Material Handling by Dr.-Ing. Daniel Kitaw
Material Handling by Dr.-Ing. Daniel Kitaw
Material Handling by Dr.-Ing. Daniel Kitaw
By
INTRODUCTION
1
CHAPTER ONE
THE BASICS OF MATERIALS HANDLING
EQUIPMENTAND THEIR SELECTION
1.1 Definition
Materials handling can be defined as the art and science of conveying, elevating,
positioning, transporting and packaging and storing of materials regardless of size, form
and weight which effect a saving in money, time and place. The reference to materials
handling as an art and science is made, because the solution of most handling problems is
not susceptible to a single definite answer but depends largely on the experience and
judgement of individual materials handling engineer. Modern analytical methods and
engineering data, formula statistics and standards are becoming increasingly helpful in
arriving at a definite answer for some aspects of the problems. This makes modern
materials handling increasingly scientific, but it still remains to a large degree an art.
In short consider an industrial plant as a black box. The input (raw material or semi-
finished product) is unloaded, stored in the raw material store, fed into the handling
equipment in the plant, processed and finally the output (semi-finished or finished
products) again stored in the finished product store until loading it to the destination
required.
2
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 3
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CONTROL
Operation of unloading equipment may vary from seasonal or intermittent use at some
mines, grain elevators, and small plants, to the severe "day in, day out" service at steel
mills and large steam generating stations. Docks, piers, terminals and other bulk
transfer stations require a high degree of dependability and usually high capacities for
maximum economy.
Selection of the most effective and economical unloading equipment depends upon
the type of carrier to be unloaded, the characteristics and condition of the material, the
unloading rate, annual tonnage, the means of moving cars or barges to and from
unloader, and, in the case of large ships, the cost of demurrage.
The average unloading rate, in cars per hour, includes both the unloading cycle and
the time required to move cars to and from the unloading operation. The most
effective use of unloading equipment often requires haulage machines or car spotters
to reduce the delays of such movements. Also, feeding and conveying equipment is
more economical when the hopper, into which the car is unloaded, is large enough to
contain sufficient material to continuously feed the system while cars are shifted to
and from the unloading operation.
Unloading of free flowing material seldom requires considerations other than those of
capacity and appropriate type of equipment (Fig.1.2, a, b, c, d, e, and f). Sluggish or
sticky materials often require car shaker for quick, clean discharge of hopper cars, or a
rotary dumper for higher capacities. Frozen coal or ore may require thawing to free it
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 4
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from car sides, after which the discharge of moderate capacities of frozen lumps may
usually be accelerated by a car shaker. Higher capacities of frozen material can best
be unloaded with a rotary car dumper.
Various types of bucket elevator unloaders are also available for unloading ships of
grain, barges of coal and other free flowing materials at capacities up to 2000 or more
tons per hour.
After the unloading process, the material is stored in the raw material store. Then a
uniformly controlled feed is necessary for the most effective performance of most
bulk conveying systems and for may processing operations. Selection of the most
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 5
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suitable type of feeders depends upon the required capacity, as well as the size,
flowability, moisture content and other characteristics of the material. Before
dispatching, the material is packed and stored in the finished product store.
It is clear that materials handling plays a vital role in industrial plant operations. A
good materials handling system is flexible, compatible and reliable. By flexibility we
mean that the handling equipment has the capacity to respond or confirm to new
situations easily, while compatibility requires the number of varieties of models and
makes of equipment to be reduced. The ability of materials handling equipment and
system to operate safely, frequently and reliably has become increasingly important.
A good handling system may have the following benefits.
i. Reduce cost by
- Utilizing space to better advantage
- Increasing productivity
- Making a few number of effective movements
ii. Reduce waste by
- Eliminating damage to materials during the handling process.
- Maintaining proper control over the in-and-out of stock handling
process
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 6
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The general field of materials handling may be technically divided into five distinct
functional divisions or spheres of activity and into three main groups according to
their design features. The five distinct functional divisions or spheres of activity are:
1. Bulk handling: It involves the extracting, handling and storage of bulk materials
including gases liquids, semi-liquids and solids. These processes apply particularly
in the processing, basic heavy industries, and in the mine and construction
industries.
2. Unit handling: In manufacturing operations it covers the handling of formed
materials in the initial, intermediate and final stages of manufacture. It involves the
handling of unit loads ranging from pins to locomotives.
3. Packaging: Covers the design, selection and use of in process containers, and
includes packing of semi-finished and finished products.
4. Warehousing: The area covered by warehousing includes the receiving, storing,
shipping of materials in any form, and at any point in the process of manufacture
and distribution.
5. Carrier Handling: It covers the loading, securing, transporting, unloading and
transfer of all kinds of materials in highway trucks railway cars, barges, ships,
airplanes and at carrier terminals.
The three groups of materials handling equipment classified by their design features
are indicated in Fig.1.4.
a. Hoisting Equipment: A group of machines with lifting gear intended for moving
loads mainly in batches. This type of equipment is intended mainly for unit loads.
Hoisting machinery, cranes and elevators belong to this group.
b. Conveying Equipment: A group of machines, which may have no lifting gear
and which move load in a continuous flow. They are intended for bulk and unit
loads one at a time. All conveyors including pneumatic and hydraulic conveyors
belong to this group.
c. Surface and Overhead Equipment: A group of machines, which may not be
provided with lifting gear and which usually handle loads in batches. Trackless
trucks, narrow-gauge cars belong to this group.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 7
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MATERIALS
HANDLING
EQUIPMENT
given below. Fig.1.5 depicts a typical hoisting machines like screw jack, electric
hoists, capstans, pulleys, bridge cranes and crane trolley. The components and the
theory of those will be dealt from Chapter Two to Chapter Six, in Part Two of this
text.
An introduction on conveyors and their applications along with figures are given
below (Fig.1.6 to Fig.1.13). Details of these conveyors are discussed in Part Three of
this text (From Chapter Seven to Twelve).
a. Belt Conveyors: They are suitable for handling many materials in a wide rang of
sizes, over long distances up and down slops. They are outstanding for low power
requirements, high capacities, simplicity and dependable operation. Material is
carried on belt running over anti-friction idler rolls.
b. Oscillating Conveyors: They are adapted to handling hot abrasive stringy and
irregular shaped lumpy materials as well as dusty materials or those that cannot be
exposed. They have leak-proof trough in which there are no moving parts and can
be enclosed and sealed for dust-proof or gas tight operation. They are made in
three types for light, medium and heavy-duty service.
c. Apron Conveyors: They handle many kinds of materials but are particularly
suitable to those which are heavy, abrasive or lumpy. Bladed overlapping carrying
pans are usually mounted on two strands of chain operating on track they are self
feeding and can be used on combined horizontal and inclined paths.
d. Screw Conveyors: They are adapted to a wide range of bulk materials of fine and
moderate sizes. They consist of helically formed flights on revolving shafts,
generally mounted in stationary, enclosed troughs which may be water or steam
jacketed for cooling, drying, etc. The rotation of the screw advances the material.
e. Flight Conveyors: They use scraper plates or flights, carried by one or two strands
of chain to push coal or other nonabrasive material align in troughs which may be
horizontal, inclined or a combination of both. Discharge may be over the end or
through the gates at intermediate points.
f. Bucket Elevator: They are probably the most widely used methods for elevating
bulk materials. Various types of design are available to meet the requirements of
different materials and operating conditions. Buckets are mounted on chain or belt.
They receive material at the boot and discharge it over the head wheel by
centrifugal action or by gravity. The centrifugal discharge types are normally used
for free flowing, fine to medium size lump materials. Those discharging by
gravity, which comprise positive discharge, continuous bucket and internal
discharge types, are generally used for materials more difficult to handle due to
large lumps, sluggishness, fragile or similar characteristics.
g. Wide Chain Drag Conveyor: They are simple and satisfactory for handling saw
dust, wood chips and abrasive materials such as ash. Single strands of wide drag
chains slide the material in steel, hard iron or concrete troughs.
Various Materials Handling Equipment (MHE) can perform the same operation. The
success of an individual handling equipment or of a complete system depends largely
upon its suitability for the material it must handle. Usually there are various
alternative methods for handling materials in any given facility. The question is, how
does one go about selecting the right approach? The following sequence of steps is a
recommended approach for solving materials handling problems.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 13
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Identifying a materials handling problem is not always an easy task. Often problems
in a plant are attributed to other factors, such as production or quality control, when
the underlying cause actually stems from the handling approach being used.
Checklists given below can be used as a starting point and aid in spotting handling
problems in an existing plant. The checklists of this type should not be relied on in
themselves; sometimes they can be misleading. However, in general they do help to
spot symptoms that are associated with poor materials handling practices.
relationships can be noted between the different problems. First, the engineer or
analyst should look for relationships between problems within an operating section or
department. The next step is to look for relationships among problems in different
departments. It is important that handling efficiency be optimized throughout the
facility, not just within one isolated department.
Once a problem has been identified, the next important step is to define it fully. The
problem definition must include its scope. For example, suppose that considerable
clutter and confusion exist at a work area on the shop floor of a plant. What is the
scope of the problem? Is it limited to the work area itself, and attributable to a lack of
on-site storage facilities, or poor workplace handling practices? Or, might the problem
also encompass the way materials are being delivered from the receiving area, or from
the adjacent department? Perhaps the delivery of materials should be in an even flow
throughout the day, rather than in large, staggered increments. Possibly the difficulty
is caused by a poor layout of the production area.
A good first step in analyzing the data is to consider the 20 Principles of Materials
Handling. These principles are a distillation of accumulated experience and
knowledge on the part of many practitioners and students of materials handling. As
with any such listings, they should be viewed as general principles that can be used as
a starting point in developing a solution. However, they do not represent absolute
rules in any sense. Rather, they should be combined with other factors before arriving
at a solution. For example, although the use of gravity should be encouraged
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 15
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17. Layout Principle: Prepare an operational sequence and equipment layout for all
viable system solutions, then select the alternative system which best integrates
efficiency and effectiveness.
18. Cost Principle: Compare the economic justification of alternate solutions in
equipment and methods on the basis of economic effectiveness as measured by
expense per unit handled.
19. Maintenance Principle: Prepare a plan for preventive maintenance and
scheduled repairs of all material handling equipment.
20. Obsolescence Principle: Prepare a long range and economically sound policy for
replacement of obsolete equipment and methods with special consideration to
after-tax life cycle costs.
e. Evaluating Alternatives
Once appropriate data have been assembled and analyzed, the engineer can begin
developing and evaluating alternative solution plans. The elements of a materials
handling solution include people, equipment, facilities, money, and time. Thus,
formulation of a solution involves questions of the following type:
To answer these and related questions both technical and economic factors must be
considered. Usually the primary technical factor is a thorough knowledge of the types
of handling equipment available, their advantages and disadvantages for specific
applications, their purchase, installation, and operating costs, and their adaptability to
different situations. Plant visits, seminars, short courses, trade shows, and business
publications are all good sources of information.
solutions should also be tested against economic criteria. Factors such as cash flow,
investment, tax, credit, and income tax must always be taken into account.
The principal technical factors for the choice of types of MHE are the following:
After technical and economic factors have been considered, however, another set of
factors that must be dealt with are the intangibles. Often, these items can tip the
scales in one direction or another. Typical intangibles include the following:
- Increase in morale
- Job enrichment
- Improved customer service
- Compatibility with company philosophy
- Operating feasibility (considering availability of labor and skills)
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 18
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- Operator comfort
- Ability to cope with changing conditions
- Adaptability to future changes in technology
- Adaptability for expansion (or reduction)
- Quality of service
- Reputation with customers and vendors
- Durability of equipment
Simulation and other methods of computer analysis can be used to help evaluate
feasibility of alternatives. It is important, however, that the assumptions, underlying
any model and the relationships represented in it, are thoroughly understood.
Once a preferred solution has been identified, the major challenge is developing the
implementation plan. Obviously a different degree of effort and expertise is required
for obtaining a hoist, a section of conveyor, or a shelving section, as is the case for
planning an engineered materials handling system. Depending on the complexity of
the job, assistance may be required from equipment manufacturers, distributors,
consultants, and systems contractors.
1. Develop specifications
2. Evaluate supplies
3. Evaluate bids
4. Select supplies
5. Award contracts
1. Develop specifications
It is most important that the bid specification be written, be well organized, and spell
out clearly and precisely what various vendors will be bidding against. Even in a
small job, involving only a few pieces of equipment, competitive bids can vary widely
in price if vendors do not understand clearly what the specifications are to which they
must bid. As a minimum, requests for bids should be accompanied by scaled drawings
whenever appropriate. If larger systems are involved, consultants are often brought in
to assist with bid preparation.
2. Evaluating Suppliers
For a materials handling system of any significant size, qualifying those suppliers that
will be invited to submit bids is an important part of the bid preparation process.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 19
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Evaluation of supplier capabilities is also a factor when subsequent bids are being
evaluated. Depending on the scope of the project, it might be a good idea to tour the
prospective supplier's facilities, with the following questions in mind.
If possible, customers of the supplier also should be visited to see how their systems
are working out. If possible, operators and mechanics should be interviewed, as well
as supervisory and managerial personnel, in order to get a balanced viewpoint.
Information about the following matters should be sought:
An important part of evaluating competitive bids is making sure that all vendors are
bidding to the same specifications. This job is made easier when well-written, precise
specifications are prepared in advance. Otherwise, prices quoted may have no relation
to duty classification or construction grade of equipment quoted.
In the case of a large system or facility, a performance specification may be the basis
on which prospective suppliers bid. This type of specification spells out the type of
performance required (pallets per hour handled, number of picks per hour, etc.), but
does not necessarily restrict the supplier to the type of approach to be used. Rather,
the burden is on the bidder to suggest the approach to be taken.
The Basics of Materials Handling Equipment 20
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Once the supplier has been selected and the winning bid chosen, the contract must be
awarded. Often the success of the system fails down at this point. Practicality must be
kept in mind when the contract is drawn up. The important thing is that the system
meets performance specifications, on time, and within budget. The supplier should not
be bogged down with an overly restrictive contract that limits his abilities to perform.
On the other hand, the needs of the customer, as identified and approved by top
management, must not be compromised. Basically, the contract should be viewed as a
tool for helping both parties-the customer and the supplier-in managing the project. A
good materials handling contract generally contains the following elements.
1. Define what Materials Handling Equipment (MHE) are, and describe their
applications.
2. What factors will be considered when selecting the most effective and economical
unloading equipment?
3. State the factors that have to be considered while selecting efficient and suitable
types of feeders.
4. List down some of the benefits obtained from implementing a good material
handling system.
5. Discuss the three main groups of material handling equipment when they are
treated according to their design features.
6. Describe the necessary steps that are involved in implementing a material
handling systems project.
PART TWO
HOISTING EQUIPMENT
Hoisting equipment serves the purpose of moving loads vertically as well as transferring
them from a definite point of area covered by the equipment into another desired area. These
production machinery operate intermittently alike conveyors, which do operate
continuously. Structurally it is of diverse nature and may be classified accordingly to the
construction, application and the kind of work performed.
The breakdown of the hoisting equipment might mean the dropping of the lifted load which
could endanger life, thus quality materials are used that strictly conform to manufacturing
specifications and are selected on the basis of certificates provided by metal suppliers. The
component parts and units of hoisting equipment include: Flexible hoisting appliances;
Pulleys, pulley systems, sprockets and drums; Load handling attachments; Stopping and
braking devices; Drivers (motors); Transmissions; Transmission components (axles, shafts,
bearings, clutches, etc.); Rails and travelling wheels; Machine structures (crane frames) and
Control devices.
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CHAPTER TWO
THEORY OF HOISTING EQUIPMENT
2.1 Introduction
There are different types of hoisting equipment whose accurate classification is difficult.
Classification is made based on various characteristics. This may be according to the type of
movement, i.e., the path made by the load travelling in the various planes, or the
classification may be according to their purpose. They are designed, in their application, to
the specific operating conditions.
There are three groups of hoisting equipment having the following main distinctive features.
Hoisting equipment can be of a stationary, portable or travelling type; most cranes and
elevators are either stationary or travelling. The main technical parameters of hoisting
machines are:
- Lifting capacity: the maximum safe load the machine is designed to handle;
- Dead weight of the machine: the total weight of the machine with out the load;
- Speed of various movements: this may be of the hoisting speed, the bridge travel
speed and the trolley travel speed;
- Lifting height: the height to which the load is intended to be raised;
- Geometrical dimension of the machine.
Hoisting machines are periodic-action machines and their hourly capacity can be determined
from:
Qhr = n × Q (2.1)
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Theory of Hoisting Equipment 24
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Q = V ×ϕ ×γ (2.2)
Qtot = Q + G (2.3)
3600
n= (2.4)
∑t
where ∑ t = ∑ t op + t idle
∑ t op = t st + t cs + t r
t op = operation time
t st = starting time
t cs = constant speed time
t r = retardation time
t idle = time lost in grabbing and discharging the load
t = cycle time [seconds]
Mechanisms are rated for a duty depending on their utilization. If any of the utilization
factors (Table 2.1) characterizing a certain duty appears to be more than the actual value, the
mechanism in question should be rated for a heavier class of duty. The duty of hoisting
mechanism is derived by the full load lift demand factor, yearly and daily utilization factors
of the mechanism and the duty factor. The factors acting on the operating conditions of
hoisting equipment are:
Theory of Hoisting Equipment 25
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Depending on the duty (operating conditions) handling mechanisms are classified into four
groups.
Light duty =L
Medium duty =M
Heavy duty =H
Very Heavy duty = VH
Qm
K load = (2.5)
Qn
In cases where the weight of the handling attachment, G, is greater than or equal to one-fifth
of the live load, the value of K load becomes:
Theory of Hoisting Equipment 26
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Qm + G
K load = (2.6)
Qn + G
t op
DF = 100% (2.10)
t op + t idle
The ratio of the period, t op , when the mechanism is at work in the course of the duty
cycle to the total period of the cycle, t op + t idle , is the yardstick to indicate the intensity of
operations of the mechanism. The ratio is termed duty factor. Units and parts of hoisting
machinery are designed in accordance with the expected performance of the actual duty
of the mechanism in question. Recommended lifetime values for principal units of
hoisting machinery are given below.
