-20
Lime Powdered 500 22-23
Concrete 2200 20-22
China clay 500 18-20
Carbon Wood 500 12
Anthracite 750 16-17
Cement Dry 1300 20-23
Coke Powdered 400 20
Metallurgical 500 18
Chalk Dry 1300 18-20
Gravel Dry 1750 18-20
Wet 2000 12-14
Grain 750 15
Small & medium pieces 1800 18-20
Ferrous metal pieces Medium pieces 1700 18
Small pieces 2000 20-22
Sand Dry 1500 15
Salt Marine 750 18-22
Slag 1000 20
Clay 2250 18-20
Earth dry 1250 20
Wet 1500 20-23
Sulfur 1000 20-22
Belt Conveyors 158
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Table 7.3 Idler Spacing in Belt Conveyors

Spacing of Idlers(Upper) for Materials with Specific


Belt Width[mm] Wt.[t/m3]
0.8 1.2 1.6 2.4
300 1.60 1.50 1.50 1.40
400 1.50 1.40 1.40 1.30
500 1.40 1.30 1.30 1.20
600 1.30 1.30 1.20 1.20
700 1.30 1.25 1.20 1.15
800 1.30 1.20 1.20 1.10
900 1.20 1.15 1.15 1.00
1000 1.10 1.10 1.00 1.00
1100 1.10 1.10 1.00 1.00
1200 1.10 1.10 1.00 1.00

7.4.2 Capacity of a Belt Conveyor

In dealing with the capacity of belt conveyor, it is first necessary to know whether the
material is to be conveyed as a unit load or in bulk, in loose form.

a. If the material to be conveyed is a unit load the capacity Q [tons/h] is calculated using
the following formula

Q = 3.6qBv (7.1)

where q = distributed load [kg/m2]


B = width of the belt [m]
v = velocity of the belt [m/s]

b. If the material to be conveyed is in bulk, then the capacity Q [tons/h] is calculated


using equation 7.2.

Q = 3.6γAv (7.2)

where γ = the density of the mat [kg/m3]


A = the cross-sectional area of the material being conveyed [m2]
v = Velocity of the belt [m/s]

If the belt conveyor has an inclination δ, then the capacity Q will be reduced by a factor
p.
Belt Conveyors 159
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Table 7.4 Value of p as a Function of δ

δ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
% 3.5 7.0 10.5 14.0 17.6 21.3 24.9 28.7 32.5 36.4
p 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.85 0.81

δ 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
% 38.4 40.4 42.5 44.5 46.6 48.8 51.0 53.2 55.4 57.7
p 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.56

Table 7.5 Frictional Force Coefficients f

Condition f
Roller with ball bearing 0.05
Rollers with bronze journal bearing 0.03
Flat belt with out rubber cover running over a smooth metal plate 0.30
Flat belt with rubber cover running over a smooth metal plate 0.05

Qδ = pQ

Table 7.4 Value of p as a Function of δ

Fig. 7.11 Cross-sectional Loading on Belt Conveyors

The cross-sectional area of the material to be conveyed for a flat belt and for the
troughed one may be calculated using an empirical formula.
Belt Conveyors 160
____________________________________________________________________________________

(B + 4) B 2
Af = (7.3)
110

Ac = 2 A f (7.4)

where A f = cross-sectional area of the material on the flat belt [m2]


Ac = cross-sectional area of the material on the troughed belt [m2]
B = belt width [m]

The assumptions used to arrive at the above formulae are a 200 inclination of rollers and
angle of repose of material to be 300.

7.4.3 Resistance Forces

The forces which are opposing the movement of the belt, the material and all moving
parts are due to friction on the parts and due to material transport, force required to
overcome the level difference, discharge forces and fixed resistance.

a. Frictional force on the moving parts (belt, idlers, drum, etc)

r1 = fq s l (7.5)

r1 = r1' + r1'' = fq s' l + fq s'' l

where r1 = frictional forces due to moving parts


f = coefficient of frictional force of the idlers
q s = weight of the moving part in kg/m of the belt
l = belt length between two extreme drum centers [m]

b. Frictional force due to material transport

r2 = fq m l m (7.6)

where q m = weight of material transported [kg/m of belt]


l m = the distance that the material is transported [m].

c. Force required to overcome the level difference

r3 = q m H (7.7)

where H = elevation difference


Belt Conveyors 161
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d. Discharging force

Fixed discharger:

r4 = aq m (7.8)

Mobile discharger:

r5 = b (7.9)

where a and b are discharge coefficients (Table 7.3).

e. Fixed resistance: It takes into consideration frictional forces at the conveyor terminal
bearing, at the conveyor loading skirts and other minor power absorbing terms. This
is taken care by considering frictions additional length l o .

l o = 60 − 0.2l (7.10)

Hence r1 = fq s (l + l o )
r2 = fq m (l m + l o )

The total resistance to motion, R, is the sum of the resistances.

R = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 (fixed discharge) (7.11)

= r1 + r2 + r3 + r5 (mobile discharge) (7.12)

= fq s (l + l o ) + fq m (l m + l o ) ± q m H + aq m for a fixed discharge


or
= fq s (l + l o ) + fq m (l m + l o ) ± q m H + a for a mobile discharge

7.4.4 Belt Tension

The operating maximum belt tension is defined as a maximum belt tension occurring
when the belt is conveying the design load from the loading point continuously to the
point of design. Maximum tension usually occurs at the discharge point on horizontal
and inclined conveyor (Fig.7.13 and 7.14). The belt tensions, in addition to their effect
on power requirements they also influence the design and selection of all component
parts.
Belt Conveyors 162
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Fig. 7.12 Loads on Drive Pulleys

We know that R =T-t. The relationship between T and t may be expressed


d

T
= e μα (7.13)
t
and t min can be expressed in terms of the number of cords and the width of the belt.

t min = 50nB (7.14)

where μ = coefficient of friction


α = wrap angle
n = number of cords of the belt
B = the width of the belt in meters.

Fig.7.13 Belt Tension on a Horizontal Belt Conveyor


Belt Conveyors 163
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Fig.7.14 Belt Tension on an Inclined Belt Conveyor

2To = 2(t + r1 − Pn )
'

where Pn = reduction due to the weight of the belt

The slack side tension, t, is the tension required in the belt at the driving pulley of a
single pulley drive or at the secondary pulley of a dual pulley drive. It must exert
sufficient pressure between the belt and the driving pulley to transmit the required power
with out slippage.

The adhesion (wheel grip) between the belt and the driving pulley can be increased by

i. changing the pulley;


ii. increasing the arc of contact and;
iii. using stretchers (take ups).

Fig. 7.15 Illustration to Increase the Arc of Contact


Belt Conveyors 164
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7.4.5 Number of Fibers

After calculating the tension, T, it is possible to calculate the number of fibers in the
nucleus of the belt.

T
n= (7.15)
KB

where n = number of fibers


K = resistance of one fiber per unit width (it varies from 5
to 7 kg/cm width and per fiber)
B = width of the belt

7.4.6 Power Requirement

In order to determine the required motor power [kW], we use the total resistance R and
calculate the power N.

Rv
N= (7.16)
102η

where v = speed of the belt in m/s.


η = efficiency of the electromotor

7.5 Review Question

1. Describe the main components of a belt conveyor.


2. State the applications and limitations of belt conveyors.
3. What considerations are taken in designing a belt conveyor?
4. Discuss the types of installations of magnetic separators in a belt conveyor for
removing tramp iron.
5. Describe, with appropriate sketches, the typical cross-sections of belt conveyors.
What are the typical applications of each type?
6. One of the problems in the operations of belt conveyors is belt slippage. What
measures are taken to overcome slippage?
CHAPTER EIGHT
OSCILLATING CONVEYORS
8.1 Introduction

Traditionally engineers have been interested in eliminating vibration. However, a few


individuals saw that vibration was useful as a means of accomplishing the movement of
bulk granular materials. Vibrating feeders and conveyors consist of a material-
transporting through driven by a controlled vibrating force system, which imparts a
tossing, hopping or sliding type action to the material.

Oscillating conveyors move materials in a uniform, continuous flow by the upward and
forward oscillating motion of a continuous metal trough, mounted on sturdy inclined
reactor legs. The angle of inclination α of the conveyor arm may vary from 250 to 300.
The movement of the conveyor follows harmonic motion and is governed by the
equation.

S = A sin ωt (8.1)

where S = the magnitude of the movement of the conveyor in time t.


(The projection of the rotating vector of length A)
A = maximum amplitude of the vibration (the rotating vector)
ω = circular frequency
k
= 2πf = where k = rigidity and m = mass
m

Fig. 8.1Oscillating Conveyor with Variable Pressure on Deck


Oscillating Conveyors 166
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This installation consists of a conveying steel deck (Fig.8.1) supported by oscillating


arms in spring steel and reciprocated by a crank arranged at an angle with the vertical,
the deck integrally with the load lifts somewhat during a forward stroke and lowers
during the return one. The direction of conveying depends on the direction of the unit.

Since the crank radius is by far smaller than the length of the connecting rod that of the
oscillating arms, the velocity of the deck v deck changes roughly as a sine wave (Fig.8.1)
whereas the deck displacement rectilinearly, at angles to the oscillating arms. Its
acceleration j deck can be apparently resolved into two components, a horizontal j deck x
and a vertical j deck y . During a forward stroke, the vertical component is directed
upwards (Fig.8.2a). At the same time, a particle of material with a mass m is subject to
the combined effect of inertia and friction; a vertical component of inertia force m ⋅ j deck y
press the load against the deck, a horizontal component of inertia force m ⋅ j deck x tending
to displace the load along the deck, and a friction force F f acting along the deck in the
direction of the stroke.