Theory of Hoisting Equipment 27
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The total time-on, T, of a mechanism throughout its life, h (in years) required for endurance
calculation is given by:
DF
T = 365K year × 24 K day × K hr × ×h (2.11)
100
The number of switching-on operations for an electric drive per hour has been accepted as:
1. What are the three main groups of hoisting equipment? Discuss the main distinctive
features.
2. Discuss the main technical parameters of hoisting machinery.
3. What operational factors are considered in designing or selecting of hoisting
equipment?
CHAPTER THREE
FLEXIBLE HOISTING APPLIANCES
3.1 Introduction
The needs of hoisting machinery in pliable members are met widely by hemp rope,
welded and roller chains, and steel wire ropes. The applications of hemp ropes as pliable
members are limited due to their strength and lack of reliability. They are mainly used as
means of slinging the load to the hook. In this chapter, we deal with hemp ropes, welded
and roller chains, and steel wire ropes.
Because of their poor mechanical properties (rapid abrasion, inadequate strength, rapid
damage from sharp materials and atmospheric effects, etc.), they can be recommended
only for hand-operated hoisting machinery (rope pulleys). The diameters of the sheaves
over which the rope runs should be at least 10d, where d is the nominal rope diameter.
By the mode of manufacture and number of strands, hemp ropes are classified as plain-
laid or cable-laid, the latter being twisted from three ordinary ropes.
Hemp ropes are frequently impregnated with tar to make it water proof. By so doing the
rope displays better resistance to external effects (weather) but it becomes heavier and its
strength is reduced.
F =
πd 2 σ
br
4
For white rope σ br = 100 kgf/cm2 and for tarred rope σ br = 90 kgf/cm2.
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They are widely used in hoisting installations as pliable members. The main dimensions
of the links are (shown in Fig.3.2).
Depending on the ratio between the pitch and the diameter of the chain bar, welded
chains are classified into:
Production Methods
Welded chains are formed from oval steel links in the sequence shown in Fig.3.3. Links
for welded chain are formed by a number of methods. The most common of these are
hammer (forge) and electric resistance welding.
Chains are manufactured in the required (standardised) size and length and joined by
connecting links(Fig.3.4). After manufacturing, the chains are annealed. Welded chains
are tested by a test load equal to half the breaking load, which should not produce in
them any permanent set.
Application
Because of the shortcomings, welded chains are used only in some hand-operated
mechanisms (where Dmin > 20 d ) and in few power-driven mechanisms
(where Dmin > 30 d ). Preference is given to calibrated chains for their contact is
smoother while moving on pulleys or drums.
They are employed for low capacity hoisting machines (hoists, winches, hand-operated
cranes, etc.), they are also used as the main lifting appliance and as hand driven chains
for traction wheels (d = 5 to 6mm at a speed of v = 0.6 to 0.75m/s).
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 31
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Disadvantages of welded chains
- Heavy weight
- Susceptibility to jerks and overload
- Sudden failure
- Intensive wear at the link joints and
- Low safe speed of movement
The actual stress calculation is very difficult. This is due to the fact that the links welded
chains are statically determinate with respect to external forces and three-fold statically
indeterminate with respect to internal stress. Chains are checked for tension taking a
higher safety factor to take care of the complexity of the problem.
Fbr
Fs = (3.2)
K
The most intensive wear, which reduces the chain strength, occurs at the internal bent
section of the links acting as joints for the traction chain. The wear intensity depends on
the ratio of the connecting pitches; tension and speed of chain; the angle of the relative
turn of links as they pass around the sheaves, environment etc. Because of the additional
bending stresses and the three-fold statically indeterminate internal stresses, the safety
factor K should be taken from 3 to 8.
Roller chains are composed of plates hinge-jointed by pins and rollers. For light loads,
two plates (Fig.3.5) are used; for very heavy loads the number of plates can be increased
up to 12.
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The plates can be secured on the pins by several methods like retainer rings, pins, etc. as
shown in Fig.3.6 below.
Applications
Roller chains are used for hand-operated hoists and power-driven winches and hoisting
mechanisms of high load lifting capacity, operating at low speed, if the weight is lifted
between guide-ways.
Roller chains are superior to welded chains in a number of ways such as:
- To carry weight acting at an angle to the plate (to prevent excessive wear and
pin breakage)
- To be used in dusty premises (unless the chain is sealed by cover which
would cause excessive wear
- To wind on a drum as are operated in conjunction with sprockets
Equation 3.2 is employed for the calculation of safe load carried by the chain. The values
of the factor of safety K, the ration D/d (D is diameter of the drum or sprocket and d is
diameter of the chain bar or diameter of the roller) and the number of teeth on the
sprockets for welded and roller chains are tabulated below (Table 3.1). The values of
Fbr for each standardised chain are given in the concerned tabulations of standards and
manufacturers catalogue.
Factor Minimum
of Ratio Number
Chains Drive Safety, (D/d) of Teeth on
K Sprocket
Welded calibrated and uncelebrated Hand 3 20 5
power 6 30 5
Welded calibrated on sprocket Hand 4.5 20 -
sheaves power 8 30 -
Welded uncalibrated (sling) passing - 6 - -
around the load
Welded uncalibrated (sling) not - 5 - -
passing around the load
Roller - 5 - 8
The needs of hoisting machinery in pliable members are met predominantly by steel
wire ropes (Fig.3.7). The wire is drawn cold and given heat treatment as well as
chemical treatment between the drawing stages in order to obtain required strength,
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 34
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structure, appearance and surface finish. Steel wire ropes are extensively used in hoisting
machinery as flexible lifting appliances. Comparing to chains they have the following
advantages.
- Lighter weight
- Less susceptibility to damage from jerks
- Silent operation even at high speeds
- Greater reliability in operation
The wire rope becomes fuzzy long before rapture (unlike chains, which break at once)
for the outer wires break before the inner once (due to bending stresses and additional
contact compressive stresses). Wire ropes are made of steel having σ ult = 130 to 200
kgf/mm2. While manufacturing steel wire rope, they are subjected to special heat
treatment, which is combined with cold drawing imparts high mechanical properties to
the steel wire rope.
The manufacture of wire ropes is done by a special machine. This is performed first by
twisting separate wires into strands and then the strands are formed into a "round"
rope. Wires are cold drawn and given heat treatment between drawing stages. The
strands are laid on a core made of hemp, asbestos or a wire of soft steel. Normally
steel wire ropes consist of 6 or 8 strands and a core. Each strand consists of 19 or 37
wires.
Bright, uncoated wires are used for cranes working in dry premises. Galvanised wires
(zinc coated) are used for cranes operating in damp premises to prevent corrosion, but
the coating reduces the strength by 10%.
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Wire ropes formed from strands are known as double lay ropes. They are the most
popular types used in hoisting machinery. The lays of the rope classifies the wire ropes
into:
i. Cross-of regular lay ropes: the direction of the twist of the wires in the strand
is opposite to that of the strands in the rope (Fig.3.8a). Such ropes have the
widest application.
ii. Parallel or long lay ropes: the direction of twist of wire and strand is the
same (Fig.3.8b). This is more flexible and resists wear better, but tends to
spring. Parallel lay ropes are used in lifts and other hoisting equipment with
guide-ways and also for haulage ropes.
iii. Composite or reverse laid ropes: the wires in two adjacent stands are
twisted in the opposite direction (Fig.3.8c).
Each individual wire and strand being laid is performed to correspond to its disposition
in the rope. As a result unloaded wires are not subject to internal stresses and do not
tend to spin.
They are usually made from five flattened strands with a flattened wire core; the strands
are laid on the hemp core (Fig.3.9a&b). Thus they experience more uniform pressure.
Such ropes are used where the rope is subjected to intensive abrasion and wear. These
ropes have a larger area of contact with the pulley or drum with smaller compression,
abrasion and wear.
(a) (b)
The construction of a locked coil rope is different from that of the others. A locked coil
rope consists of an outer layer formed of specially shaped wire and an inner single lay
spiral rope (Fig.3.10a, b & c). Locked-coil wire ropes are used in cable-ways and cable
cranes; they are never met within hoisting machines. In the case of semi-locked coil
ropes the outer layer is a combination of shaped and round wires (Fig.3.10d).
Ropes should be replaced if a definite number of broken outer wires are detached over
the length of one lay (or pitch of strand). The following tables show the number of
wire breaks over the length of one pitch, after which the rope should be discarded
(Table 3.2 & Table 3.3).
Table 3.2 Safety Factors and Allowable Broken Wires as to the Construction of Wire
Rope for Lifts
Rope Construction
Table3.3 Safety Factors and Allowable Broken Wires as to Construction of Wire Ropes
for Cranes and Hoists
Rope Construction
Up to 6 12 6 22 11 36 18 36 18
6 to 7 14 7 26 13 38 19 38 19
above 7 16 8 30 15 40 20 40 20
1
Six strands of 19 wires in each plus one core.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 38
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Individual wires in a loaded bent rope experience a complex stress consisting of tension,
bending, twisting stresses combined with mutual compression and rubbing of the wires
and strands. Thus the total stress can be determined analytically only to a certain degree of
approximation. Besides that, as the ropes run over pulleys and drums, the outer wires are
subjected to abrasion which in turn, reduce the total strength of the rope. Experiments
have shown that life of a rope is greatly affected by fatigue. A wire rope can withstand
only a definite number of bends during service life.
Depending on the number of bends, the corresponding rope life can be found from the
ratios:
Dmin Dmin
and
d δ
Investigations have shown that at the constant ratios ( Dmin /d and Dmin /δ) rope life is
approximately inversely proportional to the number of bends, where one bend equals the
transition of the rope from its straight position into a bent or from a bent position to a
straight one. Reverse bending reduces the rope life approximately double of the straight
(single) one or it is equal to two single bends towards the same side.
In other words the number of bends is obtained by the number of points (pulleys and
drums) where the rope runs on and off, the bends in the same direction at these points are
considered single bends and if the direction varies or the bend reversed, then it is counted
as double bend. The number of bends can be found with sufficient accuracy if diagram is
plotted like on the Fig.3.11 above.
If loads are suspended on multiple crane pulleys, the development of the system shows the
number of bends. In a symmetrical system when a compensating pulley is used, the total
number of bends must be divided by two. The bends on the compensating pulley are not
considered, i.e. the rope is at stand - still while the load is lifted.
To obtain the same rope life, the effect of the number of bends should be compensated for
by an appropriate change in the ratio Dmin /d. Table 3.4 below illustrates the values of
Dmin /d as a function of the number of bends.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 39
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No. of bends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Dmin /d 16 20 23 25 26.5 28 30 31
No. of bends 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Dmin /d 32 33 34 35 36 37 37.5 38
On the basis of the accepted load suspension method we use the above Table 3.4 to find
Dmin /d. The area of the wire rope is the sum of the cross-sectional area of each individual
wire multiplied by a filling factor of 2.25. This is to compensate for the area of the core
material and the area in-between the wires (true only for one-size wire ropes).
πd 2 πδ 2
= i × 2.25
4 4
d = 1.5δ i (3.3)
S Mc
σ Σ = σ ten + σ ben = +
A I
2 1 M M 2E
= = ⇒ =
Dmin ρ EI I Dmin
δ Mc 2E δ Eδ
c= ⇒ σ ben = = ⋅ =
2 I Dmin 2 Dmin
σ br S δE'
σ ∑
= = + (3.4)
K A Dmin
3
E' = E = Corrected rope elastic modulus ≈ 800,000kg/cm2
8
⎛ d ⎞
E' ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
S E' δ S ⎝ 1.5 i ⎠ S E' σ br
Thus: σ ∑ = + = + = + = (3.5)
A Dmin A Dmin A D K
1.5 i × min
d
S
A= (3.6)
σ br d E'
− ×
K Dmin 1.5 i
After specifying and selecting K, and selecting the number of wires depending on the rope
construction, and at a definite σ br and d/ Dmin , the above formula may be used to find the
rope cross - sectional area. After finding "A" we select a rope with the nearest
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 41
___________________________________________________________________________________
characteristics (from Table3.5) first checking whether its ultimate strength
σ br corresponds to that accepted in the formula. The number of wires in the rope is
determined by the accepted design.
For ropes most frequently used in hoisting machinery, except compound laid ropes, i.e. for
ropes with 114, 222, 296 wires, the formula assumes the following form.
S
A114 = (3.7)
σ br d
- × 50000
K Dmin
S
A222 = (3.8)
σ br d
− × 36000
K Dmin
S
A296 = (3.9)
σ br d
− × 31000
K Dmin
The selection ropes by its breaking strength Fbr referred to the total cross-section of the
rope will be obtained from the following relations: Fbr = σ br × A . Thus,
S × σ br
F114 = σ br × A114 = (3.10)
σ br d
− × 50000
K Dmin
S × σ br
F222 = σ br × A222 = (3.11)
σ br d
− × 36000
K Dmin
S × σ br
F296 = σ br × A296 = (3.12)
σ br d
− × 31000
K Dmin
The values of d and δ in the selected rope need not be checked further, since the effect of
these values is taken fully into account in the design formula.
The strength calculation for ropes subjected to only tensile forces are made according to
equation 3.2.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 42
___________________________________________________________________________________
Fbr
Fs =
K
The maximum working tensile force due to the load in the rope parts of a load pulley
system, Fs is found from the formula.
Fbr Q
= (3.13)
K nηη1
The minimum permissible diameter of a drum or pulley is found from the relationship:
Dmin = e × d (3.14)
Drive Duty K e
Hand Light (L) 4.5 18
Light (L) 5.0 20
Power Medium (M) 5.5 25
Heavy (H) 6.0 30
Very Heavy (VH) 6.0 30
The diameter of the compensating pulley is considered to be 40% less than the diameter of
the rotating pulleys carrying the load.
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 43
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Various methods are used to secure the ends of chains and ropes. However, hemp ropes
are fastened by a number of methods of which only the connection with the help of eyelet
thimbles is recommended because of the strength of the rope material.
A split yoke and a bolt are used to attach the chain to the hook (Fig.3.12a). In the case of
fastening two chains strands a crosspiece and forked eyes is implemented (Fig.3.12b).
(a) (b)
Roller chains are connected to the trolley frame by means of a special link having bigger
pitch and hole for bolted connection. This is to say that the pitch l1 is greater than l and the
hole diameter d 1 is bigger than the nominal pin diameter (Fig.3.13).
The rope is secured in a tapered socket so as to attach it to any part of the hoisting
mechanism. The sequence of operation is depicted in Fig.3.14. The end of the rope is
tightened at points a and b. The upper one (a) is removed and the strands opened and
broomed. After cutting the hemp core the wires are bound together at a' and a" . Finally
the end of the rope is pushed into the socket and molten lead is poured into the socket after
removing a' and a" .
The strength calculation of a tapered wire rope socket requires the checking of
geometrical dimensions of the socket which would withstand the critical stresses. The
lateral force F on the socket walls can be calculated as:
Q
F=
2sin α
pA
F=
2
l (d1 + d 2 )π
A=
2
Hence
pl (d1 + d 2 )π
F=
4
r1 − r2 d 1 − d 2
l= =
sin α 2sinα
We have
Q p( d 1 + d 2 )( d 1 − d 2 )π
F= =
2 sin α 4 × 2sinα
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 46
___________________________________________________________________________________
p( d 12 − d 22 )π
Q=
4
4Q
p= (3.15)
(d − d 22 )π
2
1
4Q
d1 = +d2 (3.16)
pπ
Q
h= (3.17)
πd × τ sh
where τ sh =125kgf/cm2
The thickness of the socket walls is calculated considering the socket as a cylinder with
internal pressure p.
σ br + 0.4p × 2
d ex = d in (3.18)
σ br − 1.3p × 2
The factor 2 is used for safety due to the fact that the lead fillings do not contact the wall
uniformly. For example the values to be substituted for d ex are d3 and d4, while for d in the
substitutable values are d 1 and d 2 depending on whether the calculation is made for the
lower or the upper part of the cone. The wall thickness is equal to
( d 3 − d1 ) cosα .
2
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 47
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3.6 Load Suspension Appliances
The tensions in the slings are functions of the permissible included angle between sling
legs. If the load is suspended from two legs of a sling (Fig.3.16a) and the weight lifted is
Q
Q, the tension S in each leg of the sling is: S = .
2 cos α
Q
S1 = S 2 = S 3 = S 4 = (3.19)
4 cos α
h
We know that cos α =
l
Ql
Thus S1 = S 2 = S 3 = S 4 = (3.20)
4h
For m legs
1 Q Q
S= × =K×
cos α m m
1
where K =
cos α
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 48
___________________________________________________________________________________
a. Hemp Rope Slings
Hemp ropes are more flexible than wire ropes and as a result they can easily be tied into
knots. This makes the application of rigidly twisted white hemp ropes, for suspending
loads on crane hooks, wider. However, care must be taken of sharp corners that can
damage the ropes by protecting it with soft pads or special corner-piece protective devices.
For white rope σ all = 50kgf/cm2 and for tarred rope σ all = 45kgf/cm2. Some of the typical
knots are given in Fig.3.17.
b. Chain Slings
Ordinary uncalibrated welded chains with eye and hook (Fig.3.18) are used as chain
slings. The slings may pass under the load or it may pass several times around the hook
while the free part of the chain is connected to the hoisting equipment hook.
Steel wire rope slings are used for handling heavy loads (Fig.3.19). In comparison to chain
slings they weigh less, but are too rigid to twist. Care must be taken when handling objects
with sharp edges so as not to damage the slings. Furthermore, while hoisting, rope slings
should be well secured as the object may alter the position in the sling during its
movement. Thus it is recommended to use safety factor K >10 if rope slings are passed
around the load and K >6 for slings which do not encircle the load.