Fig. 8.2 Forces on an Oscillating Conveyor (a) Forward Stroke, (b) Return Stroke

Thus the friction force F f acting along the deck in the direction of the stroke can be
obtained by using the formula:

F f = fFN (8.2)

where f = coefficient of friction


FN = normal force acting in the vertical direction
= G + m ⋅ a deck y
Oscillating Conveyors 167
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(
F f = f × m ⋅ g + m ⋅ a deck y ) (8.3)

where G = weight of the material


m = mass of the material
a deck y = acceleration in the vertical direction

F f < Fx ; For the particle to move forward, the force along the x-
direction must be greater than the friction force.
Fx = ma deck x

then F f < ma deck x (8.4)

a deck x = a deck cos α ; a deck y = a deck sin α

Equating equation 8.3 and 8.4, and solving for a deck

fg
a deck >
cos α - f sin α

During a retarding stage of the forward stroke (section AB in the deck velocity curve of
Fig.8.1), the particle can continue its travel if the friction force F f is less than the
horizontal component of inertia force.

( )
f ⋅ m g + j deck y < m ⋅ j deck x

Since j deck x = j deck ⋅ cos α and j deck y = j deck ⋅ sin α , the above relationship takes the form

f ⋅g
j deck >
cos α − f ⋅ sin α

During the return stroke when the deck is being lowered, the vertical component of
inertia force is directed upwards (Fig.8.2b), reducing both the pressure of the load on the
deck and a friction force F f arising between the load and deck. The above particle of
material will continue its progress if the horizontal component of inertia force is greater
than the friction force

(
m ⋅ j deck x > f ⋅ m g + j dedck y )
To make for the conveying under the conditions of permanent load-to-load contact, the
load pressure on the deck should be greater than zero

(
m g − j dedck y > 0)
Oscillating Conveyors 168
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or
j deck y < g

i.e. the vertical component of deck acceleration should be less than the acceleration of
free fall.
Vibrating conveyors operating frequencies normally range from 200 to 3600 vibrations
per minute with an amplitude or stroke range from 0.08 to 3.75cm total movement.

Fig. 8.1 Velocity of the Deck as a Function of Time

In the first phase (i.e. in time t = 0 and t = t a ) the conveyor canal and the material move
together. At the time t a the vertical deceleration component of the canal becomes
greater than the acceleration due to gravity. At this particular instance the material leaves
the canal and follows a projectile motion until it comes in contact with the canal at
time t c . There after the cycle repeats.

From the figure, it can be seen that the efficient performance of the conveyor depends
upon the choice of ω and A. The contact of the material with the canal should be
between t b and t ' a . If the material contacts the canal at t ' c − t b when the canal is still in
the descending phase, the material will move backward until t b and then forward. At
time t " c it will attain the position it had at time t ' c . Hence the interval t ' c − t " c is not
made useful. In the case where the contact is at t c − t a , the velocity of the canal will not
be sufficient to push the material forward.
Oscillating Conveyors 169
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These conveyors are ideal for handling all granular free flowing materials as well as hot,
abrasive, fine, dusty lumpy, stringy and other materials which are difficult to handle or
where contamination or corrosion is a problem. In addition to conveying, oscillating
conveyors are used for scalping, cooling, heating and drying.

8.2 Basic Designs

There are a variety of vibrating conveyor designs available which differ in detail since
most manufacturers have patented and proprietary designs unique to their equipment;
however, vibrating conveyors generally have similar basic elements

1. A trough supporting system to direct the motion of the trough.


2. An eccentric drive assembly which is the source of the controlled vibrating
motion applied to the conveyor.

Many designs also include a reactor spring system which alternately stores and
releases energy at each end of the trough stroke.

Reviewing these elements:

1. The trough is the only portion of the vibrating conveyor that comes in contact with
the material being conveyed. It can be fabricated in a variety of materials in almost
any shape and size and can be adapted to perform various processes while the
material is in motion.

2. The base is primarily a means of mounting the conveyor and is usually of a simple
design incorporating structural steel members. It can be designed as an elaborate
truss-like structure or can be simplified so all corners are eliminated to meet
sanitation specifications for the food, chemical, and other related industries.

3. The trough supporting system's primary function is to control and direct the motion
of the trough. This system can assume a variety of shapes and may be cast or
fabricated assemblies incorporating maintenance-free flexible connections at each
end or a simple flexible slat.

4. The drive is the prime element in a vibrating conveyor because it is the source of
the controlled vibration. The drive may be in the form of a positive direct-
connected linkage, a positive flexible-connected linkage, or a non-positive
motorized counterweight assembly. These latter two are found primarily on
conveyors that take advantage of the natural frequency phenomena whereas the
first is generally used on brute-force units.
Oscillating Conveyors 170
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5. The reactor spring system can assume many forms including steel coil springs,
flexible steel or glass slats, rubber blocks, circular rubber toroids, and torsion bars.
The particular application involved often makes one type more advantageous than
another.

8.3 Types of Oscillating Conveyors

There are basically three types of oscillating conveyors for light, medium and heavy-
duty service.

a. Flexmount Oscillating Conveyors

They are used for light duty applications. They have simple construction, remarkably
rugged, compact and require minimum maintenance and attention. Firmly mounted flat-
spring support legs provide sturdy through support as well as natural frequency spring
reaction which keeps drive size requirement to minimum. They handle a wide variety of
free-flowing material as well as metal chips, metal scrap and canned goods in process.

b. Coilmount Oscillating Conveyor

They are rugged, well reinforced and require minimum maintenance. The coil springs
operate in the natural frequency rang. They are used for medium duty service. The
trough is supported by separate legs that are rubber bushed at articulated points and do
not require lubrication. The coil spring operate in the natural frequency range and reduce
normal drive requirements. They can handle many materials such as cullets, bulk
chemicals, sand, etc.

c. Torqmount Oscillating Conveyor

They are rugged, dependable and easy to adjust and maintain. They are used for heavy
and extra duty applications. Torsion bars fixed at one end and steel backed rubber
bushed at the other end, absorb the energy of the trough movement at the end of the
stroke at all points of support along the trough length. They can handle great variety of
materials such as sand, castings, and cullet.
1
8.4 Selection of Oscillating Conveyors

The selection of oscillating conveyors boils down to:

i) Determining the trough width for the required capacity


ii) Selecting the drive for the required capacity
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Oscillating Conveyors 171
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1
in the selection of Oscillating Conveyors please use conversion table: 1ft = 12” ; 1” = 2.54cm;
1lb = 0.4536kg; 1ft/min =5.08×10-3 m/s; 1hp =0.746kW; 1lb/ft3 =16.018kg/m3.

1. How to Select a Flexmount Oscillating Conveyor


Refer to Chart A; determine the trough width for the required capacity. Capacities are
based on average material travel of 20 feet per minute with an average depth of bed as
indicated.
Refer to Chart B; select the drive for the required capacity and length. Two or more
conveyors may be required.

Fig 8.4 Charts for Selection of Flexmount Oscillating Conveyor

Example 8.1. Select a Flexmount to handle 15 tons per hour of dry sand weighing 75
pounds per cubic foot over a distance of 27 feet. Conveyor to have feed end
drive.

Solution: Refer to capacity Chart A, for material weighing 75 pounds per cubic foot at
15 TPH an 18 '' × 4 '' trough is required.

Refer to Drive Selection chart B, a 27 foot long conveyor handling 15 TPH


requires a Model 2500, 1 HP drive.

2. How to Select a Coilmount Oscillating Conveyor

The Coilmount design lends itself to many special process such as scalping, dewatering,
drying or cooling, and special screen decks, trough covers or cooling hoods can be
engineered by Link-Belt. Coilmount conveyors can be used without special construction
to handle materials up to approximately 2500F. Higher temperature application should be
referred to Link-Belt for recommendation.

Refer to Chart A and C, determine the width for the required capacity. Chart A is for
Oscillating Conveyors 172
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10 '' × 6 '' conveyors and Chart C for 20 '' × 6 '' conveyors, for material travel speeds up to
75 feet per minute with a 4 '' bed depth of material. Most materials convey between 50
and 75 feet per minute. For higher conveying rates consult Link-Belt.

Inter-particle slippage, aeration of the bed of material, moisture content and other factors
affect the conveying rate. For example, coarse materials with minimum inter-particle
slippage such as feed pellets, wood chips, dry chemicals and damp sand generally
convey at approximately 75 feet per minute while fine materials with inter-particle
slippage or aeration qualities such as dry cement or fine, dry sand generally convey at
approximately 50 feet per minute or less. For recommendations on sticky or hard-to-
handle materials consult link-belt. Laboratory facilities and field units are available for
material performance tests.

Refer to Chart B and D, select the drive size and trough thickness for the required
capacity and length.

Fig 8.5 Charts for Selection of Coilmount Oscillating Conveyor

Example 8.2: Select a Coilmount to handle 45 tons per hour of dry coarse salt
weighing 50 pounds per cubic foot over a distance of 35 feet. Conveyor to
have feed end drive.
Oscillating Conveyors 173
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Solution: Refer to Capacity Chart A, material weighing 50 pounds per cubic foot
conveyed at 45 TPH is beyond the recommended range of a
10" × 6 " Coilmount. Therefore, refer to Chart C which shows that a
20" × 6 " Coilmount is satisfactory for this application.

Refer to Drive Selection Chart D, a 35-foot long conveyor handling 45 TPH


"
3
requires a 3 HP drive and trough.
16

3. How to Select a Torqmount Oscillating Conveyor

The heavy and extra heavy duty Torqmount Oscillating conveyors complement the
Flexmount and Coilmount by providing greater load carrying capacity and relating
maintenance simplicity. The Torqmount design lends itself to applications which
require handling high capacities of materials such as foundry shakeout sand, castings,
coal or crushed rock.

Refer to Chart A and C. Determine trough width for the required capacity. Chart A is
for 20× 48" trough widths and based on an average material travel of 30 feet per
minute with an average depth of bed of 4''. Chart C is for the 48" wide super-capacity
extra heavy duty conveyor and based on an average depth of bed of 8". When
selection is in shaded portion of table consult Link-Belt.

Refer to Chart B and D. Determine the horsepower required based on capacity and
conveyor length. Where more horsepower or longer carrying runs are required, two or
more conveyors of shorter length can be used in series, each wit its own drive.
Oscillating Conveyors 174
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Fig8.6 Charts for Selection of Torqmount Oscillating conveyors

Example 8.3: Select a Torqmount to handle 75 tons per hour of clinker weighing 90
pounds per foot over a distance of 65 feet.

Solution: Refer to Capacity Chart A. For material weighing 90 pounds per cubic foot
at 75 TPH a 36" wide trough is required. Refer to Drive Selection Chart B.
A 65 foot long conveyor handling 75 TPH requires a 10 HP drive.

Example 8.4: Select a Torqmount to handle 275 tons per hour of shakeout sand
weighing 90 pounds per cubic foot over a distance of 45 feet.

Solution: Refer to Capacity Chart A. The tonnage requirements are beyond the
capacity of a heavy duty Torqmount; therefore, refer to Capacity Chart C
for the extra-heavy duty Torqmount which is satisfactory for this
application.

Refer to Drive Selection Chart D. The horsepower required for one 45-foot
long conveyor exceeds the recommended 25 HP maximum. Therefore use
two conveyors in series. One 25 feet long with a 20 HP motor and one 20
feet long with 15 HP motor.

8.5 Limitations
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As seen from the foregoing, vibratory feeders and conveyors are used to master and
transport a wide variety of materials over a large application base. There are few
limitations, with today's technologies, to the successful application of this class of
equipment. Some materials that tend to fluidize, or adhere to the feeder trough may be
more efficiently handled by other means. Also a dusting problem may occur at the
outlet of a feeder handling some dry, powdery materials, and require special handling.
It is shown that feed extraction from hoppers is not fully positive, therefore, in
applications requiring extreme accuracies, a weighing system of some type may be
recommended. The structural integrity of vibratory equipment is extremely important.
This equipment is subject to high accelerations and high reversing stress cycles;
consequently, to achieve acceptable industrial equipment fatigue life, the structures
must be designed with stress limits much below that considered good design practice
for structures not subjected to vibration. Special attention must also be paid to the
design of weldments and welding techniques.

8.6 Review Questions


1. Discuss the areas of application of oscillating conveyors.
2. What are the basic elements of an oscillating conveyor?
3. Discuss the different types of oscillating conveyors.
4. What limitations do oscillating conveyors have?
5. What considerations do you take in designing an oscillating conveyor?
CHAPTER NINE
CHAIN CONVEYORS AND BUCKET ELEVATORS
9.1 Introduction

A well-designed chain conveyor made up of high-quality material is an excellent means


of conveying abrasive and high temperature materials, or withstanding the effects of
impact when handling large lumps.

Chain conveyors employ single or double strands of continuous chains wrapped


around head and tail end sprockets. The units are generally operated by motor drives
attached to the head/drive shaft. Material can be carried directly on aprons or pans or
pushed in a trough by flights attached to the chain(s). The chain conveyor derives its
name from the type of attachment, that is, apron, pan, or flight.

There are four types of chain conveyors based on whether the chain slides or rolls and
whether the material is pushed or carried. Units can be arranged for operation
horizontally, inclined, or vertical. Flight conveyors can be easily enclosed for dust
containment and arranged to serve multiple filling and discharge points.

A chain conveyor requires extra care in erection if it is to function properly.


Assuming properly designed and selected components, it is essential that all
components, and especially the head and tail sprockets, be in line. Twin chain units
should be checked for matching both at start up and while running. Components
should be carefully checked for loose or missing bolts, cotter pins, and so forth.
Proper and continued adjustment checks are essential for long-term, maintenance-free
operation. Lubrication of chains should be carried out per manufacturer’s
recommendations contingent upon usage. Lubrication of roller chain when handling
certain types of abrasive dusty material may not be advisable.

9.2 Apron Conveyors

Apron conveyors are used extensively in particular all modern mining, manufacturing
and processing industries. They are particularly suited to the handling of incoming raw
materials in process materials and finished materials.

These conveyors consist of a series of jointed overlapping or interlocking apron pans on


which the material is carried. They can handle abrasive materials that cannot be scraped
along a trough, and as the loading is readily controlled it may be used as a feeder. As an
alternative to a rubber belt it can handle materials at a temperature higher than 1500C
that cannot be handled with rubber.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 178
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Fig. 9.1 Apron Conveyor

9.2.1 Aprons and Pans

Aprons and pans are made in various types, selection of the types are made of formed
steel, with front and rear edges beaded so that one overlaps the next to form a continuous
surface or trough. Apron pans can be flat or equipped with side plates to increase
capacity and reduce spillage. Some of the most commonly used ones are described
below.

Style A

Aprons and pans are used for horizontal and low incline (200 - 250) services. Both types
in short pitches are used for feeders; pans in medium or long pitches, for conveyors.
This style in suitable for most bulk materials, including hot dusty, abrasive materials as
shakeout sand in foundries, limestone in cement mills and ores in mining.

Fig. 9.2 Style A Apron Pan


Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 179
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Style B

The pans are designed to provide force and easy discharge and consequently, low drop
of material. This style is especially suited to handle lump material which should not be
broken. It is also suitable for wide conveyors and can be used for inclined conveying up
to 300.

Fig. 9.3 Style B Apron Pan

Style C

The pans are used for large capacities of fines and lumps and inclines up to 300. They
require a higher discharge point than style B. They are suitable for use as feeding,
picking, sorting and lowering conveyors.

Fig. 9.4 Style C Apron Pan

Style D

The pans are similar to style B. Built of angles and plates, they are of very strong and
rigid construction. These pans are capable of carrying large quantities of material such
as coal, rock and castings. The pans have complete discharge with very little drop and
breakage of lumps. They have good impact resistance under loading point.

Fig. 9.5 Style D Apron Pan


Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 180
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Style E

The pans are super-capacity pans for handling, fine, crushed, or lump materials in very
large quantities. They can be used for horizontal conveying or inclined conveying as
steep as 450.

Fig. 9.6 Style E Apron Pan

9.2.2 Design Considerations of Apron Conveyors

The thickness of the apron pan is dependent upon the weight to be supported on each
apron, impact of the filling lump, and abrasiveness or corrosiveness of the material.
Table 9.1 is a general guide to apron pan selection.

Table 9.1 Recommended Thickness of Apron Pans

Recommended Apron
Pan Thickness[mm] Application
4.75 Light mildly abrasive materials
6.00-8.00 Medium-weight materials having some
corrosive and abrasive properties
≥10.00 Heavy abrasive, corrosive materials; high
impact duty

In general designing of an apron conveyor can be considered as determining:

1. The maximum traction force


2. The pitch of the chain
3. The stress on the shafts and on the wheels

The maximum traction force is a combination of the force required to move the material,
the moving part of the conveyor and the force required to overcome the level difference.

1. The force required to move the materials

f1 = f g q m l m (9.1)
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where q m = weight of the material per unit length [kg/m]


l m = the horizontal distance that the material is conveyed [m]
f g = friction coefficient.

Table 9.2 Coefficient of Friction as a Function of Wheel Diameter and Assembly Type

Diameter of Wheel [mm]


Shaft Assembled on 50 75 100 125 150
Non-lubricated 0.30 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.22
Journal Bearing
Lubricated
Journal Bearing 0.20 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08
Ball Bearings 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03

2. The force required to move the moving parts of the conveyor.

f 2 = f g qs ls (9.2)

where q s = weight of the moving part of the conveyors [kg/m]


l s = the horizontal distance that the conveyor is moving [m]

3. The force required to over come the level difference.

f 3 = ±qm H (9.3)

where H = the level difference [m]

4. The force required to overcome the friction between the chain and the driving gear can
be calculated by:

- increasing l s and l m in the expressions by 20 or 6m with respect to the


bearing types, journal bearing or ball bearing respectively.
- increasing H by 5%

5. After calculating the maximum force required, maximum tension, T can be used to
find the stress on the shaft. The traction force R is equal to the maximum tension T.
This is due to the fact that the slack side tension is negligible compared to that of the
slack side tension of the belt conveyor.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 182
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T
p= (9.4)
2db

where p = the stress on the shaft[kg/mm2]


d = diameter [mm]
b = width [mm]

T = R = f1 + f 2 + f 3 (9.5)

6. The power absorbed [kW]

Tv
N= (9.6)
102η

where T = the maximum fraction force [kg]


v = velocity [m/s]
η = efficiency (0.7 - 0.8)

7. The more commonly used chain for apron conveyor applications is a steel, bushed
roller chain with pans, bolted to the chain by attachments (Fig.9.7). For non-abrasive
materials weighing 800kg/m3 or less, with a minimum lump size a 100mm-pitch chain
is adequate. For most other materials a150mm pitch and larger chain is used.
Manufacturer’s literature should be referred to for specific application information.

Fig. 9.7 Chain Attachments, Links Having Suitable Projections with Holes
to which Apron Pans can be Attached

9.3 Flight and Wide Chain Drag Conveyors

A flight conveyor consists of one or more endless propelling mediums, such as chain or
other linkage, to which properly spaced scrapers or flights for moving material along the
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 183
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length of a stationary trough. Material fed into this trough is thereby pushed along its
length for discharge at the end of the trough or through intermediate discharge gates.

Two or more materials may be handled by a single conveyor by means of longitudinal


partitions, which divide the trough into two or more channels, the flight being slotted to
correspond. One difficulty is that if the materials have widely different coefficient of
friction as with sized coal and refuse, the wear and the stretch on the heavy side chain
will exceed that on the other. In a three-compartment conveyor the material with the
highest coefficient of friction should be carried in the center compartment.