Rope dia. Wire dia. Metal cross- Weight (kgf/m) Strength of the wire rope in (kgf) if the strength of the wire in
Design (DIN655) d ±5% (mm) δ (mm) section (mm2) ±5% (kgf/mm2)
2
130 kgf/mm 160 kgf/mm2 180 kgf/mm2
6.5 0.4 14.3 0.15 1860 2300 2550
6x19=114 wires 8.0 0.5 22.4 0.21 2900 3600 4050
+1core 9.5 0.6 32.2 0.30 4200 5150 5800
12.5 0.8 57.3 0.54 7450 9150 10300
A 16.0 1.0 89.5 0.85 11650 14300 16100
19.0 1.2 128.9 1.22 16750 20600 23200
22.0 1.4 175.5 1.66 22800 28050 31600
10 0.45 35.3 0.34 4600 5650 6350
6x37=222 wires 13 0.60 62.8 0.59 8150 10050 11300
+1core 16 0.75 98.1 0.93 12750 15700 17650
22 1.00 174.4 1.65 22650 27900 31400
B 24 1.20 251.1 2.38 32650 40200 45200
30 1.50 392.3 3.72 51000 62750 70600
40 1.80 564.9 5.36 73450 90400 101700
16 0.6 83.7 0.84 10900 13400 15050
8x37=296 wires 19 0.7 113.9 1.14 14800 18200 20500
+1core 21 0.8 148.8 1.49 19350 23800 26800
27 1.0 232.5 2.32 30250 37200 41850
C 32 1.2 334.8 3.35 43500 53550 60250
40 1.5 523.1 5.24 68000 83700 94150
Flexible Hoisting Appliance 29
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Lifting Area of Distance b/n Radius of Radius of Distance b/n zero line Distance b/n zero
capacity critical centroid and mouth a/2 hook Design area [cm2] Shape factor and centroid line and inner
Q[tons] section A inner contour Xc [cm] curvature χ= -2(f1-f2)/A γ =ρχ/(1+χ)[cm] contour h2 = xc
[cm2] [cm] ρ [cm] - γ [cm]
f1 f2
0.25 3.44 1.13 1.5 2.63 0.138 0.278 0.081 0.196 0.934
0.5 5.87 1.56 2.0 3.56 0.227 0.488 0.089 0.292 1.268
1.0 10.26 1.98 2.5 4.48 0.437 0.919 0.094 0.384 1.596
1.5 17.52 2.63 3.0 5.63 0.760 1.578 0.0935 0.481 2.149
2.0 28.70 3.30 3.5 6.80 1.381 2.800 0.098 0.610 2.690
3.0 41.10 3.96 4.0 7.96 1.690 3.970 0.110 0.787 3.173
5.0 58.00 4.61 4.75 9.36 2.930 5.720 0.0961 0.820 3.790
7.5 77.80 5.40 5.5 10.90 3.551 7.730 0.108 1.060 4.340
10.0 104.00 6.28 6.4 12.78 4.250 10.500 0.120 1.185 5.095
3.7 Review Questions
1. Why are hemp ropes recommended only for hand operated hoisting machinery?
2. What are the conditions for classifying welded load chains short-link chains and
long-link chains?
3. Discuss the methods of dividing welded chains by using their manufacturing
accuracy.
4. State the applications and limitations of welded chains.
5. The actual stress calculation of a load chain is very difficult. Why?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of roller chains.
7. Steel wire ropes are commonly used in hoisting applications than chins. Why?
8. State the advantages obtained when using non-spinning wire ropes than a general
purpose wire ropes.
9. Discuss the different kinds of wire ropes.
CHAPTER FOUR
PULLEYS, SPROCKETS, DRUMS
AND
LOAD HANDLING ATTACHMENTS
4.1. Introduction
Pulleys are either fixed or movable in design. Fixed pulleys are used to change the
direction of the flexible appliance while movable pulleys are used to gain mechanical
advantage or speed. Several fixed and movable pulleys are combined in order to form a
pulley system for a gain in force or a gain in speed.
α= 180°
α
z(z o)
z(z o) β
R
Q
R P R
P P
Q z(z o)
Q
Disregarding the resistance of the pulley, the pulling force Z 0 equals Q i.e. Z 0 = Q
without considering pulley resisting. But in reality due to the pulley resistance, Z 0 > Q,
the resistance being partly due to the stiffness of wire rope and partly due to frictional
resistance in the bearings.
The rope, due to its rigidity, is first deflected (Fig.4.2) by an amount e to the outside on
the running-on part and approximately the same amount to the inside on the running-off
part.
50
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 51
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Momentum equilibrium:
e
1+
R cos ϕ
e = (4.1)
e e
P d 1−
R cos ϕ
z(zo) Q ⎛ 2e ⎞
Z = Q⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ (4.2)
⎝ R cos ϕ ⎠
We know that
P = Q + Z 0 ≈ 2Q (4.3)
d'
M = P⋅μ ⋅ (4.4)
2
d' d'
N = (Q + Z ) × μ = Q×μ (4.5)
2R R
⎛ 2e d' ⎞
Z = Q⎜⎜1 + + μ ⎟⎟ (4.6)
⎝ R cos ϕ R⎠
Z
The magnitude of = ε is called pulley factor of resistance, and
Q
1
= η is the pulley efficiency.
ε
Thus
2e d'
ε = 1+ +μ
R cos ϕ R
2e
where is stiffness (rigidity) of rope and it can be empirically
R cos ϕ
determined by experiment and was found to be:
2e d
≈ 0.1 .
R cos ϕ D − 10
Movable pulleys are classified into two, namely pulleys for a gain in force and pulleys for
a gain in speed. These pulleys have movable axles to which either a load or the force is
applied.
a. Pulleys for gain in force: The distance that effort moves is double that of the load,
and the speed at which the load is raised is half of that of the effort.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 53
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Z(Z) 0
s 0
s
where c = speed of force
c v = speed of load
s = distance the force moves
h = distance the load moves
v
h Q
s=2h
c=2v
Resistance:
Z + So = Q , Z = ε So = ε (Q –Z)
Z = εQ - εZ
ε
Z= Q
1+ ε
Q
Z 2 1+ ε
η= o = = (4.7)
Z ε 2ε
Q
1+ ε
Q
where Z o = for ε ≅ 1.05, η ≅ 0.975
2
b. Pulleys for gain in speed: The effort is applied at the axle of the pulley and moves at
half the speed of the load. The distance moved by the by the load is twice that of the
effort.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 54
_______________________________________________________________________________________
h
s=
2
v
c=
v 2
Z = Q + S 0 = Q + Qε = Q(1 + ε )
h z(z)0
s 0
s
Q
c
Zo 2Q 2
η= = = (4.8)
Z Q(1 + ε ) 1 + ε
Fixed pulleys and movable pulleys are combined to form pulley systems. The systems
can be for a gain in a force or a gain in speed.
Pulleys for a gain in force can further be divided into rope running of a fixed pulley and
rope running of a movable pulley (Fig.4.5&4.6).
The number of parts of the line on which the weight is suspended is also equal to the
number of pulleys Z. The transmission ratio i of the system is equal to z.
Q
Z0 =
z
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 55
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Q Qε ∑
Z = =
zη ∑ z
z(z)0 z(z) 0
s 2 s 1 s 1 s 2 s 3
Q
Q
Fig.4.5 Pulley System for a Gain in Force (Rope Running of a Fixed Pulley)
Q = S1 + S 2 + S 3 + K + S n
S1 S1 S
= S1 + + 2 + K + n1−1
ε ε ε
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞⎛ ε n −1 ⎞
= S1 ⎜ + + 2 + K + n −1 ⎟⎜⎜ n −1 ⎟⎟
1
⎝ ε ε ε ⎠⎝ ε ⎠
(
= S1 ε n−1 + ε n− 2 + K + ε + 1 ) 1
ε n −1
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 56
_______________________________________________________________________________________
= S1
1
n −1
(ε n −1
+ ε n−2 + K + ε + 1 )
ε
The sum in the brackets is a series of a geometric progression
ε n −1
(ε )= ε −1n
n −1
+ ε n−2 + K + ε + 1 ) = ε (
ε −1 ε −1
1 εn −1
Q = S1 ⋅
ε n −1 ε −1
Q
or S1 = (4.9)
1 εn −1
⋅
ε n −1 ε − 1
Since Z = S1ε and n = z ‚ the resultant efficiency of the pulley system will be:
Zo Q Q
η∑ = = = (4.10)
Z Z .z Q
× εz
1 εn −1
⋅
ε ( n −1 ) ε − 1
1 1 ⎛ εn − 1⎞
= × ⎜⎜ ⎟
ε n −1 εz ⎝ ε − 1 ⎟⎠
1 ⎛ εn −1⎞
Total efficiency = n ⎜ ⎟
ε × z ⎜⎝ ε − 1 ⎟⎠
Qε ⎛ ε −1 ⎞ z ⎛ ε −1 ⎞
Z = S 1ε = = Qε n ⎜ n ⎟ = Qε ⎜ z ⎟ (4.11)
1 ⎛ ε − 1⎞
n
⎝ ε − 1⎠ ⎝ ε − 1⎠
⎜ ⎟
ε n −1 ⎜⎝ ε − 1 ⎟⎠
The distance travelled by the point of the rope where the effort is applied is equal to
s = zh
c = zv
where h = the height the load is lifted
v = is the speed of the load
When the rope runs off a movable pulley in a pulley system of z pulleys, the number of
rope parts on which the load is suspended is equal to one plus the number of pulleys.
Transmission ratio:
i = z +1
Q
Z0 =
z +1
Q
Z=
η ∑ (z + 1 )
s s
3 2
s 2
s 3 s 4
z(z)
0 z(z)
0
s 1
s 1
Fig. 4.6 Pulley System for a Gain in Force (Rope Running off a Movable Pulley)
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 58
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Q
S1 =
1 ⎛ ε n −1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
ε n −1 ⎜⎝ ε − 1 ⎟⎠
For Z = S1 ,
Q Q 1 1 εn −1
η = = = × ( n −1 ) × (4.12)
Z ( z + 1) ⎛ z +1 ε ε −1
∑
⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ Q ⎟( z + 1)
⎜ ( 1 ) εn −1⎟
⎜ ε n −1 × ⎟
⎝ ε −1 ⎠
Since n = z + 1 ,
1 ε ( z +1 ) − 1
Total efficiency, η ∑ = ×
ε z ( z + 1) ε −1
Q
Z=
η
∑
(z + 1 )
Q
Z=
⎛ ε ( z +1 ) − 1 ⎞
⎟( z + 1)
1
⎜⎜ z ×
⎝ ε ( z + 1) ε − 1 ⎟⎠
ε −1
Z = Qε z (4.13)
ε ( z +1)
−1
s = h( z + 1)
c = v( z + 1)
In hoisting mechanism of winches and cranes, the pulling effort Z=Sz+1 usually equals the
tension of the rope coiled around the drum. The system of pulleys running off a movable
pulley is the most frequent one in hoisting equipment. Considering a factor of resistance
ε = 1.05 ‚ the efficiency curve for various number of pulleys is shown in figure 4.7
below.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 59
_______________________________________________________________________________________
1.0
ηEfficiency,
0.9
0.8
0 2 4 6 8
Number of pulleys
Pulley systems for a gain in speed are usually used in hydraulic and pneumatic lifts to
move the load faster than the piston as shown in Fig. 4.8.
Z(Z o)
Q
Q.z
movable frame while the load is suspended at the free end, Z = . For the case shown
η ∑
1 1 1 1
=i = ; C = v; s = h
z 4 4 4
Example 4.1
Solution:
The system configuration, without considering the stiffness of the wire rope (Fig. 4.10a)
and taking into account the rigidity of the wire rope (Fig.4.10b&c), may be schematically
represented in the figure below.
F1 + F2= Fr
-FT r + F2 (2r)=0
F2= 8927 N
F1= FT - F2 =8927 N
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 61
_______________________________________________________________________________________
F4= FC +F2=13341 N
F1 F2 Cm
Taking moment about O1
e e O1 r
F3 r - Cm - F4 r = 0 FA
Fc
O2 e e
After inserting the values and solving for Cm, O2 r
v =ω ×r a) b) c)
v 0.75 rad
ω= = =6
r 0.125 s
Fig.4.10 Free Body Diagram of the System
The required power C mω ≅ 5151W ≈ 5.2kW
ii. Considering the rigidity of the wire rope, the value of e may be safely assumed to be
equal to 5mm. On the lower pulley with the tension (Fig. 4.10a)
F1 + F2 =Fr
FT (r-e) + F2 (2r)=0
F2= 8749 N F4
F3
F1= FT- F2 =9106 N F3 F4
F3 = FA +F1= 16954 N FA FC
F4 = FC +F2 = 13164 N FA FC
F3 (r + e) – Cm –F4 (r-e) = 0
Fig.4.11Free Body Diagram of the Wire Rope
From which we have Cm= 1098 Nm.
v 0.75 rad
ω= = =6
r 0.125 s
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 62
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Comparing the two values obtained, we can clearly see that the power requirement has
increased by about 20% when the rigidity of the wire rope is taken into consideration.
Rope sheaves are usually made in the form of casting or weldment. They can be of a
fixed, movable and compensating design. The minimum diameter ( Dmin ) of the sheave
should be at least ten times the diameter of the hemp rope. Whereas Dmin for wire rope
should be
Dmin ≥ e1 ⋅ e2 ⋅ d
Care should be taken to keep the last rope contact point ε inside the groove so as to avoid
rope run off with sharp bends.
2 tan β
tan α max < (4.14)
D
1+
0.7 K
β α
K ε
D
d
Fig.4.12 Fleet Angle of Running-off Rope
Compensating pulleys, as they are stationary in operation, have smaller dimensions about
60% of the minimum pulley diameter. As a rule sheaves are freely mounted on rolling
bearings of bronze bushings. Lubrication is applied to the unloaded part of the bearing
surface in the sheave. The ratio of the hub length to the diameter of the axle is assumed
l
within the range: = 1.5 to 1.8 . The bushings of the sheaves can be checked for unit
d
pressure by:
Q
P= (4.15)
d ⋅l
Depending on the peripheral velocity of the sheave hub hole surface, unit pressures
should not exceed the following values:
1. Sheaves for welded chains: These sheaves are usually made of cast iron. They are
mainly used for hand operated hoists and rarely they are used for power driven devices.
The minimum diameter of the chain sheave may be calculated by:
The efficiency of a chain sheave is η = 0.95. The resistance of welded chains running
over sheaves to bending is ordinarily determined from the formula:
d
W =Q μ (4.16)
R
2. Sprockets for Welded Chains: Sprockets are used as driving chain wheels of hand
operated hoists and winches. Sprockets are manufactured with small number of teeth.
Resistance of the chain to bending is determined using equation 4.13.
2 2
A AO = OC + AC
C
⎛t + d ⎞
2
R α/4 R = a2 + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
a
α
360 0
α=
O
z
2 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
t ⎟ +⎜ d
2R = ⎜ ⎟ (4.17)
⎜ 90 0 ⎟ ⎜ 90 0 ⎟
⎜ sin ⎟ ⎜ cos ⎟
⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠
For z > 9 and for sufficiently small chain bar diameter (d ≤ 16) then the second terms in
the previous formula can be neglected and
2
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
t t
D≈ ⎜ ⎟ = (4.18)
⎜ 90 0 ⎟ ⎛ 90 0 ⎞
⎜ sin ⎟ sin⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠
3. Sprockets for Rollers chains: Sprockets are manufactured from cast iron and forged
steel of steel castings. They are mainly used for hand-operated hoists and winches. From
triangle AOC of Fig.4.11.
t
A
t Ac 360
D= ; AO = ; α= C
180 α Z
sin sin
z 2
2α
where t = pitch measured along the cord
z = teeth number; z min = 8 O
η = 0.95
Fig. 4.14 Sprockets for Roller Chains
If the load is to be raised to considerable heights, for long chains, the winches are
equipped with special chain collectors, for this purpose pins with elongated journals are
inserted in required distance.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 67
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For hemp ropes, short length of drum is used with several layers of coils. The flange of
the drum should extend above the upper layer of rope by at least one rope diameter. The
drums are usually of the plain type with D ≥ 10 d and η ≈ 95 .
Drums for steel wire rope are made of cast iron and rarely of steel castings. Helical
grooves are always used for wire ropes.
Hi
z= +2 (4.19)
πD
Leaving a length of about 5t for both sides flanges, the full length of the drum L is:
⎛ Hi ⎞
L=⎜ + 7 ⎟t (4.20)
⎝ Dπ ⎠
If two ropes are coiled on the drum, the full length of the drum will be
⎛ 2 Hi ⎞
L=⎜ + 9 ⎟t + l 1 (4.21)
⎝ πD ⎠
The wall thickness of cast iron drum can be approximated by using the following
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 68
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formula:
4.4.1. Strength of the Drum: During operation the drum is subject to the combined
action of torsion bending and compression, where the effect of the latter is much
larger.
π π
2 S = 2 ∫ 2 Rdϕ ⋅ sp cos ϕ = 2 Rsp ∫ 2 cos ϕdϕ
0 0
2 S = 2 R ⋅ sp
S 2S
p= =
Rs Ds
D 2 + d0 2 D2
σ in = pin − 2 p out (4.23)
D 2 − d0 2 D 2 − d0 2
D 2 + d0 2 D2
σ out = 2 pin − p out (4.24)
D 2 − d0 2 D 2 − d0 2
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 69
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pin = 0 , pout = p , do = D − 2 w
D2
σ in (comp ) = −2 p out
D 2 + d0
2
2S D2 − 4 SD
σ comp = −2 × 2 =
Ds D − d 0 2 s (D + d )(D − d 0 )
D + d 0 ≈ 2 D and D − d 0 ≈ 2w
− 4 SD S
σ comp = = (4.25)
S 2 D ⋅ 2 w sw
As per attaching ropes on drums, ropes are fastened on drums by means of setscrews,
adjustable fastening and with the aid of fastening plate.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 70
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1. Friction Drums for Ropes: Friction drums are rope-driving drums in which motion is
transmitted by friction between the rope and drum. They have the advantage of being
able to raise loads for great heights and are used for winches and railway cars.