Flight conveyors are used for either horizontal or inclined paths and are frequently
installed where the angle of inclination is comparatively steep. Flight conveyors may be
several hundred meters in length, but as the material is scraped along a trough they are
not suited to abrasives like ashes or sand. A modified type called the drag chain
conveyor is specifically adopted for ashes, coal, sawdust, pulpwood and hot or cold
cement cylinders. It can however be used for a variety of materials and makes an
economical installation where capacity requirements are average and space saving is
important.

9.3.1 Construction

Figure 9.8a is the cross-section of a single strand scrapper flight conveyer, in which the
flights are drawn along the trough bottom. Fig.9.8b is a single strand suspended flight
conveyor with wearing shoes attached to the flights to carry them clear of the trough
along the carrying run and support them along the return run.

Fig. 9.8a Single Strand Flight


Conveyor with Scraper Flights Fig.9.8b Single Strand Flight
Conveyor with shoe-suspended
Flights
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 184
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Fig 9.8c Single Strand Flight


Conveyor with roller-suspended Flights Fig.9.8d Double Strand Flight Conveyor
with Roller-suspended Flights

Figure 9.8c is similar to the suspended flight conveyor except that rollers are substituted
for shoes the roller flight conveyer. Figure 9.8d is a double strand conveyor with roller
chain to carry the flights the roller chain suspended flight conveyor.

Although this discussion deals primarily with flight conveyors in their true definition
(i.e., flights pushing material in a trough) there are other special versions of the
chain/flight conveyor. One version utilizes chain and specially formed flight which
travels through an enclosed, modified trough. Special head/drive and tail/take-up
terminals are required. The advantages of these units are:
- Standardized parts are readily available.
- They are self-cleaning.
- They are gentle handling.

There are still other modifications of the chain/flight conveyor that utilize various
combinations of chain and bar-type flights for conveying materials in enclosed troughs.
These units are usually proprietary design of a given manufacturer.

Fig. 9.9 Wide Chain Drag Conveyor


Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 185
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Wide chain drag conveyors (Fig. 9.9) do not have flights as the open links serve to move
the material. These conveyors operate at slow speeds generally 0.1 m/s or less. They are
used for conveying abrasive materials like ashes, coal or sand. In addition one typical
application can be quenching hot materials.

9.3.2 Flight Conveyor Design Consideration

The following factors are essential in the design of a flight conveyor:

- Type of material and its characteristics


- Capacity (maximum in tons per hour)
- Maximum size of lumps and percentage of maximum lump in total volume
- Length and incline of unit
- Service requirements

Generally available types of flight conveyors are presented above. Sliding chain
conveyors are simpler, with fewer moving parts than a roller chain type but horsepower
requirements are higher. A roller chain unit operates with less pulsation than a sliding
chain unit. The lower friction of the roller chain units permits design of longer units,
with lower horsepower and reduced operating costs, but may be susceptible to jam-ups.
Flights, normally manufactured from steel, have been made of wood, malleable iron and
other materials spaced at distances from 300mm to 915mm. Flight spacing is varied to
suit the size of lumps, required capacity and slope of unit. Table 9.3 is a brief resume of
sizes and capacity of available units and additional data can be found in the
manufacturer’s catalogue.

Table 9.3 Capacity of Flight conveyors a

Approximate
Flight Dimension Lump Size [mm] b Capacity [t/h] at
(Width×Depth)[mm] Single Strand Double Strand 0.5m/s
300×150 87.5 100 55
375×150 112.5 125 66
450×150 125.0 150 76
600×200 - 250 158
750×250 - 350 218
900×300 - 400 327

a
For materials with density of 800kg/m3
b
Lumps not to exceed 10% of total volume
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 186
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Flight conveyor power required consists of three factors:

I. The power required to run empty conveyor


Plus
II. The power require to carry load over horizontal distance
Plus
III. The power required to lift load

This third component for lift can be disregarded in figuring a horizontal conveyor.
These values can be expressed by the formula:

(I)+(II)+(III)

9.7 × 10 −3
P= (0.001WC LSFC + TL L FL + TH ) kW (9.7)
FD

where S = speed of conveyor [m/s]


T = material handled [kg/s]
WC = total weight of single run of chains and flights [kg/m]
L = horizontal length of loaded run of conveyor [m]
LL = horizontal length of loaded run o f conveyor (total length of
loaded runs of conveyor carrying on both runs) [m]
H = lift, vertical projector [m]
FC = friction factor for chain and flights
FL = friction factor for load
FD = friction factor for drive loss

Table 9.4 Chain Friction Factors FC

Type of Chain Method of Mounting Flights


Used Flights Sliding Flights Sliding Flights Sliding Flights Rolling
on Bottom of on Shoes on on 2 Strands of on 2 Strands of
Trough Side Guides Chain on Guides Roller Chain
Rivetless,
detachable or similar
(drag) chains 0.5 0.4 0.4
No. 1130 Roller 0.262
Steel Bushed Roller 0.150
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 187
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Table 9.5 Load Friction Factors FL

Material Factor FL Material Factor FL Material Factor FL


Coal slack, 0.65 Coal, wet 0.55 Wood chips, 0.27
dry dry
Coal slacked, 0.93 Fly ash 0.93 Grain, clean 0.48
wet
Coal sized, Sewage Bicarbonate
dry 0.5 sludge, dried 1.1 of soda, dry 1.0
pulverized

Table 9.6 Drive loss Factor FD

For Each Reduction Reduction for Each Helical


(Sprockets or Sheaves) Gear Speed Reducer
Steel Roller V-Belt Single Double Triple
Chain
0.90 0.93 0.95 0.93 0.91

9.4 Bucket Elevator

The typical bucket elevator consists of an endless chain or belt to which are attached
buckets for elevating pulverized, granular, or lumpy materials along a vertical or a
steeply inclined path. The driving traction element is a chain or a belt. The choice
depends on the desired performance of the elevator and the type of the load intended for
handling. So free-flowing materials can be conveniently handled with belt affording
speeds up to 3.5 m/s.

Unit loads are conveyed with the aid of arms or candles attached to the traction element.
Buckets are used to handle free flowing loads and find application in grain storage, at
food processing and chemical plants; in the building materials industry etc.
Comparatively small in cross-section, they cope with lifts up to 60m, providing for a
handling capacity between 5 and 600 m3/h.

A bucket elevator (Fig.9.10) has a vertically closed tractive element 1 with load-
carrying elements (buckets) 2 rigidly attached to it; the tractive element bends around
an upper drive pulley 5 and lower take-up pulley 9 (or sprockets in chain elevators).
The moving elements and the turning devices of an elevator are arranged in a closed
metal casing which consists of a top portion ('head') 6, middle, sections 4, and bottom
portion ('boot') 10. The tractive element with buckets is moved by a drive 12, arid the
initial tension is set up by a take-up 8. Bulk material is fed into the charging pipe
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 188
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(spout) at the elevator bottom, poured into buckets, lifted in them, and discharged at
the upper pulley (sprocket) into a spout at the elevator top. The drive is provided with
a stop 11 to prevent backward motion of the tractive element. The elevator casing has
guide means 7 inside.

9.4.1 Bucket Elevator Components

The principal elements of a bucket elevator are:

1. Head shaft with pulley for belting or sprockets for chain: This assembly is
normally mounted in antifriction bearing pillow blocks supported by the housing
head section.
2. The drive, gear reducer, and motor drives, which may be V-belt (in light-duty
elevators), ANSI drive chain and sprockets, or direct-coupled with flexible coupling
or shaft-mounted reducer: The most common gear reducers utilized are shaft
mounted, concentric shaft, and, for heavy duty applications, parallel shaft.
Mechanical holdbacks are necessary to prevent reversal of the elevator in case of
power failure. Dependent on elevator size and application, the holdback may be
integral to the reducer or mounted separately on the head shaft.
3. Foot shaft with pulley or sprockets: Normally the foot shaft assembly is mounted in
bearings or guides for take-up adjustment of the belt/chain and bucket assembly. In
some special designs and when handling material that tends to pack, the foot shaft is
fixed with take-up at the head shaft.
4. Elevator buckets mounted on belting or chain: This assembly defines the elevator
and must be matched to the application.
5. The elevator enclosure houses the bucket and belting or chain assembly and generally
provides mounting and enclosure for the rotating machinery: Loading and discharge
chutes are integral to the enclosure. Bucket elevator housings are comprised of boot
section, intermediate casing, and head section. They are generally fabricated of mild
structural steel shapes and plates. Except in large high-lift elevators, the casing
supports the live load and the machinery load and accepts the drive reactions. Bucket
elevators, except in special designs, must be laterally restrained.
6. Platforms, ladders, and hoist beams arc frequently mounted on elevator housings
for maintenance access.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 189
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9.4.2 Types of Bucket Elevators

1. Centrifugal Discharge

Materials enter by flowing along the floor of the boot from which it is scooped up by
the digging action of the bucket as they round the foot wheel. The materials are
discharged by centrifugal action as the buckets pass over the head wheel.

2. Perfect Discharge

The buckets are carried between two strands of chain snubbed under the head wheels
to bring them into an inverted position above the discharge chute. This is a slow
speed machine for fragile, sticky or slow flowing materials.

3. Continuous Bucket

This is also a slow speed machine the buckets are mounted continuously along the
chain. At the head the discharge from each bucket is over the front of the preceding
bucket which forms a chute or guide to the fixed discharge.

4. Gravity Discharge

This is the name given to the double-strand elevator conveyor with spaced V-section
buckets. It may follow almost any path in a vertical plane. Its principal advantage is
with fragile materials since it eliminates a transfer from one unit to another. It is a
slow speed machine. Material is loaded as in type 1, but discharge is through gates in
a trough is in flight conveyors.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 190
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Fig. 9.10 Bucket Elevator


Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 191
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Fig. 9.11 Method of Loading and Unloading of a Bucket Elevator; a) loading through a
chute; b) loading by digging from the boot; c) positive discharge; d) central
discharge

9.4.3 Design Considerations

Buckets exist in a number of types used depending on application. The tendency of


material to pack in the elevator boot is one of the factors deciding bucket choice. Free-
flowing non-packing material as, for example, grain is handled by high front round-
bottom buckets (Fig. 9.12b).
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 192
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Fig 9.12 Buckets; a) low-front round-bottom type; b) high-front round-bottom model;


c) flat-front or V-shaped bucket with side guides; d) open flat-
bottom configuration for sticky materials

In the case of sticky loads more suitable are open buckets of the flat-bottom
configuration (Fig. 9.12d). Loading chutes are best suitable for coarsely broken and
abrasive loads. Bucket width b is adopted taking into account the lump size, from the
relationship.

b ≥ ka

where a is the maximum lump size and k is a factor taken at 2-2.5 for
unsized material and at 4-5 for a sized one.

The method of unloading is adopted depending on the bucket speed and head wheel
diameter. When the loaded bucket goes round the head wheel and overturns, the material
will be subject to the combined effect of

mg = gravitational force

mω2r = centrifugal force

As the bucket travels together with the wheel at a given speed the resultant R, of forces
mg and mr.ω 2 changes in the direction and magnitude. Yet its line of action invariably
passes through point M termed the pole which is located in vertical to the wheel axis
distant h form it.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 193
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Fig. 9.13 Determination of the Pole Distance

Considering the two similar triangles OMG and ACG

OM r
= (9.8)
mg mω 2 r

g g g
OM = = =
ω 2
⎛v⎞
2
⎛ 2πn ⎞
2

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝r⎠ ⎝ 60 ⎠

gr 2 3600 g 895
= = = 2 (9.9)
v2 4π 2 n 2 n

where n is the rpm.

In other words, the polar distance h is a function of the head-wheel speed only, n in rpm,
increasing inversely with it. When the pole distance is equal or greater than the head
wheel radius r , the centrifugal force is by far exceeded, resulting in a gravity discharge
(gravity being higher than the centrifugal force).
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 194
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The weight of a bucketful load in kg is given

G=iγ ϕ (9.10)

where i = the struck volume of bucket [m3]


γ = specific weight [kg/m3]
ϕ = capacity factor ranging between 0.6 and 0.9 depending upon
the nature of the material (lower values are ascribed to
coarsely broken loads)

The hourly capacity of an elevator can be calculated by the formula

G
Q = 3.6 v (9.11)
t

where Q = Capacity [tons/hr]


t = Bucket spacing commonly
(2 to 3) h, where h is the bucket height [m]
v = the bucket speed [m/s]

After the correct selection of elevator style and bucket has been made, the selection of
belting or chain is of prime importance. Chain can be selected knowing tight-
(ascending) side tension only; however, for belt selection, tight and slack- (descending)
side tension must be known. In either case, in calculating tensions for component
selection may be taken.

T1 = (WC + WB + LL) H
'
(9.12)

T2 = (WC + WB ) H (9.13)

'
where T1 = tight-side tension [kg]
WC = weight of belt or chain with fasteners and attachments[kg/m]
WB = weight buckets [kg/m]
LL = weight of live load [kg/m]
H = elevator shaft centers [m]
T2 = slack-side tension [kg]

Tight-side tension T must have an additional factor added to compensate for digging
in the boot. Elevator manufacturers have developed standards for this factor and
should be consulted. In tall elevators and continuous elevators, digging forces are of
less concern than in short or spaced elevators. This is due to the compensating effect
of materials design safety factors; therefore,
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 195
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T1 = T1 + TD
'
(9.14)

where T1 = tight-side tension with digging factor


TD = additional loading for digging in boot

Manufacturers' ratings for elevator chains should be used and a selection made where
the working load is within the theoretical calculations obtained from the preceding
equations. This working load is normally based on a factor of at least six to one in
relation to ultimate chain strength. Judgment is required in the selection of the proper
chain. If the selection is good, the chain installed should provide several years of
operation without replacement or unusual maintenance. Combination-type chains,
steel knuckle, welded steel, and roller-type chains are three types of, chain with wide
ranges of usefulness in elevator service.

The power required to drive bucket elevators can be estimated, in most cases, from
the following equations:

For spaced-bucket elevators with digging boot

N = 0.0194 Hm' kW

For continuous-bucket elevator with loading leg

N = 0.0176 Hm' kW

where m’ = material flow rate [kg/s]


H = vertical lift [m]

Obviously these two equations become progressively conservative for elevators with
high lifts, as there is no difference in drive efficiency in high- or low-lift elevators.
Hence the greater reserve capacity of the drive is available for loading conditions at
the boot and for starting the elevator from rest with a full load in the buckets.
However, in high-capacity engineered elevators, thorough mechanical calculations
based on the difference between tight- and slack-side tension plus machinery friction,
digging and power transmission losses are required.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 196
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Example 9.1

Calculation of an Apron Conveyor

Given: An apron conveyor is designed to deliver hot castings from the shakeout to the
fettling shop as shown in the figure below. The castings have ve a diameter of
600mm, a height of 250mm and a piece-weight, G, of 180kg. Conveyor
capacity, Z= 300pcs/h, and factor allowing for irregular feed, k’=2.

Solution

1. Main parameters of the conveyor:

Considering the size of the castings, choose a corrugated apron of width B = 800mm
with flanges, h =100mm.

Theoretical capacity of the conveyor, Z max =k’×Z=2×300=600pcs/h

600 × 180
i.e., Q = = 108 t/h
1000

The minimum load spacing, a

With diameter of castings = 0.6m, a = 0.6+0.3 = 0.9m

Conveyor speed, v

Z max a 600 × 0.9


v= = = 0.15 m/s
3600 3600
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 197
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2. Loads per running meter

q s ≈ 60 B + A = 60×0.8+110 ≈160kg/m

where A = 110 (from Table 9.7 below)

Weight of the load per meter of apron length


G 180
qm = = = 200 kg/m
a 0.9

3. Calculation of the pull (equation 9.5)

T = f1 + f 2 + f 3 = f g q m l m + f g q s l s + q m H

Taking maximum value, f g = 0.3(Table 9.2).

Horizontal distance from the figure =20m, but this should be increased by 20m to
overcome friction between the chain and the driving gear, i.e., l s = l m = 40 m.
Level difference from the figure = 10m, but this should be increased by 5% for
friction, i.e., H =10.5m.

T = (0.3 × 200 × 40) + (0.3 × 160 × 40) + (200 × 10.5) = 6420 kg

4. Power absorbed (equation 9.6)

Tv 6420 × 0.15
N= = = 13.49 ≈ 14 kW
102η 102 × 0.7

Table 9.7 Approximate Values of Factor A for Flanged Corrugated Steel Aprons

Types of Apron Factor A for an Apron Having a Width of


B =0.4 to 0.5m B =0.65 to 0.8m B>0.8m
Light 40 50 70
Medium 60 70 100
Heavy 80 110 150

9.5 Review Question

1. Discuss the areas of application of oscillating conveyors.


2. What are the basic elements of an oscillating conveyor?
3. Discuss the different types of oscillating conveyors.
4. What limitations do oscillating conveyors have?
5. What considerations do you take in designing an oscillating conveyor?
CHAPTER TEN
SCREW CONVEYORS
10.1 Introduction

The screw conveyor, one of the oldest and simplest methods used for the movement of
bulk materials, consists of a long-pitch plate-steel helix mounted on a shaft or spindle
carried in bearings within a U-shaped trough. As the element rotates, the material fed to
it is moved forward by the thrust of the lower part of the helix and is discharged through
openings in the trough bottom or at the end.

Fig.10.1 Horizontal Screw Conveyor

The movement of the materials is forced through the trough by a rotating screw
(Fig.10.1), which is formed by a helical blade attached to the drive shaft 8 which is
coupled to a drive 1and supported by end bearings 2,6 and by inner bearings 4. The
trough 7 of the round-bottom shape is topped by a cover plate 3 with an opening 5 for
loading the conveyor. A similar unloading opening 9 is provided in the bottom of the
trough. The loading and unloading points can be located anywhere along the trough.
Screw Conveyors 198
____________________________________________________________________________________

10.2 Conveyor Components

a. The Conveyor Screw

This is the rotating part of the screw conveyor which imparts smooth and positive
motion to the bulk material being conveyed. It consists of spiral flying mounted on a
pipe and is made either right or left hand to suit the screw rotation and the desired
direction of material travel.

Fig.10.2 Typical Screw Configurations: (a) Helical Spiral (b) Ribbon Spiral
(c) Cut Flights

b. The Drive Shaft, End Shaft and Coupling

The drive shaft supports the conveyor screw section and keeps it in alignment. The
end shaft is located at the end opposite the drive shaft. Couplings are used to connect
successive conveyors screw section when more than one section is necessary to make
up the total length of conveyor. The shaft and coupling are secured in the conveyor
screw by coupling bolts as shown in Fig.10.3.
Screw Conveyors 199
____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig.10.3 Installing Screw Section in Trough and Fitting it onto Coupling

c. The End Seals

The plate seal (Fig.10.4a) is an economical, effective sealing device, designed for
exterior mounting between the end bearing and the trough end. Standard units employ
lip type seals to contact the shaft but other types of commercial seal cartridges also may
be used. The seal plate and the end bearing are bolted to the trough end by one set of
bolts. Split gland seals (Fig.10.4b) are designed for interior or exterior mounting. They
provide a seal which is effective for many applications. The universal type of seal
(fig.10.4c) is arranged for use with waste packing or with cartridge type lip or felt seals.
An opening at the top of the seal housing facilitates waste repacking, and exposes the
waste for oiling. The packing seal housing is mounted outside the trough and between it
and the end bearing.