Friction drums are capable of handling long ropes by means of a small drum. There
are three types of friction drums.
a. Simple friction drums: they are provided with helical grooves for the rope, which
coils around them in one or several turns.
s 1 s 2
Gear Pinion
s 1
s 2
Friction drum
Tension ration between on coming and running off parts of simple rope is described by
Euler’s formula:
S1
= e μ 2πn (4.26)
S2
where S 1 = on coming force
S = running off (can be regulated by hand)
2
: = coefficient of friction
n = number of coils
e = 2.718 the base of the natural logarithm
b. Double-Drum Friction Drive: In this case the rope is wound several times around
two parallel drums rotating in the same direction and driven by a single motor. The
tension force in the parts of the rope is
S1 S1
S2 = μπ
; S3 = μπ
(4.27)
e η1 e ⋅ η 12
S1 S1
Sn = μπ
S n +1 = μπ
e ⋅ η n −1 e ⋅η n
s 1 sn+1
s 1
sn+1
I II
F = S 1 − S n +1
QI = S 1 + S 2 + S 3 + K + S n
QII = S 2 + S 3 + S 4 + K + S n +1
W = (QI + QII )μ 1
d
D
where μ 1 = coefficient of friction in the bearings
d = diameter of the bearing journal
D = diameter of the drum.
S1
η=
F +W
s 2
s 1
Since the wall of the capstan barrel is inclined, and axial down word force always arises,
helping the rope not to jump off the capstan barrel.
The load is usually handled by means of chain or rope slings attached to hooks of which
the two most popular design are standard (single) and Ramshorn (double) hooks.
Standard and Ramshorn hooks may be flat-die or closed-die forged or else made of a
series of shaped plates.
One-piece forged hooks are used for lifting loads up to 100tons while triangular and
laminated hooks can be employed to carry over 100 tons. Hooks are forged from law
carbon steel. In the process of production hooks are carefully annealed after forging and
machining. The inner diameter of the hooks should be greater than twice the diameter of
the standard wire rope which suspends the load. Generally hooks have trapezoidal
sections made wider on the inside for better material utilisation.
The design process of a forged standard hook begins with tentative assumptions of the
proportions of a hook. In the subsequent stages the hook is checked for strength and all
the proportions tentatively assumed are finally polished.
A simple forged standard hook is shown in Fig.4.20. The diameter a and the overall
proportions of a standard hook are given.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 74
_______________________________________________________________________________________
e1
e2 e1
Q
Fig. 4.20 Forged Standard Hook
4Q
σt = ≤ σ all = 500kgf/cm2
πd 1
2
The minimum height of the hook nut is determined from the permissible compressive
stresses (Fig. 4.21) in the thread and is given by:
p all × Area = Q
Area =
(
π d0 2 − d12 )× n , and n =
H
4 t
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 75
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Q = p all ⋅
(
π d0 − d1 H
2
⋅
2
)
4 t
4Qt
H =
(
π d0 − d 21
2
)p
(4.28)
For small lifting capacity less than 5 tons, hook are provided with “Vee” thread and for
high lifting capacity greater than 5 tons preference is given to trapezoidal or buttress
thread.
The unit stress on the saddle (Fig. 4.20) of the hook can be found from
Q M M 1 γ
σ = + + ⋅ ⋅ (4.29)
A Ar Ar x γ + r
M = −Q.r = −Q(0.5 a + e1 ) d
d2 d1
r ⎡⎧ R2 ⎫ R2 ⎤
χ = −1 + ⎢⎨b2 + (b1 − b2 ) ⎬ ln − (b1 − b2 )⎥ b2 b1
A ⎣⎩ d ⎭ R1 ⎦
1 y
χ=− ∫
A y+r
dA r
Substituting
M = −Q(0.5 a +e1 )
r = 0.5a + e1
Y = −e1
and h = a
Q Q(0.5a + e1 ) (0.5 + e1 ) ⋅ 1 ⋅ y
σI = − −Q
Α Αr Ar χ y+r
Q ⎡ (0.5a + e1 ) ⎛ 1 y ⎞⎤
= ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟⎥
A⎣ r ⎝ χ y + 1 ⎟⎠⎦
Q 1 2e1
σI = ⋅ ⋅ ≤ σ safe all - maximum tensile stress
A x a
i.e. the maximum unit tensile stress of the inner fibres of the section is:
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 77
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Q 1 2e1
σt = ⋅ ⋅ < σ all
A χ a
Substituting
M = −Q (0.5 a + e1 )
r = 0.5 a + e1 ; h = e1 + e2
r = 0.5 a + h − e 2
and y = e2
Q 1 e
σ II = − ⋅ × 2 < σ all - maximum compressive stress
A χ a
+h
2
In the above calculations the maximum tensile, σ I and compressive, σ II stresses, the
allowable stress σ all should not exceed 1500 kgf/cm2.
Solid triangular eye hooks are usually employed in cranes with high lifting capacity (over
100 tons) and occasionally in medium power cranes. The major problem faced by using
these hooks is that slings carrying the load must be passed through the eye. They are
produced by forging in one piece.
Ql
M1 ≈
6
Bending moment where the sides adjoin the bow
Ql
M2 ≈
13
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 78
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Q
P=
α
2 cos
2
Q α
P1 = tan
2 2
M bend P1
σ= + < σ all
w A
Ql
where M bend ≈ + P1 x [kgf.cm]
6
w = Sectional modulus[cm3]
A = Cross-sectional area [cm2]
x = moment arm of the compressive force P1
The safe stress σ all = 800kgf/cm2
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 79
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In handling heavy loads, preference is given to hinged triangular hooks. This is due to the
fact that hinged triangular hook does not have the difficulties, both in manufacturing and
in service, encountered by using solid triangular eye hook.
Unit stress in the links (assuming the bow in suspended on four links)
Q
σt = (4.30)
α
4 cos ⋅A
'
p1 M M e
σ= + + ⋅ 1 (4.31)
A AR xAR R − e2
Q
where M = + P1 ⋅ x
2
Q α
P1 = tan
2 2
e1 = distance between the neutral axis
and the fibres carrying the greatest load.
2 4 6
1⎛ a ⎞ 1⎛ a ⎞ 5 ⎛a⎞
For an ellipse x = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ (4.32)
4⎝ R⎠ 8⎝ R⎠ 64 ⎝ R ⎠
p (D 2 + d 2 )
σt =
D2 + d 2
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 80
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Q
where p =
α
4 cos b ⋅ d
2
b = eye width
The pivoted crosspiece in the side plates of casings is usually reinforced with straps or
shackles made of plate steel. The crosspiece is forged from steel and provided with
turned trunnions at the ends. The diameter of the hole for the hook shank must be larger
than the shack itself.
l Q Q d1 Q ⎛ d ⎞
M max = ⋅ − ⋅ = ⋅⎜l − 1 ⎟ (4.33)
2 2 2 4 4 ⎝ 2⎠
M max
σb =
W
I h
where W = section modulus = ; c=
c 2
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 81
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1 bh 3 1 d2h3
W = -
12 ⎛ h ⎞ 12 ⎛ h ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
h 2b h 2 d 2 h2
= − = (b − d 2 ) (4.34)
6 6 6
6 M max
σb = ≤ σ all
h (b − d 2 )
2
4.6.1 Trunnions
Q⎛S ⎞
M2 = ⎜ + S1 ⎟ (4.35)
2⎝2 ⎠
πd 3
W =
32
Q
p= (4.36)
2 d (S + S 1 )
Example 4.2
Select by calculation the ropes, pulleys and drum required for an electric overhead
travelling crane with a lifting magnet of the hoisting equipment shown below in fig.4.22.
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 82
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Given data:
Solution:
(Q + G + G0 )
F=
zη
Fig.4.26 Hoisting Equipment
F=
(5000 + 2000 + 120 ) ≈ 1,900 kg
4 × 0.94
Since the lifting height is small, we disregard the weight of the rope.
Dmin
2. The number of rope bends and the ratio :
d
According to Fig.3.11, the number of bends for a pulley system in diagram (a) will equal
D
to n = 3. From Table 3.4 and with n = 3 , min = 23 .
d
Taking the design of the rope with number of wires i = 222 , σ b = 16000 kg/cm2, safety
factor K=6(Kmin=5.5 medium duty), then
1900
= = 1.725cm 2 ( 172.5 mm 2 )
⎛ 16000 1 ⎞
⎜ − × 36000 ⎟
⎝ 6 23 ⎠
According to DIN standard (Table 4.8) the nearest value of the cross-sectional area A for
a rope with 222 wires is 174.4mm2. Therefore, rope diameter, d = 22mm, wire diameter, δ
= 1mm, breaking load of the rope = 27,900kg.
F 27 ,900 kg
Sw = = = 4 ,650 kg
K 6
Since the maximum tension is 1,900kg, then the choice of the rope is correct.
The minimum permissible diameter of the pulley is given by Dmin = e1 e2 d and from
Table 4.1 and 4.2 taking the value of e1 = 25, e2 = 1.
Since the diameter of the compensating pulley can be 40% less than the diameter of
blocks carrying the load, D1 = 0.6 D = 0.6 × 600 = 360 mm., we take D1 = 400mm.
7. Radius of grooves on the drum: from the table below a standard grove has r1 = 9mm.
8. Pitch of the groove helix on the drum: from the table below the pitch is s = 19mm.
Hi 8×2
Z= +2= + 2 = 11turns
πD 3.14 × 0.6
10. Full length of the drum:
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 84
_______________________________________________________________________________________
⎛ 2 Hi ⎞
L=⎜ + 9 ⎟ s + L1
⎝ πD ⎠
Table 4.4
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 85
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Example 4. 3
Calculate thee strength of a hook crosspiece shown in the figure below. Useful load lifting
capacity Qc = 5,000kg and weight of the hook and grabbing tongue G =1,000kg.
( take σ b = 600 … 1000kg./cm2 )
S1 = 8
Solution:
Q 1
Q/2 Q/2
d2
h
d1
L b
Critical cross-section
1. Strength calculation of the crosspiece:
M b max =
Q
(L − 0.5d 1 )
4
where Q = Qc + G
=
6,000
(22 − 0.5 × 11) ≈ 24,750kg.cm.
4
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 86
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M bmacx
σb =
W
24,750
= ≈ 460kg / cm 2 which is permissible.
54
Q S + S1
M2 = ×
2 2
6 ,000 4 + 0.8
M2 = × ≈ 7 ,200 kg .cm
2 2
π 3
Wtr = d
32
π
= × 5 3 = 12.5cm 3
32
M 2 7 ,200
σ2 = = ≈ 576 kg . / cm 2 which is permissible.
Wtr 12.5
Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments 87
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Q 6 ,000
The unit pressure on the trunnion is P = = ≈ 125kg . / cm 2
2d (S + S 1 ) 2 × 5(4 + 0.8 )
which is quite negligible.
Arresting gear is used to hold the load being lifted without interfering in the hoisting
process but preventing the load from coming down due to gravity.
Ratchet gearing consists of ratchet gear and pawl. The teeth in the ratchet are so
arranged that the ratchet runs free when the load is being raised. There are two basic
ratchet and pawl arrangements. The first one is an arrangement with external teeth
(Fig. 5.1) and this can be further divided into an arrangement with pulled pawl pivot
and with pushed pawl pivot. The second division is an arrangement with internal teeth.
The ratchet is fitted with the shaft of the drive and a pawl whose pivot receives support
from a fixed structural part. The pawl engaging the ratchet assists its motion
consequently that of the drive when the load is being lowered, but does not impede
ratchet operation in hoisting. Best engagement is obtained at a point of contact between
the tangent passing through the pawl pivot and the outside diameter of the ratchet
wheel. In this case, pressure on the pawl is directed along the peripheral force.
The linear unit pressure is the guiding factor for the determination of the length of the
teeth (width of pawl bearing area). Furthermore the teeth is checked for bending.
F
b=
p
2T
Tangential force F =
D
Fh
σb = usually a = m , h = 0.75 m and b = ψm , D = z m
a 2b
6
a 2b 2T
σb = ⋅h
6 D
πD = z × t
Arresting Gear and Brakes 93
______________________________________________________________________________________
t
D=z
π
t
or D = z ⋅ m where =m
π
2T
(0.75m ) = m 2 ψm σ bend
zm 6
9T T T
m=3 ≈ 2×3 = 2× (5.1)
zψσ bend zψσ bend 3 ⎛b⎞
z ⎜ ⎟σ bend
⎝m⎠
b
Material of Ratchets ψ=
m
0.33 or 0.55 % C cast steel 1.5 - 4
0.3 % C steel or 0.45 % C with additive 1 - 2
M bend F
σ= +
W A
where M bend = F ⋅ e1
3. Pawl Pin
Pawl pin is considered as cantilever beam subject to bending. The maximum bending
moment is given by:
⎛b ⎞
M bend = F⎜ + a ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
M bend
σ bend =
W
⎛b ⎞
F ⎜ + a ⎟ = W ⋅ σ bend
⎝2 ⎠
πd 3
= ⋅ σ bend
32
2T ⎛ b ⎞
⎜ + a ⎟ = 0.1d ⋅ σ bend
3
zm ⎝ 2 ⎠
20T (0.5b + a )
d ≥3 Fig.5.4 Ratchet Pawl
zmσ bend
20T (0.5b + a )
d ≥ 2.713 (5.2)
zmσ bend
The pin is subjected to impact loading, thus we take reduced safe bending stress.
σ bend = 300 to 500 kgf/cm2. The best conditions for a pawl sliding over the ratchet teeth
are obtained (Fig.5.5) when ϕ > ρ , where ρ is the friction angle.
= 0 ⇒ (T − μN )L cos ϕ − Fμ 1
d
∑M A
2
=0
( )
FL sin ϕ cos ϕ − μ cos 2 ϕ − Fμ 1
d
2
=0
⎛ sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎞ 1 d
FL⎜⎜ − μ ⎟⎟ − Fμ 1 = 0
⎝ cos ϕ ⎠ cos ϕ
2 2
2
⎛ μ1d ⎞
tan ϕ − μ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ a very small number but + value
⎝ 2 L cos 2
ϕ ⎠
dμ 1 dμ 1
tan ϕ − tan ρ = since is a positive value
2 L cos 2 ϕ 2 L cos 2 ϕ
From practical experience the value of ϕ for best condition ranges from 120 to 180.
To avoid unidirectional action, the arrester is always provided with two pawls arranged
at diametrically opposite points. In Fig.5.6, the angle 2α of the engagement gear ranges
from 450 to 500. The coefficient of friction μ is taken to be 0.1 and the angle ϕ is 150.
F
F0 =
tan ϕ
This mechanism arrests the load within a minimum distance. The whole system relies
on friction for its successful operation. A roller wedged between the follower and the
driver is subject to the action of normal forces N 1 and N 2 and tangential friction
forces μ 1 N 1 and μ 2 N 2 . With the roller in equilibrium, the resultant force R1 = R2 . For
equilibrium; thus N 1 = N 2 .
⎛ D⎞
T = zμ 2 N 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
α
When μ = tan ρ > tan (the case of locking)
2
N≤
2T
(N = N 1 = N 2 )
α
zD tan
2
2T
N= (5.3)
α
zD tan
2
N
l=
p
where p = linear unit pressure, and its allowable value is 450 kg/cm
for hardened quality steel (e.g.: C15...C60).
100 N 100
N safe =
nK
where n = rpm
K = safety factor (1.5 to 2)
5.2 Brakes
In hoisting machinery, brakes are employed for controlling the speed of load lowering
and holding the suspended load at rest. Brakes can be classified into three according to
the purpose and into two according to their operational characteristics.
- operated brakes: It includes shoe, band, cone, disk and ratchet brakes with
safety handles.
- automatic brakes: This includes centrifugal brakes (to control speed) and
brakes applied by the weight of the load.
In the following section we will deal with shoe brakes and band brakes.
Single shoe brakes are used to retard or stop unidirectional motions. This unidirectional
action of a single shoe cause bending in the brake shaft, and single shoe brakes are
employed only for retarding small torques in hand drive where the diameter of the
shaft does not exceed 50mm.
The pressure exerted by the cast iron shoe on the brake wheel (Fig.5.8) should be such
that the friction force produced on the surface of the wheel counter balance the
peripheral force
2T
N ⋅μ ≥ =F.
D
Arresting Gear and Brakes 99
______________________________________________________________________________________
P P P
N N N
l
μN μN μN
a
Acting on the Shoe Acting on the Shoe Acting on the Shoe
I
I I
b
b=0
b
Force P at the end of the brake lever depends on the position of pivot I. The friction
force μN acts relative to the brake wheel in a direction opposite to F.
aN m μNb N
P= = (a m μb ) (5.4)
l l
F
but μN = F ; N=
μ
P=
F
(a m μb )
μl
F⎛a ⎞
P= ⎜⎜ m b ⎟⎟ where the upper sign refers to counter clockwise wheel
l ⎝μ ⎠
rotation
F⎛a ⎞
P= ⎜⎜ ± b ⎟⎟ where the upper sigh refers to counter clockwise wheel
l ⎝μ ⎠
rotation
In actual designs the self-braking effect should be avoided for single shoe brakes i.e.
a
cases (a) and (c) act arresters when b = . This does not happen in the case of (b).
μ
The are extensively used in hoisting mechanisms and travelling mechanisms, as they
produce no bending moment in the brake shaft. Electrically driven winches and cranes
are designed almost exclusively with double shoe brakes.