Packing gland seals (Fig.10.4d) are effective means for sealing the conveyor both
internally and externally. This seal also is sometimes suitable for pressure or vacuum
service. The packing pressure is adjusted by the gland bolts. Air purge shaft seals
(Fig.10.4e) are arranged for attaching to standard or special trough ends. A constant air
pressure is maintained to prevent material from escaping from the trough along the shaft.
The air purge seal is desirable for sealing highly abrasive materials.
Screw Conveyors 200
____________________________________________________________________________________

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Fig.10.4 Various End Seals

d. The Conveyor Complete with the Trough and the Drive

The trough is the enclosure in which the material is confined and guided in its
movement. A shaft mounted speed reducer makes a simple and compact drive
combination.

Typical Drive Arrangements

Screw conveyors are not limited to conveying horizontally. With specialised design the
unit may operate at a slope or in the vertical position. There could be many drive
arrangements to meet the practical limitation like space, type of drive, etc. Some of the
drive arrangements are presented in Fig.10.5 below.
Screw Conveyors 201
____________________________________________________________________________________

Fig.10.5 Typical Drive Arrangements: (a) Vertical (b) Horizontal and Vertical
(c) Steep Slop

10.3 Typical Applications

Screw conveyores serve a wide variety of purpose in many industries. Some of the
application areas are:

1. When the materials are extremely hot, cast screws and troughs may be used
or the screws and troughs may be made of high temperature alloy metals.
2. If the materials are sticky or viscous, ribbon flight screws may be the choice.
Furthermore, special coatings applied to the screw and troughs may also aid
the flow of the material.
3. When extremely abrasive materials are to be conveyed they may require
screws and troughs made of abrasion resistant metals or the screws may be
provided with hard surface flights.
4. When the materials are corrosive it may be desirable to make the conveyor
screws and troughs of stainless steel, Monel metal, nickel, aluminium, etc.
Screw Conveyors 202
____________________________________________________________________________________

5. When the materials are to be mixed or aerated a conveyor screw of ribbon


flights or cut flights or one of these combined with paddles may be used to
obtain the desired results.

6. If materials are to be heated or cooled, which conveying they may require


jacketed troughs arranged for circulating heating or cooling media.
7. When contaminable materials are handled they may require self lubricated
bearings, screw and trough construction which will eliminate pockets, creels,
etc.

10.4 Design Considerations

The trough is commonly fabricated from flat sheet from 2 and 8mm thick. The screw
pitch t = (0.5 to 1.0) D, where D is the screw diameter. The screw diameter D is
governed by the lump size, being at least twelve times that for loads of uniform lump
size and at least four times the maximum lump size in case of unsized bulk materials.

The screw speed is influenced by the nature of load and screw diameter, increasing
inversely with the bulk weight, screw diameter and the intensity of abrasive action of the
material. Conveyors handling heavy materials operate at around 50rpm and those
designed to convey light loads, at up to 150rpm.

The cross-sectional loading of a screw conveyor is given by

π d2
A =ϕ (10.1)
4

where ϕ = the capacity factor which take account of the accumulation of


load at inner bearing (Table 10.1)
D = screw diameter

Table 10.1 Values Capacity Factor

Material ϕ
Heavy-weight abrasive loads 0.125
Heavy-weight mildly abrasive 0.250
Light-weight mildly abrasive 0.320
Light-weight non abrasive 0.400

The hourly capacity can be calculated by

Q = 3.6 A vγ k tons/hr (10.2)


Screw Conveyors 203
____________________________________________________________________________________

where k is a factor introduced in designing inclined


conveyors(Table10.2)
v = the speed of the conveyor [m/s]
γ = specific weight of the material [kg/m3]

Table 10.2 Values of k corresponding the Inclination β

β (degrees) 0 5 10 15 20
k 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.75

The speed of the conveyor

tn
v= (10.3)
60

where t = pitch of the screw (lead) [m]


n = rpm of the screw

The capacity formula can be rewritten,

π D 2 tn
Q = 3600 ϕ γ k
4 60

= 47ϕ ⋅ t ⋅ n ⋅ D 2 ⋅ k ⋅ γ (10.4)

From practical experience,

n = 60/ D for light non − abrasive load


n = 45/ D for heavy non − abrasive load
n = 30/ D for heavy abrasive load

The power requirement in kW at the drive shaft for horizontal conveyors,

QL
N h = C0 (10.5)
367

where N h = power requirement for horizontal conveyor


C o = friction factor (Table 10.3)
L = conveyor length [m]
Screw Conveyors 204
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and for sloping installation

QH QL
Ns = + C0 (10.6)
367 367

where N s = power requirement for inclined conveyor


H = level difference

Load per meter [kg/m]

Q
q= (10.7)
3.6 ν

Axial force, P [kg]

Mo
P= (10.8)
r tan(α + ϕ )

102 N o × 60
Mo =
2πn

N0
= 975 kgm (10.9)
n

where M 0 = the resisting moment


N 0 = N h for horizontal conveyor
= N s for inclined conveyor
D
r = radius at which the force P is applied r = (0.7 to 0.8 ) ×
2
ϕ = reduced friction angle, tan ϕ = μ
α = screw helix angle

The friction factor C o is adopted based on experimental data.

Table 10.3 Friction Factor C o

Material Co
Flour, cereal, saw dust 1.2
Peat, Soda ash, pulverised coal, finely ground chalk 1.6
Coal (lump anthracite and bituminous, air dry brown), rock salt 2.5
Gypsum, dry clay, sand, cement, ash, lime, moulding sand 4.0
Screw Conveyors 205
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Example10.1.

Calculation of a Screw Conveyor

Design a horizontal screw conveyor to meet the following conditions.

- material to be conveyed: moulding sand


- required capacity: Q =35 tons/hr
- the conveying run length: L = 20m
- bulk weight of the material: γ = tons/m3

Solution:

1. Main parameters of the conveyor. Considering that the material is heavy and
abrasive, we take the trough loading efficiency ψ = 0.125 and the screw pitch
t = 0.8 D . Hence, shaft speed will also be low, i.e. n = 37.5 rpm. A reducer with two
spur gear pairs will suit the purpose.

Substituting t = 0.8 D in equation 10.4, we obtain:

4Q 4 × 35
D=3 =3
60π × 0.8 × n ⋅ψ ⋅ γ ⋅ k 60 × 3.14 × 0.8 × 37.5 × 0.125 × 1.65 × 1

= 0.495 m ≈ 0.5 m.

2. Required power. The resistance to motion factor for moulding sand being C o = 4 ,
we determine the power required on the screw shaft from equation 10.5:

QL 35 × 20
N h = C0 = 4× ≈ 7.7 kW
367 367

Taking the efficiency of the reducer with two spur gears η = 0.9 , the required motor
power will be

Nh 7.7
N= = ≈ 8.5 kW
η 0.9

The torque transmitted by the electric motor to the screw shaft is obtained from
equation 10.9:

N0 7.7
M o = 975 = 975 × = 200 kgm
n 37.5
3. Load propulsion rate ( t = 0.8 D = 0.8 × 0.5 = 0.4 m ), and from equation 10.3
Screw Conveyors 206
____________________________________________________________________________________

tn 0.4 × 37.5
v= = = 0.25 m / sec .
60 60

4. The load per meter of conveyor length is obtained from equation 10.7:

Q 35
q= = = 38.8 kg / m.
3.6 ν 3.6 × 0.25

5. Axial force along the screw: this can be obtained from equation 10.8 as

D 0.5
r = 0.8 × = 0.8 × = 0.2 m.
2 2

ϕ = 38 0 40 ' ( f = 0.8 ) , α = 17 0 40 '

hence,
Mo 200
P= = = 660 kg .
r tan(α + ϕ ) 0.2 × 1.5

The shaft is subjected to a complex load made up of

1. the torque with moment M 0 ;


2. tension (compression) by force P;
3. the bending effort between bearings due to the own weight;
4. the transverse component acting on the screw surface and screw edge, and
5. the longitudinal force on this section exerted eccentrically on the turns.

Since not all of these forces can be determined precisely, the calculation for the strength
of the components is usually simplified by estimating according to M 0 and P.

10.5 Review Questions


1. Describe a screw conveyor and its basic components
2. State the typical applications of a screw conveyor.
3. Discuss the different drive arrangement in screw conveyors.
4. What considerations are taken in designing a screw conveyor?
5. Design a screw conveyor to meet the following conditions.
- material to be conveyed; coal
- required capacity; 10 tons/hr
- length of the conveyor; 12 m
- arrangement; inclined (150)
CHAPTER ELEVEN
PNEUMATIC CONVEYORS
11.1 Introduction

Pneumatic conveying is a method of transporting bulk materials in the form of


powder, short fiber and granules over a pipeline as a mixture with air or due to
pressure of air. There are three basic system used.

11.1.1 Suction or Vacuum System

This system utilizes a vacuum created in the pipeline to draw the material with the
surrounding air.

The first is a straight, simple negative-pressure or vacuum system (Fig.11.1). This


consists of the piping and the pickup manifolds which can be a Y-branch, where the
material drops into the air system and is pulled by the vacuum, thereby eliminating
dust at pickup source.

This type of system can be used in those operations where products must be fed into a
dump hopper. The conveying air can be used to control the dust that is generated
from the dumping operation. An air intake scoop or filter is required depending on
the products to be handled. The receiver can be a cyclone connected with a
centrifugal fan that will tolerate small amounts of product and dust passing through it.
However, if a rotary positive-displacement blower is the vacuum source, the receiver
must be a filter type to prevent any product passing through the blower because of its
close tolerances.

These systems are particularly suited to moving material from multiple pickup points
to a single location, the reason being that the bulk of the system's expense is in the
terminal end where the receiver, rotary valves, and vacuum source are located. The
pickup points are Y-branches or manifolds with cutoff valves that can be manually or
automatically operated.
Pneumatic Conveyors 208
__________________________________________________________________________________

Fig.11.1 Pneumatic Conveyor - Vacuum System

A positive pressure exhauster 6 causes material to flow through a nozzle 1 and a duct
2 into a cyclone collector 3 where it is separated from the conveying air. The exhaust
air is fed to a filter collector 5 for complete recovery of the fine material, leaving then
through the exhauster into the atmosphere. The material is discharged form the
collectors through rotary air lock feeders 4 preventing in leakage of air. Vacuum
conveying eliminates the dust problem and is successfully applied for unloading
material at a number of points, using a network of pipes and delivering to a single
point. This system operates at 0.5-0.6atm and is utilized mainly in conveying light
free flowing materials over short distances.

11.1.2 Pressure-type System

The next pneumatic system is the straight pressure type, which is ideally suited for
conveying from one pickup location to many discharge locations (Fig.11.2). The
greatest cost in this system is at the pickup location where the rotary valve and the
blower are located. At the terminal end, the system is blowing into some bins and
utilizes some diverter valves or a manual switch station. If the product is the same in
all bins, just one filter is necessary by interveting the bins. Generally, this type of
system is more economical when going from one point to several. The one drawback
of this type of system is that the air leakage at the pickup point must be handled.
Because of the clearances in the rotary valve and the displacement of the rotor, there
is a constant flow of air passing out of the system at the pickup location. This has to
be vented in some manner, either by a simple sock (depending on the product) or an
elaborate and expensive secondary dust-collecting method which may make the
system more expensive in the final analysis than a vacuum type.

These systems operate up to a maximum gauge pressure of 1bar, normally the


pressure of rotary positive displacement blowers that are commercially available.
Unless a high-pressure tank system is available, rotary valves generally cannot do an
effective job of sealing when gauge pressure exceeds 1bar. A gauge pressure of 1bar,
as compared to the vacuum system described earlier, using the same rotary positive-
Pneumatic Conveyors 209
__________________________________________________________________________________

displacement blower, can provide only about 400mm of mercury, or roughly 0.53bar.
Thus a larger conveying job can be done with a smaller pipe in a pressure system than
in a vacuum system, but the power consumption should be the same because the same
amount of work is being done. A vacuum system with a bigger pipe is not going to
take more power to do the same work; the same amount of product is being moved
over the same distance. Power consumption should be the same, provided that the
same vacuum or pressure source is being used.

If one compares a fan on a vacuum system to a rotary positive displacement blower


on a pressure system, then a difference may be seen in the power requirement because
the fan is not as efficient as the blower. The power consumption should be very close
to the same except for any difference in the efficiency of the air prime movers. The
advantage is that it enables a smaller line to be used and increases the density of
product loading in the conveying air. Degradation of the product is reduced because
the product does not rattle around as much in the conveying pipe. A pressure system
of this type generally conveys with a product-to-air ratio of about 20kg of material
per kg of air, or approximately 24kg of material/m3 of air (or 20 m3 of air/m3 of
product).

Fig.11.2 Pneumatic Conveyor -Pressure System

Material is introduced into a pipeline 2 trough a rotary a air lock feeder 10 to be


conveyed by transport air fed by a blower 7 through a receiver 8 and a moisture trap
9. At the destination, the air stream enters a cyclone collector 3 for the recovery of
material and the exhaust air passed through a fitter collector 5 for dust separation
before leafing into the atmosphere. It operates under a pressure of 6atm and upwards
and is capable of handling heaving pulverized and lumpy materials from one loading
point to a number of unloading ones.

11.1.3 Combination System (Push-Pull System)

This is a system in which a sanction system is used to convey material form a number
of loading points and pressure system is employed to deliver it to a number of
Pneumatic Conveyors 210
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unloading points. Such installations are utilized when conveying over a long distance
is required.
A combination of the vacuum and pressure system has obvious advantages. Such a
system can pick up from a railroad car and convey by pressure to storage tanks, or
pick up from any other device that requires a vacuum-type intake to handle
particularly fine, dusty material that is difficult to introduce into a pressure system
because of the blow-back. In going from many pickup points to many discharge
points, it is usually more economical because the meat of the system-a filter receiver
the pressure side-is in the middle.

One type of vacuum-pressure system utilizes a centrifugal fan with a cyclone


separator. This uses the vacuum side of the fan to pull the product into the cyclone
and the pressure side of the fan to convey away from the cyclone to the discharge
points. The fan can tolerate the product from the cyclone passing through it without
any difficulty. Such a system does have some drawbacks because it is limited to the
total pressure drop that can be overcome with a centrifugal fan. Single-stage fans
normally develop about 1650mm of water. A multistage fan may get as high as
3000mm of water. This makes the size of the conveying line larger than it would be
with rotary positive-displacement blowers. This increases the size of the filters at the
discharge location.

For best results, a pull-push system should utilize a separate blower on the vacuum
and a separate blower for the pressure side. The main advantage of this is that the
vacuum side can be sized for a full 400mm of mercury vacuum while allowing the
pressure side to be sized for a full gauge pressure of 1bar. This helps to maintain a
smaller pipe on each side and keeps the filters, diverter valves, and blowers
considerably smaller. It also provides good control over the volumes on each leg.
When both legs are tied together to a common fan or blower and velocity is too low
on the pressure side (which is usually the case because of compression ratio), the
blower must be sped up to increase the velocity on the pressure side. Velocity on the
negative side then goes out of sight and product degradation or abrasion increases.
Separate blowers for the vacuum leg and the pressure leg can be fine-tuned
independently of each other. Velocity can be increased on the vacuum side by
changing the drive on the blower, without affecting the pressure side or vice versa.

11.2 Applications and Limitations of Pneumatic Conveyor

The widespread application of pneumatic conveyors is due to the following


advantages: delivery of materials over a path capable of changing its dissection in any
plane as required, processing of the material simultaneously with its conveying, an
almost limitless number of loading and unloading points served by a single system,
air and gas tightness eliminating dust nuisance and dust hazards and an almost totally
automated conveying with considerable reduction of losses of material, improved
labor conditions and minimum of human attendance.
Pneumatic Conveyors 211
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There are limitations of the system. Some of them are high power requirements
(these amount to 15kWh/t, being 10 to 15 times higher than for mechanically driven
conveyors), rapid wear of equipment, the problem of dust recovery from the exhaust
air before this leaves into the atmosphere and inability to convey wet, caking and
sticky loads.

11.3 Pneumatic Conveyor Components

A pneumatic conveyor transporting bulk materials in a stream of air consists of the


intake unit, pipe, changeover valve, separators and dust collectors, compressor plant
and automatic control devices.

11.3.1 Intake Units

One of the most delicate problems in pneumatic conveyors is the introduction of


material to the flow of air at a regulated rate. There are different methods. Some of
them are:

a. Nozzle Injector

The increased velocity due to the nozzle pushes the material into the pipe of
pneumatic conveyor. The difference in pressure (as a result of velocity increase) has
a sucking effect from the feeding chamber.

Blower
Feeder

Fig.11.3 Nozzle Injector

b. Rotating Valve

This is used for non-abrasive materials and a capacity less than 15t/h and of
conveying length 100 to 200 m.
Pneumatic Conveyors 212
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Fig.11.4 Rotating Valve

c. Stationary Screw Feeder

This is widely applied for cement and other powdered materials. The material from
the hopper is forced by high-speed motor driven screw through feed funnel into a
mixing chamber.

Fig.11.5 Stationary Screw Feeder

d. Suction Nozzles

They are used to charge material into the pipe of sanction conveyors. They work in
the following way: the nozzle, attached to a flexible hose connected with the pipe, is
buried into the bulk material to be conveyed. The pressure drop creates a stream of
Pneumatic Conveyors 213
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air which partly posses through the material, the other part being fed from the annular
slot of the nozzle through a controlled valve.

Fig.11. 6 Suction Nozzle

11.3.2 Conveying Pipes and Changeover Valves

Seamless steel pipes ranging in diameter from 50 to 250 mm are used in high
conveyors. Lighter pipes with a wall thickness of 1 to 3mm may be used in medium
and low-pressure conveyors. The pipes are joined with standard flanges,
correspondingly sealed.

A changeover valve serves to connect the pumping unit to one of the branches of the
pipe.
Pneumatic Conveyors 214
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Fig.11. 7 Conveying Pipe and Changeover Valves

11.3.3 Separators
rators and Dust Collectors

The material-laden air enters the separator where the loss of velocity, change of
direction of the flux and the action of the centrifugal force separate the material from
the air stream. The mixture looses its velocity due to the sudden expansion of the
separator which may be a container, hopper or chamber.

The cross-sectional area of the separator is 50 to 150 times larger than that of the
conveying pipe. The velocity falls as low as 0.2 to 0.8m/s which is low enough to
clean the conveying air stream even of small particles.

Fig.11. 8 Separator

Although the air velocity in the separator is much reduced, it remains high enough to
carry dust and very light particles in suspension to the outlet. Various types of filters
may be centrifugal cyclones, bag filter, wet electronic filters, etc.

11.4 Design Considerations

In pneumatic conveyor calculations given are properties of the material, required


capacity Q tons per hour and the configuration of the conveying pipe.

Required are:

1. Calculated (reduced) conveying length, Lred [m]

Lred = ∑ Lhor + ∑ Lv + ∑ Leqe + ∑ Leqv (11.1)

where ∑ Lhor = sum of lengths of horizontal sections


∑ Lv = sum of lengths of vertical sections
∑ Leqe = sum of lengths equivalent to elbows
∑ Leqv = sum of lengths equivalent to change over valves
Pneumatic Conveyors 215
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R0
= the ratio of bend radius to the inner pipe diameter
dp

Table 11.1 Values of Equivalent Lengths for Elbows

R0
Material Values of Leqe [m] at
dp
4 6 10 20
Powdered 4-8 5-10 6-10 8-10
Granular Homogenous - 8-10 12-16 16-20
Small Lumped Irregular - - 28-35 38-45
Large Lumped Irregular - - 60-80 70-90

The commonly used value for a two-way changeover valve Leqv = 8m.