A
C
R
Ft
FN
Gl G
Gar
Cast iron wheels are used for hand operated hoists, and for power driven ones cast steel
wheels are employed. The width of the wheel is 5 to 10 mm greater than the width of the
shoe. Brakes wheels are always finned for better heat dissipation and provided with holes
between the fins for more rapid air circulation and for more effective heat dissipation.
Brake shoes
Wooden brake shoes may be used for hand operated devices and are attached to the lever
by means of bolts. Cast iron shoes are made for mechanical drives and provided with
special brake linings. The linings may be secured by rivets or counter sank rivets.
Brake linings
Brake linings should have high coefficient of friction, retain braking capacity at
temperatures up to 3000C, effectively resist wear at the highest speed, unit pressures and
temperatures, easily yield to treatment and finally have low cost. It is necessary that
brake linings satisfy the above mentioned requirements
The most regular lining material is made of rolled band made of non-textile asbestos,
rubber and sulphur; and produced on rolling machines. Rolled band is manufactured up to
8 mm thick and 100mm wide and can withstand high temperature.
The total peripheral braking force produced by both shoes (Fig.5.10) in the rubbing
surface is:
2 M br
T=
D
(T1 + T2 ) D = M br = (μN 1 + μN 2 ) D
2 2
=μ
D
(N 1 + N 2 )
2
F1 l
N1 = i.e., normal force on the left lever shoe.
l 1 − μb
F1 l
and in the same way N 2 =
l 1 + μb
D ⎛ F1 l F1 l ⎞ μDF1 l ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
M br = μ ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ + ⎟
2 ⎝ l 1 − μb l 1 + μb ⎠ 2 ⎝ l 1 − μb l 1 + μb ⎟⎠
μDF1 l 2l 1 μDF1 ll 1
= ⋅ 2 =
l1 − μ2b2 l1 − μ2b2
2
2
M br l 1 − μ 2 b 2
2
M br l 1
F1 = ⋅ ≈ ⋅ (5.5)
μDη ll 1 μDη l
Unit pressure between the wheel and the shoe of the left lever is:
N1
p= < p safe where A = shoe contact area
A
F1 l
N2 =
l 1 + μb
M br (l 1 + μb )(l 1 − μb )
F1 = ⋅
μDη ll 1
M br (l 1 − μb )
N2 = ⋅
μDη l1
Arresting Gear and Brakes 104
______________________________________________________________________________________
As for N 1 > N 2 , the unit pressure built at N 2 is not needed to be checked.
Since N 1 and N 2 are not equal, the brake shaft is subjected to the action of a bending
force.
ΔS = S 1 − S 2 , S 1 = N 1 + T1 , S 2 = N 2 + T2
2 2 2 2
2 M br
ΔS = b 1 + μ2
Dl 1
2 M br μb
ΔS v = T1 − T2 =
Dl 1
2 M br b
ΔS h = N 1 − N 2 =
Dl 1
To eliminate the forces bending the brake shaft, the design of shoe brakes should meet
the following requirements:
1. The axle of the shoe should be aligned with the wheel centre.
2. The shoes should be symmetric with respect to the line which connects their axes.
3. The pivots of the lever should be arranged at equal distance from the wheel
centre.
F1
R=
cos α
F = F1
e
(F1 ⋅ e = F ⋅ k )
k
Q = R 2 + F 2 + 2 RF sin α
Arresting Gear and Brakes 105
______________________________________________________________________________________
The forces in the supporting pivots of the braking lever:
Y = T1 + F1 tan α
x = N 1 − F1 , z = N 2 − F1
⎛e ⎞
w = T2 + F1 ⎜ + tan α ⎟
⎝k ⎠
− (Gl f + Gar c )η
ea
F1
ηk
G wt =
d
In band brakes the braking torque is obtained due to friction of flexible band over the
surface of the brake wheel. Band brakes are designed as simple, differential and
additive-action types. The brake consists of a drum about which is wrapped a flexible
steel band lined with some friction material like ferrodo. The resistance of friction due
to all friction forces acting on the surface of contact with the drum is equal to the
difference in the forces S on and S off on the band ends, and this force equalises the
peripheral force F, i.e.
Arresting Gear and Brakes 106
______________________________________________________________________________________
F = S on − S off
S on = S off ⋅ e μα (5.6)
= (S on − F )e μα
S on = S on ⋅ e μα − F ⋅ e μα
( )
S on e μα − 1 = Fe μα
Fe μα
S on = (5.7)
e μα − 1
F ⋅ e μα
S off = S on − F = −F
e μα − 1
⎛ e μα − e μα + 1 ⎞
S off = F ⎜⎜ μα
⎟⎟
⎝ e −1 ⎠
F
S off = μα
(5.8)
e −1
Arresting Gear and Brakes 107
______________________________________________________________________________________
The maximum unit pressure between the band and the rake drum arises at the point of
application of the tension S on and decreases (Fig. 5.11) gradually to the point of
application of S off of the band.
The pressure per unit surface 1cm long and b cm wide can be found;
S on
p max = (5.9)
R ⋅b
S off
p min = (5.10)
R ⋅b
α0
l = 2 πR
360 0
α0
A = b ⋅ 2πR
360 0
p max + p min
If p= denotes the mean unit pressure, the braking power is
2
N br = A ⋅ p ⋅ vcr ⋅ μ
where vcr =critical slipping speed
N br
N unit = pvcr = (5.11)
Aμ
Arresting Gear and Brakes 108
______________________________________________________________________________________
To avoid excessive wear of the band or lining at the on coming end p max should not
exceed the values indicated in the following table.
Holding 15 6 6
Lowering 10 3 4
In a simple band brake the on coming end of the band is fixed ( S on is fixed) and the
brake lever experiences only force S off which creates a moment a × S off .
F
S off = μα
e −1
2 M br
F= ;
D
S off ⋅ a − Gar ⋅ l
G= (5.12)
l1
Arresting Gear and Brakes 109
______________________________________________________________________________________
In band brakes the shaft is subjected to additional force from band tension, and the
resultant force on the shaft is:
Q = V2 +H2
a
F = S off (5.13)
l
Brake lever travel at the linkage with the electromagnet armature is:
l
h = εα (5.14)
a
1
W= F ⋅h where the coefficient 0.75 is to account for the
0.75
utilisation of the armature stroke.
Example 5.1
Design a simple band brake with a ratchet wheel for a band-operated winch.
Given data:
- Actual braking torque, Mbr = 1,500kgf.cm
- Diameter of the brake drum, D = 30cm
- Width of band, b = 50mm
- Lever arms were assumed to be equal to a = 50mm, l 1 = 700mm and
l 0 = 800mm
- Take μ = 0.15, α = 2250 , eμα = 1.8
Arresting Gear and Brakes 110
______________________________________________________________________________________
Solution:
F 100
S off = = = 125kgf .
e − 1 (1.8 − 1)
μα
3. The magnitude of the weight on the brake lever is (Equation 5.12 without the weight
of the armature)
S off ⋅ a 125 × 50
G= = = 10 kgf .
l1 700
4. The effort applied by the operator on the brake lever when l 0 = 800mm is
l1 700
F =G = 10 × = 8.75 kgf which can be easily accomplished.
l0 800
5. The travel of the brake lever (at full release) at the point of fastening of the
Running-off end (refer equation 5.14)
2π × 225 0
hrel = εα = 1.25 × = 5mm.
360 0
and at the point where the operator’s effort is applied is calculated using
l0 800
h = hrel = 5× = 80 mm.
a 50
6. The tension in the on-coming end of the band is (Refer equation 5.6)
7. In checking the brake for maximum unit pressure (Refer equation 5.9)
Arresting Gear and Brakes 111
______________________________________________________________________________________
S on 225
p max = = = 3kg / cm 2
Rb 15 × 5
which is much below the safe limit (for a lowering brake-up to 15 kg/cm2).
8. The unit tensile stress in the band (taking b = 50mm, s = 3mm, d = 8mm) is
S on 225
σ = = = 220 kgf / cm 2
(b − 2d )s (5 − 2 × 0.8 )0.3
which is permissible for steel CT 3
9. Checking the strength of the band fastenings. The unit shearing stress in the rivets is
S on 225
τ= = = 75 kgf / cm 2
πd 2
3.14 × 0.8 2
n1 n 2×3×
4 4
S0n 225
σ com = = = 315 kgf / cm 2
nds 3 × 0.8 × 0.3
10. Module of the ratchet wheel. Because of the small diameter of the brake drum, the
number of teeth can be taken as z = 16 and (take ψ = 2.5 and [σ bend ] = 300 kg / cm 2
for steel), then the module is found by using equation 5.1.
M br 1,500
m = 2×3 = 2×3 = 10 mm
zψ [σ bend ] 16 × 2.5 × 300
11. The peripheral force on the outside diameter of the ratchet wheel is
2 M br
p per =
Dx
The ratchet wheel diameter is D x = zm = 16 × 10 = 160 mm , therefore
Arresting Gear and Brakes 112
______________________________________________________________________________________
2 M br 2 × 1,500
p per = = = 190 kgf .
Dx 16
12. Pressure on a unit length of the ratchet wheel tooth. The tooth width is
bx = ψm = 2.5 × 10 = 25mm., consequently,
Pper 190
p= = = 75 kgf / cm 2
bx 2.5
13. The diameter of the ratchet wheel pawl pivot is found by using equation 5.2.
M br ⎛ bx ⎞
d powl = 2.71 × 3 ⎜ + a⎟
zm[σ bend ] ⎝ 2 ⎠
1,500 ⎛ 2.5 ⎞
= 2.71 × 3 ⎜ + 0 .5 ⎟
16 × 1 × 300 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 22mm
In these brakes both ends of the band are attached to the brake lever. They are called
differential for their braking torque is determined by the difference caused by the
tension of the band ends relative to the pivot axis of the braking lever.
S off a 2 − S on a1
F=
l
S off a 2 − S off e μα a1
=
l
P a 2 − a1 e μα
F= ⋅ μα (5.16)
l e −1
At the point of application of the force F, travel of the brake lever h is given by
l
h = εα (5.17)
a 2 − a1
In this case, both ends of the band are fastened to the brake lever on arms of equal
length ( a1 = a 2 = a )
Fl − S on ⋅ a − S off ⋅ a = 0
F=
a
(S on + S off ) (5.18)
l
=
a
l
(
S off e μα + S off )
=
aS off
l
(e μα + 1)
Hence F = S on − S off = S off e μα − S off
F=
(
a e μα + 1 )
P
(
l e μα − 1 ) (5.19) Fig.5.14 Diagram of Additive-
εαl
h= (5.20)
2a
S0n
p max =
R ⋅b
The amount of energy absorbed by the brake in the course of one hour directly affects
the wear of the wheel and linings and also the heating of the wheel. The brake, thus,
should have the size so as to overcome the damages caused by overheating and serve
the purpose it is designed for.
The unit wear per hp-hr also depends on a number of other factors such as material of
the wheel and linings, unit pressure, peripheral speed and to a large degree, the
temperature of the brake wheel.
Due to the presence of too many dependent variables, the tentative expectation of brake
life is very uncertain. Thus experimentally established values of pv and pvμ are
employed as initial data for such calculations where p is unit pressure on the working
surface; v is peripheral speed of the brake wheel; and μ is friction coefficient which is
a function of speed, temperature, and materials involved in the frictional contact i.e.
μ = f (v, t, material couples, etc.)
With this in mind, it is more appropriate to determine the size of the brake wheels by
calculating the extent they are heated. It is further assumed that the brake wheel is
mounted on a shaft rotating at a high speed to ensure optimal conditions of heat
dissipation.
The potential energy lost by a falling load is changed into kinetic energy and then into
heat energy which must be dissipated by the brake wheel into the atmosphere by
radiation and heat exchange with enveloping streams of air.
⎡⎛ 273 + t 1 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 273 +t 2 ⎞ 4 ⎤
Q1 = [C1 S 1 + C 2 S 2 ]⎢⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kcal / hr (5.21)
⎣⎢⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦⎥
where S 1 = area of a smoothly polished of the brake wheel rim (not enveloped
by air) [m2]
S 2 = area of the two surfaces of the brake wheel [m2]
C1 = radiation constant for smoothly polished steel surface, C1 ≈ 1.3
C 2 = radiation constant for a dull steel surface C 2 ≈ 4.3
t 1 = maximum permissible temperature of the brake wheel as allowed
by the material of linings [0C]
t 2 = ambient temperature [0C]
Amount of heat dissipated during one hour due to heat exchange with natural air
circulation is
Q2 = α 1 S 3 (t 1 − t 2 )(1 − DF ) (5.22)
The total amount of heat dissipated during one hour due to heat exchange with forced
air circulation is:
[
Q 3 = (DF )(t 1 − t 2 ) × 6.14 S 4V0 0.78 + 2 S 1V1 0.78 + 2 S 2V 2 0.78 + K + 2 S nV n 0.78 ] kcal/hr
(5.23)
α 2 = 6.14V0 0.78
S 4 is the sum of the inner and outer surfaces on the rim of the brake
wheel.
Qtot = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 kcal / hr
Qtot should be equal to the amount of heat liberated during absorption of the kinetic
energy in lowering the load in one hour.
The above calculations are valid if the hoisting equipment operating conditions are
exactly known. However, this may not be the case.
If such data are not available, estimation may be made from the power rating N [hp] of
the motor actuating the hoisting mechanism.
If a load being lifted is X% of the total load-lifting capacity of the hoisting equipment,
then the average mean power in lowering is:
N low = Nη 2 X
( ) ⎛ DF ⎞ 75
Qtot = Nη 2 X × 3600⎜ ⎟× = 316η 2 DFX kcal / hr (5.25)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 427
DF
where accounts for the time of lowering if lowering and hoisting
2
speed are same.
Arresting Gear and Brakes 117
______________________________________________________________________________________
Note: * The figures in brackets indicate the amount of heat in kcal/hr dissipated at
1000C.
The amount of heat liberated during one hour for z braking operations is:
⎡G V 2 Vt ⎤ 1
Qtot = z⎢ − W f br ⎥η kcal / hr (5.26)
⎣g 2 2 ⎦ 427
The amount of heat dissipated can be calculated as for holding brakes of hoisting
equipment and the heat that can be dissipated i.e. Q1 + Q 2 + Q3 must equal or exceed the
total amount of heat liberated Qtot .
Arresting Gear and Brakes 118
______________________________________________________________________________________
Note: The above table is complied for 80 - 100 braking operations per hour for a
travelling mechanism mounted on sliding friction bearings.
In any lifting drive, the hoisting mechanism is considered to be the vital element.
Irrespective of design it incorporates the drive, the transmission, the drum or sprocket, the
flexible appliance, the grabbing attachment, the brake, and the structure to support these
components.
The efficiency of the mechanism shown in Fig.6.1 is the ratio between the useful lifting
work and all the work done. The motion is transmitted from the handle I through three pairs
of speed reducing gears to a drum fitted on shaft IV.
Useful work:
A0 = Qh (6.1)
Work done:
A = Ks (6.2)
119
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 120
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Efficiency:
η = A0 (6.3)
A
Qh
=
Ks
Qv
=
Kc
Ko
=
K
Ko
=
K o +W
Qh Qv
K= = (6.4)
ηs cη
Total efficiency:
moment of load M Q QR
i= = = ,
moment of force ⋅ η M k ηKa
Q
with pulley available Q should be replaced by the tension in the rope S = .
2
The lifting speed:
Kc
v=
Q
The operating mechanism is similar to that of hand driven hoisting mechanism except that
the crank I of Fig. 6.1 is replaced by the electric motor in Fig.6.2.
At a constant lifting speed, (v = constant) the power in hp developed by the electric motor is:
Qv
N= (6.5)
75η
N
M ′ = 71,620 (6.6)
nmotor
v drum = v ⋅ i pull
where i pull = pulley transmission ratio ( i pull >1 for gain in force)
V drum
ndrum =
πD
Travelling mechanisms of crane trolleys can be divided into three groups with:
1. Hand-operated drive
2. Individual power drive
3. Rope power drives
1. Hand Trolleys
Motion is transmitted from wheel I due to the effort K through two pair of gears (Fig.6.3) to
the travelling wheels, wheel III.
Wheel load:
Q + Go
a) P max = (6.7)
4
b) When the load is suspended asymmetrically in trolleys with two hoists, the
force exerted on the wheels is approximately equal to:
G o Q b2
P max = A ≈ + . (6.8)
4 2 b
G o Q b1
P min = B ≈ + . (6.9)
4 2 b
Moment of Resistance
d
= (Q + G o ) ( μ + k) (6.10)
2
Q + Go d Q + Go
W= ( μ + k) = ( μd + 2k) (6.11)
R 2 D
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 124
_______________________________________________________________________________________
W
ω= (6.12)
Q + Go
μd + 2k
= [kgf/ton]
D
W = β (Q + G o )tons . w (6.13)
The transmission ration between the driving and driven shafts is:
M WR
i= =
ηMo η kRo
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 125
_______________________________________________________________________________________
η = η o .η 2 gear η tw
60 × η ⋅ K ⋅ c ⋅ Ro
v= (6.14)
M
The motion transmission principle is similar to that of hand operated crane trolley of Fig.6.3
except that the manual effort K is replaced by an electromotor as can be seen in Fig.6.6.
Wv
N= (6.15)
75η
motor speed n
i= = mot (6.16)
travelling wheel speed ntw
v
n= (6.17)
πD
The components of such mechanisms are generally designed on the same lines as for crane
trolleys. Motion is transmitted from the operating wheel mounted on the main transmission
shaft through two parallel gear trains to two travelling wheels (that are fixed to gears) of the
crane. They are secured on the cross girders of the frame (Fig.6.6).
The wheel loads of the overhead travelling crane are variable in magnitude which depend on
the position of the trolley. In an ordinary four-wheeled crane, the maximum force acting on
the wheels arises when the loaded trolley is located in the so-called dead section of the span.