2. Conveying air stream velocity, v air [m/s]

v air = α γ 1 + BL2 red (11.2)

where α = factor for the size of load particles


γ 1 = specific weight of the load particles[tons/m3]
B = factor assumed as equal to (2 to 5) 10-5, the lower values
being taken for dry powder materials.

Table 11.2 Values of Factor α for the Size of Load Particles

Maximum Particle Size α


Material α'
Powdered 1-1000micron 10-16
Granular Homogenous 1-10mm 17-20
Small Lumped Homogenous 10-20mm 17-22
Medium Lumped Homogenous 40-80mm 22-25
Pneumatic Conveyors 216
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3. Weight concentration of the mixture, μ :

Fig. 11.9 Graph Showing the Dependence of the Weight Concentration of the Mixture
μ on the Reduced Conveying Length Lred .

Note: Graph (1): 1- for dry free flowing materials of high specific weight ( γ 1 = 2.5 to
3.2 t/m3), 2- for materials of a lower specific weight ( γ 1 = 1.8 to 2.5 t/m3) but
higher moisture content and high abrasivity. Graph (2): for grain.

4. Air consumption, Vol [m3/s]

Q v air
Vol = = πd p2 (11.3)
3.6γ air μ 4

where Q = capacity of installation [tons/hour]

5. Conveying pipe inner diameter, d p [m]

4Vol
dp = (11.4)
v air π

6. The required air pressure in the pipe, [kg/cm2]

If the material is to be lifted to a height H meter, not only frictional losses but also
weight of the column of air and material reduced to one unit of the cross-sectional area
of the pipe must be taken into account.
Pneumatic Conveyors 217
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Hγ air μ
Pcs =
10 4

where γ air = specific weight of the air (average for a given vertical
section).

For pressure conveying system

βμLred v air 2
Pi = 1 + ± Pcs (11.6)
dp

where β = a factor; for pressure conveying systems, β depends on the


μLred v air 2
value of s = and for suction (Fig.11.10) and for suction
dp
conveying system: β = 1.5 × 10 −7

And for suction conveying system

βμLred v air 2
Pf = 1 − m Pcs (11.7)
dp

The plus sign before Pcs in equation 11.6 is taken for upward, the minus sign for
downward movement. The opposite applies to equation 11.7.

Fig 11.10 Graph Showing the Dependence of Factor β on the Value of s


Pneumatic Conveyors 218
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7. The required air pressure of the compressor or air blower, [kg/cm2]

Pb = Pwα + Ploss (11.8)

where Pw = working pressure


= Pi , for pressure conveying system
= Po − Pf , suction conveying system
α =1.15 to 1.25 factor for losses in the intake unit
Ploss = pressure loss in the supplying air main, for compressors,
Ploss = 0.3 kg/cm2
P0 = atmospheric pressure = 1atm.

8. The required capacity of the compressor or blower, [m3/min]

πd p2 v air α '
Vo = Volα ' = (11.9)
4

Where α ' = factor for losses due to leaks = 1.1.

9. The required motor power, [kW]

LbVo
Nb = (11.10)
60 × 102η

Where Lb = theoretical work of the blower reduced to one m3 drawn


in during isothermal compression [kgm/m3].

η = total efficiency of compressors =0.55 to 0.75.


Pb
Lb = 23,030 P0 log .
P0
Pneumatic Conveyors 219
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Example 11.1

Calculation of a Pneumatic Conveying System

A pressure conveying installation is designed to convey cement from the store of a


building work to the concrete plant as shown in the figure below. Given are:

Q = 50t/h
γ 1 =3.2t/m3

Fig. 11.11 A Pressure Conveying Installation

Solution:

1. The required (calculated) Conveying length, Lred (equation 11.1)

Lred = ∑ Lhor + ∑ Lv + ∑ Leqe + ∑ Leqv

Ro
At =4 (Table 11.1), Leqe =5m,
dp
Leqe = 210+25+3×5=250m.

2. Velocity of the conveying air stream, v air (equation 11.2)

v air = α γ 1 + BL2 red = 12× 3.2 + 3 × 10 −5 × (250) 2 = 23.5 m/s.

3. The weight concentration of the mixture, μ

Fig.11.10, Curve 1: μ = 35.


Pneumatic Conveyors 220
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4. The required air consumption, Vol (equation 11.3)

Q 50
Vol = = = 0.33 m/s.
3.6γ air μ 3.6 × 1.2 × 35

5. The inner diameter of the pipe, d p (equation 11. 4)

4Vol 4 × 0.33
dp = = ≈ 0.135 m.
v air π 3.14 × 23.5

Hence we take a seamless steel pipe of a diameter closest to the calculated, i.e.,
one with outer diameter of 146mm with a wall thickness of 5mm ( d p = 136mm).

6. The required (absolute) air pressure at the initial point of the conveying pipe, Pi

From Fig. 11.10,


μLred v air 2 35 × 250 × (23.5) 2
s= = ≈ 36 × 10 6 .
dp 0.136

β = 2.5 × 10 −7

From equations 11.5 and 11.6,

βμLred v air 2 Hγ air μ


Pi = 1 + ± Pcs ; Pcs =
dp 10 4

βμLred v air 2 Hγ air μ 25 × 1.8 × 35


Pi = 1 + + 4
= 1 + 2.5 × 10 −7 × 36 × 10 36 +
dp 10 10 4

≈ 3.5atm ≈ 2.5atm gauge.

7. The required air pressure in the air main of the compressor, (equation 11.8)

Pb = Pwα + Ploss = 3.5 × 1.2 + 0.3 = 4.3atm.

8. The required compressor capacity, Vo [m3/min] (equation 11.9)


Pneumatic Conveyors 221
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πd p2 v airα '
Vo = Volα ' = × 60 = 3.14 × (0.136) 2 × 23.5 × 1.1 × 60 = 22 m3/min.
4
9. The required motor power of the compressor, N b (equation 11.10)

LbVo 15 × 10 3 × 22
Nb = = = 98 kW.
60 × 102η 60 × 102 × 0.55
P 4.3
Where Lb = 23,030 P0 log b = 23,030 × 1 × log ≈ 15 × 10 3 kgm/m3.
P0 1

Example 11.2

Calculation of a Suction Conveying Installation

A suction conveying installation is designed to unload marine carriers as shown in the


figure below. Given are:

Q =25t/h
γ 1 =1.4t/m3 (the load to be discharged is wheat)
H= ∑ l v =15m
∑ l hor =10m

Fig. 11.12 A Suction Conveying Installation

Solution:

1. Lred
Lred = ∑ Lhor + ∑ Lv + ∑ Leqe + ∑ Leqv

Ro
At =6 (Table 11.1), Leqe =10m,the calculated number of elbows with the
dp
flexible section included is 2.5.

Lred =10+15+2.5×10=50m.
Pneumatic Conveyors 222
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2. v air
v air = α γ 1 = 18 1.4 ≈ 22 m/s.
3. μ

Fig.11.9, Second graph, μ =15.

4. Vol

Q 25
Vol = = = 0.385 m/s.
3.6γ air μ 3.6 × 1.2 × 15

5. d p

4Vol 4 × 0.385
dp = = = 0.14 m.
v air π 3.14 × 22

Take: d p = 140mm (with outer diameter of 152mm and wall thickness of 6mm).

6. Pf (equations 11.7 and 11.5)

μLred v air 2 15 × 50 × 22 2
Auxiliary quantity s, s = = = 25.8 × 10 5 .
dp 0.14

with β = 1.5 × 10 −7 .

βμLred v air 2 Hγ air μ


Pf = 1 − − 4
; γ ' air = 0.95 ; Po ≈ 1 kg/cm2
dp 10
15 × 0.95 × 15
= 1 − 1.5 × 10 −7 × 25.8 × 10 5 − = 0.764 atm.
10 4
The required vacuum at atmospheric pressure, Po

Pw = Po − Pf = 1- 0.764 = 0.236kg/cm2.

7. Pb :

Pb = Pwα + Ploss = 0.236×1.1+0.02 = 0.28atm.

For grain loaders: α =1.05 to 1.1.


Ploss =0.002kg/cm2 for suction systems.
Pneumatic Conveyors 223
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8. Vo

πd p2 v airα ' 3.14


Vo = Volα ' = × 60 = × 0.14 2 × 22 × 1.1 × 60 = 22.3m/min.
4 4

9. N b

LbVo 500 × 22.3


Nb = = =33kW.
60 × 102η 60 × 102 × 0.55

where Lb = 5000kg/m3.

11.5 Review Questions

1. Describe a pneumatic conveyor system and its components.


2. What are the applications and limitations of a pneumatic conveyor system?
3. Discuss the difference between vacuum, pressure and combination type pneumatic
conveying systems.
4.What considerations are taken in designing a pneumatic conveying system?
224

Bibliography

1. A. Spivakovisky and V. Dyachkov, “Conveyors and Related Equipment”,


Peace Publishers, Moscow.
2. N. Rudenko, “Materials Handling Equipment”, Peace Publishers, Moscow.
3. M.P. Alexandrov, “Materials Handling Equipment”, Mir Publishers, Moscow
1981.
4. Link-Belt Catalogue, “Materials Handling & Processing Equipment”, U.S.A,
1958.
5. A. Monte, “Elementi di Impianti Indusriali”, Edizoni Libreria Cortina, Torino,
1994.
6. G.C. Barney, “Elevator Technology”, Ellis Horwood Limited Publishers,
1986.
7. Wilbur. G. Hudson, “Conveyors and Related Equipment”, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1954.
8. Materials Handling Hand Book, .
9. Ya. I. Oberman, “Materials Handling”, Mir Publisher, Moscow, 1988.

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