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 127
_______________________________________________________________________________________
G L (Q + G o )
L P max - × - (L - e) = 0
2 2 2
G Q + Go L - e
P max = + ( ) (6.18)
4 2 L
G Q + Go e
Similarly, P min = + .
4 2 L
W = β (Q + Go + G )tons ω
μd + 2k
where ω = and
D
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 128
_______________________________________________________________________________________
β = 1.4 to 1.8 .
M WR
i= = (6.19)
η M o η KRo
η = η o η gear η tϖ
60ηKcRo
v= [m/min]
WR
Cranes with big lifting capacity and a wide span are usually provided with eight (and more)
travelling wheels on pivoted trucks to eliminate a statically indeterminate system in finding
wheel loads.
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 129
_______________________________________________________________________________________
For four-wheeled overhead travelling cranes, the wheel load is determined as for hand
propelled overhead travelling cranes.
W = β (Q + G + G o )ω
which neglects resistance to motion due to a head wind. The resistance due to a head wind
must be considered for cranes which operate in the open. The power developed by the
motor, transmission ratio, and speed of the travelling wheels are determined as for the hand-
propelled overhead travelling cranes.
The maximum moment arises when the loaded trolley is in the dead section of the span.
⎡ G Q + Go
M ' dII = ⎢ + (L − e )⎤⎥ωR (6.20)
⎣2 L ⎦
To eliminate slippage, the driving wheels of travelling mechanisms of cranes and trolley
should be checked for adhesion.
Z = ∑ Ff
where f = coefficient of adhesion
dry rail: f = 0.15 - 0.20
wet rail: f = 0.10 - 0.12
∑ F = sum of the minimum forces acting simultaneously on the driving
wheels
G Q + Go e
P min = + ×
4 2 L
To overcome friction:
d
Z > W - ∑ Fμ
D
Adhesive force should be higher than the resistance forces in motion minus friction forces in
the bearings. The above equation can be written as
Z = αW
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 130
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Wv
N=
75η
max V Q + Go + G
F ver = = (6. 21)
2 2
H1 = (Q + G o ) a + G e1 V e
F hor =
max
= × (6.22)
2 2 h1 2 h1
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 131
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Q + Go + G d (Q + G o ) a + G e1 d
W= ( μ 1 + k) + 2 ( μ 2 + k) (6.23)
R 2 R2h1 2
Ve
= Vω + ω
h1
e
= ωV (1 + )
h1
where d 1 and d 2 are diameter of the hinges
Each working movement of a crane comprises the period of starting (acceleration), the
steady or established motion and the stopping (braking). The first and last periods are
distinguished by transient motion.
Acceleration requires additional work to start the parts of the crane mechanisms and the load
from rest; during stopping the additional work of the moving parts is absorbed by the brake.
Hence during acceleration the crane motor is loaded more than unsteady motion. The design
of the brakes should also take into account the inertia forces involved.
Dynamic Load
If a body with a moment of inertia I revolves with a variable angular speed, the dynamic
torque causing the change in speed is:
dw
M dyn = I
dt
dw
where = angular acceleration
dt
dw
M = M st + M dy = M st + I
dt
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 132
_______________________________________________________________________________________
GD 2
I = mr 2 =
4g
dw GD 2 dw
M dyn = I = . (6.24)
dt 4g dt
This formula applies only for analysing a single revolving system. To use it to analyse a
system, comprising both revolving links and links in rectilinear motion, the system should
be replaced by an equivalent system which revolves at a certain single angular speed. For
this purpose all the movements are referred to the movement of a single link, usually the
motor shaft, on the basis of constant kinetic energy.
With reference to Fig.6.10, considering only rotating links, the kinetic energy of the
equivalent system equals:
2 2 2 2 2
I rr w = Iw + I 1 w1 + I 2 w2 + ..... + I n wn (6.25)
2 2 2 2 2
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 6.10 Diagrams of Mechanisms: (a) Hoisting, (b) Travelling, (c) Slewing 1-Electric
Motor Armature, 2- Worm Drive, 3- Pulley System, 4-Turning Wheel, 5-Slewing
Axis, 6-Boom, 7- Motor Shaft
n1 2 n 2 n 2
( GD 2 )rr = GD 2 + G1 D12 ( ) + G 2 D 22 ( 2 ) + .... + G n D 2n ( n ) (6.26)
n n n
n n n
For = i1 , = i2 ,...., = in
n1 n2 nn
2 2 2
G 1 D1 G 2 D 2 G
( GD 2 )rr = GD 2 + 2
+ 2 + ....+ n 2D n (6.27)
i1 i2 in
Since in > i2 > i1 , the further the link is removed from the motor shaft, the less it will
contribute to the moment of gyration.
The effect produced by the rotating parts of the mechanism can be accounted by taking a
somewhat greater moment of gyration for the parts mounted on the motor shaft.
Denoting the rectilinear mass by m' , weight by G ' and velocity by v, the kinetic energy is:
1 ( GD 2 )r ,rect × ω 2
′ 2
mv =
2 4g × 2
m′ v 2 ( GD 2 )r ,rect × ω 2
= (6.29)
2η 4g × 2
G′ 2ππ
m′ = , w=
g 60
365 G ′ v2
( GD 2 )r,rect = [Acceleration] (6.30)
n η
2
Upon retardation, the kinetic energy of the link in rectilinear motion is transmitted to the
motor shaft and is partly absorbed in the drives. Therefore when the mechanism is braked.
m′ v2 ( GD2 )r,rect × ω 2
η=
2 4g × 2
365 G ′ v2
( GD 2 )r,rect = 2
η [Retardation] (6.31)
n
For the whole system, the moment of gyration of the equivalent system is
( GD 2 )r = ( GD 2 )r,r + ( GD 2 )r,rect
The dynamic torque for acceleration or retardation of the whole system with rotary parts and
parts with rectilinear motion, as referred to the motor shaft, is
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 135
_______________________________________________________________________________________
( GD2 )r dw ( GD2 )r dn
M dyn = = . (6.32)
4g dt 375 dt
2πn
where ω =
60
Equation 6.32 is the equation of motion which holds for acceleration and retardation.
The motor torque in starting M mot is used to overcome both the static resistance and the
inertia forces, in travelling and hoisting mechanisms.
M br = M st + M ' dyn
For travelling mechanism, during braking, the moment of forces resisting motion M ' st acts
opposite to the direction of rotation and helps in retarding, so that
N mot
M ' st = 71620 kg.cm (Starting)
n mot
where nmot = motor speed [rpm]
N mot = motor power developed at steady motion [hp]
Acceleration
Qv
N mot =
75η
Wv
N mot =
75η
Retardation
N br
M ' st = 71620 kg-cm (Braking)
nbr
Qv
N br = η hp
75
Wv
N br = hp
75η
Considering that M st is constant, independent of the speed and considering M mot and M br
as constant values we obtain M dyn and M ' dyn to be constant. Then from the equation for
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 137
_______________________________________________________________________________________
dn
M dyn , we obtain that is constant i.e. the speed of the shaft increases with time, from
dt
which:
dn n
for starting: =
dt t s
where t s = starting time
dn n
for braking: =
dt t br
where t br = braking time
( GD 2 )r dn ( GD 2 )r n
M dyn = × = × (6.34)
375 dt 375 t
For starting:
( GD 2 )r . n
ts = (6.35)
375 M dyn
The braking time for hoisting gear, according to equation 6.33, is:
( GD2 )r . n
t br = (6.36)
375 ( M br − M ' st )
( GD2 )r . n
t br = (6.37)
375 ( M br + M ' st )
On the basis of the above formulas, the value of the dynamic torque in acceleration is given
by:
δ GD2 n 0.975 G ′ v2
M dyn ≅ + (6.38)
375 t s n t sη
δ GD 2 n 0.975 G ′ v 2 η
M '
dyn ≅ + (6.39)
375 t br n t br
When the path S travelled by the mechanism either in acceleration or retardation is given,
vt
the time t s or t br is determined from S = where v is the final speed of motion.
2
δ GD2 n 0.975 G ′ v 2
ts = + (6.40)
375 ( M mot - M st ) n ( M mot - M st ) η
GD n
2
0.975 G ′ v 2
t br = + (6.41)
375 ( M br - M st ) n ( M br - M ' st )
δGD 2 n 0.975 G ′ v 2 η
t br = + (6.42)
375 ( M br + M ' st ) n ( M br + M ' st )
Increased efficiency of the mechanism requires that the times t s and t br be at the minimum.
For this reason motors for frequent starting are usually designed with small moments of
gyration. To reduce the times t s and t br :
1. The minimum permissible values for M mot and M br should be assigned so that the
motor can use its overload capacity to maximum advantage during acceleration
and retardation.
2.The starting torque can not be so much that would cause the wheels to slip on the
rail (off bridge or trolley).
Note: All the above equations hold true only for constant acceleration and retardation i.e.
with constant M mot and M br .
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 139
_______________________________________________________________________________________
The moments of inertia of various rotating bodies are given in Fig.6.11 and table 6.1below.
Example 6.1
Determine the required power rating of the motors of an electric overhead travelling crane
for the assembly shop of an engineering plant.
Given data:
Solution:
Qv 5,000 × 10
N= or N = = 13.8 hp
75η 75 × 60 × 0.8
The efficiency η of the hoisting mechanism is assumed equal to 0.8 with three gear drives.
From catalogues for selecting the most suitable electric motor; it will have the following
characteristics: Rated power, N rated = 15 hp; speed, n = 965 rpm; Permissible overload,
M max
= 2.5 ; Duty factor, DF = 25% ; Rotor moment of gyration,
M rated
( GD 2 )coupl = 0.78 kg-m2
N 13.8
M st = 71,620 = 71,620 = 1,025 kg-cm = 10.25 kg-m
n 965
3. We next determine the dynamic torque in starting referred to the motor shaft. We select
a flexible coupling for the motor shaft with an external diameter of D = 250 mm. The
moment of inertia of such a coupling (according to Table 6.1) will be approximately
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 141
_______________________________________________________________________________________
N rated 15
M rated = 716.2 = 716.2 ≈ 11.15 kg-m
n 965
6. Checking the motor for overload. The overload of the motor during starting
( M max = M mot ) is
Wv 302 × 45
N= = ≈ 3.55hp
75η 75 × 60 × 0.85
The drive efficiency η is taken as 0.85 with two gear drives. The motor selected from
catalogues will have the following characteristics: rated power N rated = 4.1hp ; speed
n = 930 rpm ; duty factor DF = 25% , rotor moment of gyration ( GD 2 ) = 0.18 kg-m2.
The motor is checked for overload during the starting period in the same way as for crane
travelling mechanism.
1. We determine the resistance to motion. The weight of the crane (with a length of
span Lcr = 14 m ) is taken equal to G + Go = 15tons .
Wv 555 × 100
N= = = 14.5 hp
75η 75 × 60 × 0.85
N 14.5
M st = 71,620 = 71,620 = 1,078 kg-cm= 10.78kg-m.
n 965
where G ' = weight of the system in rectilinear motion (weight of loaded crane)
G ' = Q + Go + G = 5 + 15 = 20tons = 20 ,000 kg
Hoisting and Travelling Gears 143
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M max 25.14
= ≈ 2.26 , a value below that specified by catalogues (2.5)
M mot 11.15
Example 6.2
Determine the braking torque for hoisting and travelling mechanisms of an electric
overhead crane.
Solution:
When the brake is mounted on the motor shaft the static braking power will be
N br 8.9
M ' st = 71,620 = 71,620 = 662 kg .cm = 6.2 kg-cm
nbr 965
2. The dynamic torque in the braking referred to the brake shaft will be
' δGD 2 n 0.975G ' v 2η 1.15 × 1.96 × 965 0.975 × 5 ,000 × 10 2 × 0.8
M dyn = + = + ≈ 5.91 kg-m
375t br nt br 375 × 1 60 2 × 965 × 1
1. The resistance to motion disregarding friction of the travelling wheel flanges (without
coefficient β ) is
W = ( Q + G + Go )w = ( 5 + 15 )18.5 = 370 kg .
2. Next we determine the static moment of the forces resisting motion as referred to the
brake shaft. When the brake is mounted on the motor shaft the static braking power
will be
Wv 370 × 100
N br = = ≈ 9.7 hp
75η 60 × 75 × 0.85
N br 9 .7
M ' st = 71,620 = 71,620 = 720 kg-cm=7.2 kg-m
nbr 965
3. The dynamic torque in braking as referred to the brake shaft is found as follows.
We assume that half of the crane travelling wheels are braked; then the retardation path S
v
should not be less than S ≥ = 1.43m and the braking time will be:
70
2 S 2 × 1.43 × 60
t= = = 1.72 sec .
v 100
δGD 2 n 0.975G ' v 2η 1.15 × 1.96 × 965 0.975 × 20 ,000 × 100 2 × 0.85
M ' dyn = + = +
375t br nt br 375 × 2 60 2 × 965 × 2
= 26.7 kg-m
this actual braking torque M br is used as the basis for designing the brake of the crane
travelling mechanism.
Many types of variations of conveying and elevating equipment have been developed to
meet the widespread needs of industry. They are suitable for handling a wide variety of
materials over a broad range of capacities.
The common objective is to design and/or select a conveyor that will deliver maximum
performance at minimum cost per ton of material handled. To do so, it is necessary to obtain
answers to the following key questions and to develop the facts necessary to determine the
types of conveyor that will suit the purpose for which it is to be designed and arranged.
146
15. If an electric motor, what are the current characteristics?
16. What is its output speed, and what is the size and key-seat of the output shaft of the
prime mover?
17. Is the material to be weighed in transit on the conveyor?
18. Do you wish to remove tramp iron from the material as it passes over discharged pulley?
19. Do you wish to sample the material as it is being conveyed or discharged?
20. What safety devices should be applied to the conveyor?
147
CHAPTER SEVEN
BELT CONVEYORS
7.1 Introduction
Belt conveyors occupy an outstanding position in the field of bulk materials handling.
They are the most versatile and widely used of all conveyors. They are suitable for
handling a wide variety of materials. The range of sizes, which may be handled, is
limited only by the width of the belt. Materials may vary from extremely fine chemicals
to lump ore, stone, coal or pulpwood logs. They can handle a wide range of capacities
over longer distance than possible with other types of conveyor systems.
The belt conveyor is composed of (Fig.7.1) the belt, the idlers, the pulleys, the drive
equipment, the take-up and the supporting structure. The belt is an endless moving
rubber-covered conveyor for transporting materials and is made up of fibers having
longitudinal strength for pulling the load, transverse strength for supporting the load. The
idlers, which carry and train the belt; the pulleys, with their shafts and bearings, which
propel the belt and change its direction of travel; the drive equipment for transmitting
power from the motor to the driving pulley or pulleys; the take-up to maintain the slack
side tension; and the structure which supports and maintains alignment of idlers, pulleys
and the drive.
148
Belt Conveyors 149
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The great majority of belt conveyors handling bulk materials use some type of rubber-
protected fibers or belts (Fig.7.2). The belt cover is made of special wear-and impact-
resisting rubber compound with cord breaker strips imbedded in tough rubber. The cover
to the fibers are designed to protect an expressive belt fiber at loading points when a
sharp heavy lump material is being handled under adverse loading conditions.
Fig.
1. Cotton-Fabric Ply-Constructed Belting: This is the most widely used kind of rubber
covered conveyor belt, in which the fiber is made up of a number of layers or plies of
woven cotton fabrics of various weight. These fabrics have been impregnated with a
rubber compound known as "friction" rubber, which after vulcanizing, binds the plies
together.
2. Cord Belts: They are made up of longitudinal fibers or steel cords imbedded in
rubber and enclosed in an envelop of belt ducking to which the outer rubber covering
is attached, provide greater strength, more flexibility and somewhat greater impact
resistance than ply-constructed belts. The steel cord belt has the further very desirable
characteristic of low stretchability, making possible ever-increasing conveyor centers
and capacities.
3. Heat Service Belts: Special belts are available for jobs where hot materials must be
handled. They must retain their physical properties at temperatures up to 1200C and
resist abrasion by the conveyed material. These belts utilize carcasses of nylon,
polyester cotton, nylon or glass.
Idlers must be selected to properly protect and support the belt and load to be carried. A
wide variety of idlers are illustrated in Fig.7.3. The types of belt idlers with in the series
include 20-degree and 45-degree troughing rubber cushion, belt training, flat belt and
return idlers. Belt idler rolls can be furnished with shells of various materials. Rolls with
steel outer shells are used for the majority of installations and are usually the most
economical selection. Rolls with gray iron outer shells are recommended when handling
very abrasive materials or when a corrosion resistant material is required.
Belt Conveyors 150
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Rolls with rubber tread are recommended to protect the belt by absorbing impact under
loading points, especially when large lumps and heavy materials are carried. The return
rolls with rubber tread are recommended where wet or sticky materials cling to the belt
or where resistance to corrosion and chemical action on iron or steel is required.
7.2.3 Drives
Practically all belt conveyors are driven by an electric motor directly connected to a
speed reducer unit through a flexible coupling. A high-speed motor, which costs less and
occupies less space, is preferred to a slow speed motor. That is why there must be speed
reduction unit between the motor and the head shaft. The preferred drive location for a
Belt Conveyors 151
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belt conveyor is that which results in the least minimum belt tension. For simple
horizontal and inclined conveyors this is usually at the discharge end. For inclined
conveyors the preferred location is usually at the load end. Typical drive arrangements
are shown in Fig.7.4 below.
7.2.4 Take-ups
- Allow for stretch and shrinkage of the belt due to variation of temperature
and atmospheric pressure.
Belt Conveyors 152
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- Insure that the maximum tension in the belt is sufficient to prevent undue sag
between idlers
- Insure that the tension in the belt in the back of the drive pulley is sufficient
to permit such pulley to transmit the load
The basic types of take-ups used for belt conveyors are automatic counter weighted type
(Fig.7.5a & b) and manually adjusted screw type (Fig.7.5c) for vertical or horizontal
travel. Arrangements and applications vary widely with conveyor requirements.
Pulleys for belt conveyors are usually welded steel, drum types, for maximum strength,
minimum weight, and for resistance to shook during handling and operation. Welded
steel pulleys are made with straight and crown face in all combinations of diameters and
face width. They may be with rubber lagging either bolted or vulcanized. Pulleys for
shafts of small and moderate diameter are equipped with taper lock bushings for ease of
erection and to ensure and maintain a tight fit during operation.
The selection of the proper diameter of pulley is necessary to prevent separation of the
belt plies and/or excessive stress on the belt fabric plies as they flex around the pulley.
The factors involved in pulley diameter selection include the amount of wrap, belt
tension at the pulley, space available, characteristics of the materials handled, belt life
expectancy, shaft and bearing size and size and ratio of reducer.
The shaft and the pulley are treated as a single structure. The resultant force on the
bearing (shaft) is the vector sum of belt tensions, pulley weight, and weight of the shaft.
Fig.7.6 illustrates a graphical representation for a simple drive shaft arrangement subject
Belt Conveyors 153
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R
to a combination of bending and torque. Note that the force on the shaft is opposite to
2
the direction of the resultant force R.
T=3800kg
t=1600kg
R 5250
Force on the shaft = = = 2625 kg
W=1300kg 2 2
T=3800
t=1600
R=5250 W=1300
Many varied arrangements or paths of belt conveyors are possible. They can be any
combination of horizontal, ascending or descending paths. A few are illustrated in
Fig.7.7.
The profile can be of a horizontal belt (Fig.7.7a), an inclined belt (Fig.7.7b), a compound
path (Fig.7.7c) with horizontal, ascending and again horizontal path when belt tensions
will permit on belt and space will permit vertical curves. When space will not permit a
vertical curve or when the conveyor belt strength requires two belts a profile of Fig. 7.7d
can be implemented.
Belt conveyors can discharge material over end or at intermediate points. Some of the
arrangements are illustrated here.
Tramp iron can be removed from materials carried on belt conveyor by either
permanent or electromagnetic pulley. The pieces of tramp iron are drawn to the belt
surface as they pass over the magnetic pulley. The pieces then fall free as the belt
leaves the pulley, falling into a chute or bin. Other types of separators may be
suspended over the stream of the material on the conveyor (Fig.7.9a). Still another
type is to use a combination of both the above mentioned types (Fig.7.9b).
The load carrying capacity of belt conveyors in determined by the width of the belt and
the shape of its loaded cross sections. The area of the loaded cross section is dependent
upon the shape into which the carrying run of the belt is formed and the angle of the
repose of the material being carried.
a. Flat Belts on Flat Belt Idlers: They are especially used to transport materials, which
have steep angle of repose, and they are useful when the material is to be discharged at
intermediate points by ploughs or deflector plates.
b. Flat Belts on Continuous Plate: A continuous surface supporting the carrying run of
a belt is devised for light, mildly abrasive materials where smooth even travel is
essential.
c. Troughed Belts On 200 Idlers: The 200 through permits the use of the thickest belts
so that the heaviest materials and the maximum size lumps as coal, ore, earth and gravel
can be carried. It is the most widely used cross-section for lump materials.
Belt Conveyors 156
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d. Troughed Belts on 450 Idlers of Equal and Unequal Length: They accommodate a
large cross-section of material than those operating on idlers with rolls slopping 200
degrees.
e. Troughed Belts on Continuous Plate: They convey many bulk materials in large
quantities than a flat belt. Covers are provided when handling dusty materials such as
carbon black.
The design of a belt conveyor is greatly influenced by the material to be handled. The
characteristics and behavior of a variety of materials are given in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
The successful performance of a belt conveyor depends on overall design that meets the
requirement. Hence it is necessary to consider the following basic data.
Preliminary Check
The first step in the design of a belt conveyor is to conduct a primary check if:
Table 7.2 Specific Weight of Bulk Materials and Maximum Permissible Inclination of
Belt Conveyors
In dealing with the capacity of belt conveyor, it is first necessary to know whether the
material is to be conveyed as a unit load or in bulk, in loose form.
a. If the material to be conveyed is a unit load the capacity Q [tons/h] is calculated using
the following formula
Q = 3.6qBv (7.1)
Q = 3.6γAv (7.2)
If the belt conveyor has an inclination δ, then the capacity Q will be reduced by a factor
p.
Belt Conveyors 159
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δ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
% 3.5 7.0 10.5 14.0 17.6 21.3 24.9 28.7 32.5 36.4
p 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.85 0.81
δ 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
% 38.4 40.4 42.5 44.5 46.6 48.8 51.0 53.2 55.4 57.7
p 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.56
Condition f
Roller with ball bearing 0.05
Rollers with bronze journal bearing 0.03
Flat belt with out rubber cover running over a smooth metal plate 0.30
Flat belt with rubber cover running over a smooth metal plate 0.05
Qδ = pQ
The cross-sectional area of the material to be conveyed for a flat belt and for the
troughed one may be calculated using an empirical formula.
Belt Conveyors 160
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(B + 4) B 2
Af = (7.3)
110
Ac = 2 A f (7.4)
The assumptions used to arrive at the above formulae are a 200 inclination of rollers and
angle of repose of material to be 300.
The forces which are opposing the movement of the belt, the material and all moving
parts are due to friction on the parts and due to material transport, force required to
overcome the level difference, discharge forces and fixed resistance.
r1 = fq s l (7.5)
r2 = fq m l m (7.6)
r3 = q m H (7.7)
d. Discharging force
Fixed discharger:
r4 = aq m (7.8)
Mobile discharger:
r5 = b (7.9)
e. Fixed resistance: It takes into consideration frictional forces at the conveyor terminal
bearing, at the conveyor loading skirts and other minor power absorbing terms. This
is taken care by considering frictions additional length l o .
l o = 60 − 0.2l (7.10)
Hence r1 = fq s (l + l o )
r2 = fq m (l m + l o )
The operating maximum belt tension is defined as a maximum belt tension occurring
when the belt is conveying the design load from the loading point continuously to the
point of design. Maximum tension usually occurs at the discharge point on horizontal
and inclined conveyor (Fig.7.13 and 7.14). The belt tensions, in addition to their effect
on power requirements they also influence the design and selection of all component
parts.
Belt Conveyors 162
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T
= e μα (7.13)
t
and t min can be expressed in terms of the number of cords and the width of the belt.
2To = 2(t + r1 − Pn )
'
The slack side tension, t, is the tension required in the belt at the driving pulley of a
single pulley drive or at the secondary pulley of a dual pulley drive. It must exert
sufficient pressure between the belt and the driving pulley to transmit the required power
with out slippage.
The adhesion (wheel grip) between the belt and the driving pulley can be increased by
After calculating the tension, T, it is possible to calculate the number of fibers in the
nucleus of the belt.
T
n= (7.15)
KB
In order to determine the required motor power [kW], we use the total resistance R and
calculate the power N.
Rv
N= (7.16)
102η
Oscillating conveyors move materials in a uniform, continuous flow by the upward and
forward oscillating motion of a continuous metal trough, mounted on sturdy inclined
reactor legs. The angle of inclination α of the conveyor arm may vary from 250 to 300.
The movement of the conveyor follows harmonic motion and is governed by the
equation.
S = A sin ωt (8.1)
Since the crank radius is by far smaller than the length of the connecting rod that of the
oscillating arms, the velocity of the deck v deck changes roughly as a sine wave (Fig.8.1)
whereas the deck displacement rectilinearly, at angles to the oscillating arms. Its
acceleration j deck can be apparently resolved into two components, a horizontal j deck x
and a vertical j deck y . During a forward stroke, the vertical component is directed
upwards (Fig.8.2a). At the same time, a particle of material with a mass m is subject to
the combined effect of inertia and friction; a vertical component of inertia force m ⋅ j deck y
press the load against the deck, a horizontal component of inertia force m ⋅ j deck x tending
to displace the load along the deck, and a friction force F f acting along the deck in the
direction of the stroke.
Fig. 8.2 Forces on an Oscillating Conveyor (a) Forward Stroke, (b) Return Stroke
Thus the friction force F f acting along the deck in the direction of the stroke can be
obtained by using the formula:
F f = fFN (8.2)
(
F f = f × m ⋅ g + m ⋅ a deck y ) (8.3)
F f < Fx ; For the particle to move forward, the force along the x-
direction must be greater than the friction force.
Fx = ma deck x
fg
a deck >
cos α - f sin α
During a retarding stage of the forward stroke (section AB in the deck velocity curve of
Fig.8.1), the particle can continue its travel if the friction force F f is less than the
horizontal component of inertia force.
( )
f ⋅ m g + j deck y < m ⋅ j deck x
Since j deck x = j deck ⋅ cos α and j deck y = j deck ⋅ sin α , the above relationship takes the form
f ⋅g
j deck >
cos α − f ⋅ sin α
During the return stroke when the deck is being lowered, the vertical component of
inertia force is directed upwards (Fig.8.2b), reducing both the pressure of the load on the
deck and a friction force F f arising between the load and deck. The above particle of
material will continue its progress if the horizontal component of inertia force is greater
than the friction force
(
m ⋅ j deck x > f ⋅ m g + j dedck y )
To make for the conveying under the conditions of permanent load-to-load contact, the
load pressure on the deck should be greater than zero
(
m g − j dedck y > 0)
Oscillating Conveyors 168
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or
j deck y < g
i.e. the vertical component of deck acceleration should be less than the acceleration of
free fall.
Vibrating conveyors operating frequencies normally range from 200 to 3600 vibrations
per minute with an amplitude or stroke range from 0.08 to 3.75cm total movement.
In the first phase (i.e. in time t = 0 and t = t a ) the conveyor canal and the material move
together. At the time t a the vertical deceleration component of the canal becomes
greater than the acceleration due to gravity. At this particular instance the material leaves
the canal and follows a projectile motion until it comes in contact with the canal at
time t c . There after the cycle repeats.
From the figure, it can be seen that the efficient performance of the conveyor depends
upon the choice of ω and A. The contact of the material with the canal should be
between t b and t ' a . If the material contacts the canal at t ' c − t b when the canal is still in
the descending phase, the material will move backward until t b and then forward. At
time t " c it will attain the position it had at time t ' c . Hence the interval t ' c − t " c is not
made useful. In the case where the contact is at t c − t a , the velocity of the canal will not
be sufficient to push the material forward.
Oscillating Conveyors 169
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These conveyors are ideal for handling all granular free flowing materials as well as hot,
abrasive, fine, dusty lumpy, stringy and other materials which are difficult to handle or
where contamination or corrosion is a problem. In addition to conveying, oscillating
conveyors are used for scalping, cooling, heating and drying.
There are a variety of vibrating conveyor designs available which differ in detail since
most manufacturers have patented and proprietary designs unique to their equipment;
however, vibrating conveyors generally have similar basic elements
Many designs also include a reactor spring system which alternately stores and
releases energy at each end of the trough stroke.
1. The trough is the only portion of the vibrating conveyor that comes in contact with
the material being conveyed. It can be fabricated in a variety of materials in almost
any shape and size and can be adapted to perform various processes while the
material is in motion.
2. The base is primarily a means of mounting the conveyor and is usually of a simple
design incorporating structural steel members. It can be designed as an elaborate
truss-like structure or can be simplified so all corners are eliminated to meet
sanitation specifications for the food, chemical, and other related industries.
3. The trough supporting system's primary function is to control and direct the motion
of the trough. This system can assume a variety of shapes and may be cast or
fabricated assemblies incorporating maintenance-free flexible connections at each
end or a simple flexible slat.
4. The drive is the prime element in a vibrating conveyor because it is the source of
the controlled vibration. The drive may be in the form of a positive direct-
connected linkage, a positive flexible-connected linkage, or a non-positive
motorized counterweight assembly. These latter two are found primarily on
conveyors that take advantage of the natural frequency phenomena whereas the
first is generally used on brute-force units.
Oscillating Conveyors 170
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5. The reactor spring system can assume many forms including steel coil springs,
flexible steel or glass slats, rubber blocks, circular rubber toroids, and torsion bars.
The particular application involved often makes one type more advantageous than
another.
There are basically three types of oscillating conveyors for light, medium and heavy-
duty service.
They are used for light duty applications. They have simple construction, remarkably
rugged, compact and require minimum maintenance and attention. Firmly mounted flat-
spring support legs provide sturdy through support as well as natural frequency spring
reaction which keeps drive size requirement to minimum. They handle a wide variety of
free-flowing material as well as metal chips, metal scrap and canned goods in process.
They are rugged, well reinforced and require minimum maintenance. The coil springs
operate in the natural frequency rang. They are used for medium duty service. The
trough is supported by separate legs that are rubber bushed at articulated points and do
not require lubrication. The coil spring operate in the natural frequency range and reduce
normal drive requirements. They can handle many materials such as cullets, bulk
chemicals, sand, etc.
They are rugged, dependable and easy to adjust and maintain. They are used for heavy
and extra duty applications. Torsion bars fixed at one end and steel backed rubber
bushed at the other end, absorb the energy of the trough movement at the end of the
stroke at all points of support along the trough length. They can handle great variety of
materials such as sand, castings, and cullet.
1
8.4 Selection of Oscillating Conveyors
1
in the selection of Oscillating Conveyors please use conversion table: 1ft = 12” ; 1” = 2.54cm;
1lb = 0.4536kg; 1ft/min =5.08×10-3 m/s; 1hp =0.746kW; 1lb/ft3 =16.018kg/m3.
Example 8.1. Select a Flexmount to handle 15 tons per hour of dry sand weighing 75
pounds per cubic foot over a distance of 27 feet. Conveyor to have feed end
drive.
Solution: Refer to capacity Chart A, for material weighing 75 pounds per cubic foot at
15 TPH an 18 '' × 4 '' trough is required.
The Coilmount design lends itself to many special process such as scalping, dewatering,
drying or cooling, and special screen decks, trough covers or cooling hoods can be
engineered by Link-Belt. Coilmount conveyors can be used without special construction
to handle materials up to approximately 2500F. Higher temperature application should be
referred to Link-Belt for recommendation.
Refer to Chart A and C, determine the width for the required capacity. Chart A is for
Oscillating Conveyors 172
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10 '' × 6 '' conveyors and Chart C for 20 '' × 6 '' conveyors, for material travel speeds up to
75 feet per minute with a 4 '' bed depth of material. Most materials convey between 50
and 75 feet per minute. For higher conveying rates consult Link-Belt.
Inter-particle slippage, aeration of the bed of material, moisture content and other factors
affect the conveying rate. For example, coarse materials with minimum inter-particle
slippage such as feed pellets, wood chips, dry chemicals and damp sand generally
convey at approximately 75 feet per minute while fine materials with inter-particle
slippage or aeration qualities such as dry cement or fine, dry sand generally convey at
approximately 50 feet per minute or less. For recommendations on sticky or hard-to-
handle materials consult link-belt. Laboratory facilities and field units are available for
material performance tests.
Refer to Chart B and D, select the drive size and trough thickness for the required
capacity and length.
Example 8.2: Select a Coilmount to handle 45 tons per hour of dry coarse salt
weighing 50 pounds per cubic foot over a distance of 35 feet. Conveyor to
have feed end drive.
Oscillating Conveyors 173
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Solution: Refer to Capacity Chart A, material weighing 50 pounds per cubic foot
conveyed at 45 TPH is beyond the recommended range of a
10" × 6 " Coilmount. Therefore, refer to Chart C which shows that a
20" × 6 " Coilmount is satisfactory for this application.
The heavy and extra heavy duty Torqmount Oscillating conveyors complement the
Flexmount and Coilmount by providing greater load carrying capacity and relating
maintenance simplicity. The Torqmount design lends itself to applications which
require handling high capacities of materials such as foundry shakeout sand, castings,
coal or crushed rock.
Refer to Chart A and C. Determine trough width for the required capacity. Chart A is
for 20× 48" trough widths and based on an average material travel of 30 feet per
minute with an average depth of bed of 4''. Chart C is for the 48" wide super-capacity
extra heavy duty conveyor and based on an average depth of bed of 8". When
selection is in shaded portion of table consult Link-Belt.
Refer to Chart B and D. Determine the horsepower required based on capacity and
conveyor length. Where more horsepower or longer carrying runs are required, two or
more conveyors of shorter length can be used in series, each wit its own drive.
Oscillating Conveyors 174
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Example 8.3: Select a Torqmount to handle 75 tons per hour of clinker weighing 90
pounds per foot over a distance of 65 feet.
Solution: Refer to Capacity Chart A. For material weighing 90 pounds per cubic foot
at 75 TPH a 36" wide trough is required. Refer to Drive Selection Chart B.
A 65 foot long conveyor handling 75 TPH requires a 10 HP drive.
Example 8.4: Select a Torqmount to handle 275 tons per hour of shakeout sand
weighing 90 pounds per cubic foot over a distance of 45 feet.
Solution: Refer to Capacity Chart A. The tonnage requirements are beyond the
capacity of a heavy duty Torqmount; therefore, refer to Capacity Chart C
for the extra-heavy duty Torqmount which is satisfactory for this
application.
Refer to Drive Selection Chart D. The horsepower required for one 45-foot
long conveyor exceeds the recommended 25 HP maximum. Therefore use
two conveyors in series. One 25 feet long with a 20 HP motor and one 20
feet long with 15 HP motor.
8.5 Limitations
Oscillating Conveyors 175
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As seen from the foregoing, vibratory feeders and conveyors are used to master and
transport a wide variety of materials over a large application base. There are few
limitations, with today's technologies, to the successful application of this class of
equipment. Some materials that tend to fluidize, or adhere to the feeder trough may be
more efficiently handled by other means. Also a dusting problem may occur at the
outlet of a feeder handling some dry, powdery materials, and require special handling.
It is shown that feed extraction from hoppers is not fully positive, therefore, in
applications requiring extreme accuracies, a weighing system of some type may be
recommended. The structural integrity of vibratory equipment is extremely important.
This equipment is subject to high accelerations and high reversing stress cycles;
consequently, to achieve acceptable industrial equipment fatigue life, the structures
must be designed with stress limits much below that considered good design practice
for structures not subjected to vibration. Special attention must also be paid to the
design of weldments and welding techniques.
There are four types of chain conveyors based on whether the chain slides or rolls and
whether the material is pushed or carried. Units can be arranged for operation
horizontally, inclined, or vertical. Flight conveyors can be easily enclosed for dust
containment and arranged to serve multiple filling and discharge points.
Apron conveyors are used extensively in particular all modern mining, manufacturing
and processing industries. They are particularly suited to the handling of incoming raw
materials in process materials and finished materials.
Aprons and pans are made in various types, selection of the types are made of formed
steel, with front and rear edges beaded so that one overlaps the next to form a continuous
surface or trough. Apron pans can be flat or equipped with side plates to increase
capacity and reduce spillage. Some of the most commonly used ones are described
below.
Style A
Aprons and pans are used for horizontal and low incline (200 - 250) services. Both types
in short pitches are used for feeders; pans in medium or long pitches, for conveyors.
This style in suitable for most bulk materials, including hot dusty, abrasive materials as
shakeout sand in foundries, limestone in cement mills and ores in mining.
Style B
The pans are designed to provide force and easy discharge and consequently, low drop
of material. This style is especially suited to handle lump material which should not be
broken. It is also suitable for wide conveyors and can be used for inclined conveying up
to 300.
Style C
The pans are used for large capacities of fines and lumps and inclines up to 300. They
require a higher discharge point than style B. They are suitable for use as feeding,
picking, sorting and lowering conveyors.
Style D
The pans are similar to style B. Built of angles and plates, they are of very strong and
rigid construction. These pans are capable of carrying large quantities of material such
as coal, rock and castings. The pans have complete discharge with very little drop and
breakage of lumps. They have good impact resistance under loading point.
Style E
The pans are super-capacity pans for handling, fine, crushed, or lump materials in very
large quantities. They can be used for horizontal conveying or inclined conveying as
steep as 450.
The thickness of the apron pan is dependent upon the weight to be supported on each
apron, impact of the filling lump, and abrasiveness or corrosiveness of the material.
Table 9.1 is a general guide to apron pan selection.
Recommended Apron
Pan Thickness[mm] Application
4.75 Light mildly abrasive materials
6.00-8.00 Medium-weight materials having some
corrosive and abrasive properties
≥10.00 Heavy abrasive, corrosive materials; high
impact duty
The maximum traction force is a combination of the force required to move the material,
the moving part of the conveyor and the force required to overcome the level difference.
f1 = f g q m l m (9.1)
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 181
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Table 9.2 Coefficient of Friction as a Function of Wheel Diameter and Assembly Type
f 2 = f g qs ls (9.2)
f 3 = ±qm H (9.3)
4. The force required to overcome the friction between the chain and the driving gear can
be calculated by:
5. After calculating the maximum force required, maximum tension, T can be used to
find the stress on the shaft. The traction force R is equal to the maximum tension T.
This is due to the fact that the slack side tension is negligible compared to that of the
slack side tension of the belt conveyor.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 182
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T
p= (9.4)
2db
T = R = f1 + f 2 + f 3 (9.5)
Tv
N= (9.6)
102η
7. The more commonly used chain for apron conveyor applications is a steel, bushed
roller chain with pans, bolted to the chain by attachments (Fig.9.7). For non-abrasive
materials weighing 800kg/m3 or less, with a minimum lump size a 100mm-pitch chain
is adequate. For most other materials a150mm pitch and larger chain is used.
Manufacturer’s literature should be referred to for specific application information.
Fig. 9.7 Chain Attachments, Links Having Suitable Projections with Holes
to which Apron Pans can be Attached
A flight conveyor consists of one or more endless propelling mediums, such as chain or
other linkage, to which properly spaced scrapers or flights for moving material along the
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 183
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length of a stationary trough. Material fed into this trough is thereby pushed along its
length for discharge at the end of the trough or through intermediate discharge gates.
Flight conveyors are used for either horizontal or inclined paths and are frequently
installed where the angle of inclination is comparatively steep. Flight conveyors may be
several hundred meters in length, but as the material is scraped along a trough they are
not suited to abrasives like ashes or sand. A modified type called the drag chain
conveyor is specifically adopted for ashes, coal, sawdust, pulpwood and hot or cold
cement cylinders. It can however be used for a variety of materials and makes an
economical installation where capacity requirements are average and space saving is
important.
9.3.1 Construction
Figure 9.8a is the cross-section of a single strand scrapper flight conveyer, in which the
flights are drawn along the trough bottom. Fig.9.8b is a single strand suspended flight
conveyor with wearing shoes attached to the flights to carry them clear of the trough
along the carrying run and support them along the return run.
Figure 9.8c is similar to the suspended flight conveyor except that rollers are substituted
for shoes the roller flight conveyer. Figure 9.8d is a double strand conveyor with roller
chain to carry the flights the roller chain suspended flight conveyor.
Although this discussion deals primarily with flight conveyors in their true definition
(i.e., flights pushing material in a trough) there are other special versions of the
chain/flight conveyor. One version utilizes chain and specially formed flight which
travels through an enclosed, modified trough. Special head/drive and tail/take-up
terminals are required. The advantages of these units are:
- Standardized parts are readily available.
- They are self-cleaning.
- They are gentle handling.
There are still other modifications of the chain/flight conveyor that utilize various
combinations of chain and bar-type flights for conveying materials in enclosed troughs.
These units are usually proprietary design of a given manufacturer.
Wide chain drag conveyors (Fig. 9.9) do not have flights as the open links serve to move
the material. These conveyors operate at slow speeds generally 0.1 m/s or less. They are
used for conveying abrasive materials like ashes, coal or sand. In addition one typical
application can be quenching hot materials.
Generally available types of flight conveyors are presented above. Sliding chain
conveyors are simpler, with fewer moving parts than a roller chain type but horsepower
requirements are higher. A roller chain unit operates with less pulsation than a sliding
chain unit. The lower friction of the roller chain units permits design of longer units,
with lower horsepower and reduced operating costs, but may be susceptible to jam-ups.
Flights, normally manufactured from steel, have been made of wood, malleable iron and
other materials spaced at distances from 300mm to 915mm. Flight spacing is varied to
suit the size of lumps, required capacity and slope of unit. Table 9.3 is a brief resume of
sizes and capacity of available units and additional data can be found in the
manufacturer’s catalogue.
Approximate
Flight Dimension Lump Size [mm] b Capacity [t/h] at
(Width×Depth)[mm] Single Strand Double Strand 0.5m/s
300×150 87.5 100 55
375×150 112.5 125 66
450×150 125.0 150 76
600×200 - 250 158
750×250 - 350 218
900×300 - 400 327
a
For materials with density of 800kg/m3
b
Lumps not to exceed 10% of total volume
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 186
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This third component for lift can be disregarded in figuring a horizontal conveyor.
These values can be expressed by the formula:
(I)+(II)+(III)
9.7 × 10 −3
P= (0.001WC LSFC + TL L FL + TH ) kW (9.7)
FD
The typical bucket elevator consists of an endless chain or belt to which are attached
buckets for elevating pulverized, granular, or lumpy materials along a vertical or a
steeply inclined path. The driving traction element is a chain or a belt. The choice
depends on the desired performance of the elevator and the type of the load intended for
handling. So free-flowing materials can be conveniently handled with belt affording
speeds up to 3.5 m/s.
Unit loads are conveyed with the aid of arms or candles attached to the traction element.
Buckets are used to handle free flowing loads and find application in grain storage, at
food processing and chemical plants; in the building materials industry etc.
Comparatively small in cross-section, they cope with lifts up to 60m, providing for a
handling capacity between 5 and 600 m3/h.
A bucket elevator (Fig.9.10) has a vertically closed tractive element 1 with load-
carrying elements (buckets) 2 rigidly attached to it; the tractive element bends around
an upper drive pulley 5 and lower take-up pulley 9 (or sprockets in chain elevators).
The moving elements and the turning devices of an elevator are arranged in a closed
metal casing which consists of a top portion ('head') 6, middle, sections 4, and bottom
portion ('boot') 10. The tractive element with buckets is moved by a drive 12, arid the
initial tension is set up by a take-up 8. Bulk material is fed into the charging pipe
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 188
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(spout) at the elevator bottom, poured into buckets, lifted in them, and discharged at
the upper pulley (sprocket) into a spout at the elevator top. The drive is provided with
a stop 11 to prevent backward motion of the tractive element. The elevator casing has
guide means 7 inside.
1. Head shaft with pulley for belting or sprockets for chain: This assembly is
normally mounted in antifriction bearing pillow blocks supported by the housing
head section.
2. The drive, gear reducer, and motor drives, which may be V-belt (in light-duty
elevators), ANSI drive chain and sprockets, or direct-coupled with flexible coupling
or shaft-mounted reducer: The most common gear reducers utilized are shaft
mounted, concentric shaft, and, for heavy duty applications, parallel shaft.
Mechanical holdbacks are necessary to prevent reversal of the elevator in case of
power failure. Dependent on elevator size and application, the holdback may be
integral to the reducer or mounted separately on the head shaft.
3. Foot shaft with pulley or sprockets: Normally the foot shaft assembly is mounted in
bearings or guides for take-up adjustment of the belt/chain and bucket assembly. In
some special designs and when handling material that tends to pack, the foot shaft is
fixed with take-up at the head shaft.
4. Elevator buckets mounted on belting or chain: This assembly defines the elevator
and must be matched to the application.
5. The elevator enclosure houses the bucket and belting or chain assembly and generally
provides mounting and enclosure for the rotating machinery: Loading and discharge
chutes are integral to the enclosure. Bucket elevator housings are comprised of boot
section, intermediate casing, and head section. They are generally fabricated of mild
structural steel shapes and plates. Except in large high-lift elevators, the casing
supports the live load and the machinery load and accepts the drive reactions. Bucket
elevators, except in special designs, must be laterally restrained.
6. Platforms, ladders, and hoist beams arc frequently mounted on elevator housings
for maintenance access.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 189
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1. Centrifugal Discharge
Materials enter by flowing along the floor of the boot from which it is scooped up by
the digging action of the bucket as they round the foot wheel. The materials are
discharged by centrifugal action as the buckets pass over the head wheel.
2. Perfect Discharge
The buckets are carried between two strands of chain snubbed under the head wheels
to bring them into an inverted position above the discharge chute. This is a slow
speed machine for fragile, sticky or slow flowing materials.
3. Continuous Bucket
This is also a slow speed machine the buckets are mounted continuously along the
chain. At the head the discharge from each bucket is over the front of the preceding
bucket which forms a chute or guide to the fixed discharge.
4. Gravity Discharge
This is the name given to the double-strand elevator conveyor with spaced V-section
buckets. It may follow almost any path in a vertical plane. Its principal advantage is
with fragile materials since it eliminates a transfer from one unit to another. It is a
slow speed machine. Material is loaded as in type 1, but discharge is through gates in
a trough is in flight conveyors.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 190
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Fig. 9.11 Method of Loading and Unloading of a Bucket Elevator; a) loading through a
chute; b) loading by digging from the boot; c) positive discharge; d) central
discharge
In the case of sticky loads more suitable are open buckets of the flat-bottom
configuration (Fig. 9.12d). Loading chutes are best suitable for coarsely broken and
abrasive loads. Bucket width b is adopted taking into account the lump size, from the
relationship.
b ≥ ka
where a is the maximum lump size and k is a factor taken at 2-2.5 for
unsized material and at 4-5 for a sized one.
The method of unloading is adopted depending on the bucket speed and head wheel
diameter. When the loaded bucket goes round the head wheel and overturns, the material
will be subject to the combined effect of
mg = gravitational force
As the bucket travels together with the wheel at a given speed the resultant R, of forces
mg and mr.ω 2 changes in the direction and magnitude. Yet its line of action invariably
passes through point M termed the pole which is located in vertical to the wheel axis
distant h form it.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 193
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OM r
= (9.8)
mg mω 2 r
g g g
OM = = =
ω 2
⎛v⎞
2
⎛ 2πn ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝r⎠ ⎝ 60 ⎠
gr 2 3600 g 895
= = = 2 (9.9)
v2 4π 2 n 2 n
In other words, the polar distance h is a function of the head-wheel speed only, n in rpm,
increasing inversely with it. When the pole distance is equal or greater than the head
wheel radius r , the centrifugal force is by far exceeded, resulting in a gravity discharge
(gravity being higher than the centrifugal force).
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 194
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G=iγ ϕ (9.10)
G
Q = 3.6 v (9.11)
t
After the correct selection of elevator style and bucket has been made, the selection of
belting or chain is of prime importance. Chain can be selected knowing tight-
(ascending) side tension only; however, for belt selection, tight and slack- (descending)
side tension must be known. In either case, in calculating tensions for component
selection may be taken.
T1 = (WC + WB + LL) H
'
(9.12)
T2 = (WC + WB ) H (9.13)
'
where T1 = tight-side tension [kg]
WC = weight of belt or chain with fasteners and attachments[kg/m]
WB = weight buckets [kg/m]
LL = weight of live load [kg/m]
H = elevator shaft centers [m]
T2 = slack-side tension [kg]
Tight-side tension T must have an additional factor added to compensate for digging
in the boot. Elevator manufacturers have developed standards for this factor and
should be consulted. In tall elevators and continuous elevators, digging forces are of
less concern than in short or spaced elevators. This is due to the compensating effect
of materials design safety factors; therefore,
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 195
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T1 = T1 + TD
'
(9.14)
Manufacturers' ratings for elevator chains should be used and a selection made where
the working load is within the theoretical calculations obtained from the preceding
equations. This working load is normally based on a factor of at least six to one in
relation to ultimate chain strength. Judgment is required in the selection of the proper
chain. If the selection is good, the chain installed should provide several years of
operation without replacement or unusual maintenance. Combination-type chains,
steel knuckle, welded steel, and roller-type chains are three types of, chain with wide
ranges of usefulness in elevator service.
The power required to drive bucket elevators can be estimated, in most cases, from
the following equations:
N = 0.0194 Hm' kW
N = 0.0176 Hm' kW
Obviously these two equations become progressively conservative for elevators with
high lifts, as there is no difference in drive efficiency in high- or low-lift elevators.
Hence the greater reserve capacity of the drive is available for loading conditions at
the boot and for starting the elevator from rest with a full load in the buckets.
However, in high-capacity engineered elevators, thorough mechanical calculations
based on the difference between tight- and slack-side tension plus machinery friction,
digging and power transmission losses are required.
Chain Conveyors and Bucket Elevators 196
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Example 9.1
Given: An apron conveyor is designed to deliver hot castings from the shakeout to the
fettling shop as shown in the figure below. The castings have ve a diameter of
600mm, a height of 250mm and a piece-weight, G, of 180kg. Conveyor
capacity, Z= 300pcs/h, and factor allowing for irregular feed, k’=2.
Solution
Considering the size of the castings, choose a corrugated apron of width B = 800mm
with flanges, h =100mm.
600 × 180
i.e., Q = = 108 t/h
1000
Conveyor speed, v
q s ≈ 60 B + A = 60×0.8+110 ≈160kg/m
T = f1 + f 2 + f 3 = f g q m l m + f g q s l s + q m H
Horizontal distance from the figure =20m, but this should be increased by 20m to
overcome friction between the chain and the driving gear, i.e., l s = l m = 40 m.
Level difference from the figure = 10m, but this should be increased by 5% for
friction, i.e., H =10.5m.
Tv 6420 × 0.15
N= = = 13.49 ≈ 14 kW
102η 102 × 0.7
Table 9.7 Approximate Values of Factor A for Flanged Corrugated Steel Aprons
The screw conveyor, one of the oldest and simplest methods used for the movement of
bulk materials, consists of a long-pitch plate-steel helix mounted on a shaft or spindle
carried in bearings within a U-shaped trough. As the element rotates, the material fed to
it is moved forward by the thrust of the lower part of the helix and is discharged through
openings in the trough bottom or at the end.
The movement of the materials is forced through the trough by a rotating screw
(Fig.10.1), which is formed by a helical blade attached to the drive shaft 8 which is
coupled to a drive 1and supported by end bearings 2,6 and by inner bearings 4. The
trough 7 of the round-bottom shape is topped by a cover plate 3 with an opening 5 for
loading the conveyor. A similar unloading opening 9 is provided in the bottom of the
trough. The loading and unloading points can be located anywhere along the trough.
Screw Conveyors 198
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This is the rotating part of the screw conveyor which imparts smooth and positive
motion to the bulk material being conveyed. It consists of spiral flying mounted on a
pipe and is made either right or left hand to suit the screw rotation and the desired
direction of material travel.
Fig.10.2 Typical Screw Configurations: (a) Helical Spiral (b) Ribbon Spiral
(c) Cut Flights
The drive shaft supports the conveyor screw section and keeps it in alignment. The
end shaft is located at the end opposite the drive shaft. Couplings are used to connect
successive conveyors screw section when more than one section is necessary to make
up the total length of conveyor. The shaft and coupling are secured in the conveyor
screw by coupling bolts as shown in Fig.10.3.
Screw Conveyors 199
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The plate seal (Fig.10.4a) is an economical, effective sealing device, designed for
exterior mounting between the end bearing and the trough end. Standard units employ
lip type seals to contact the shaft but other types of commercial seal cartridges also may
be used. The seal plate and the end bearing are bolted to the trough end by one set of
bolts. Split gland seals (Fig.10.4b) are designed for interior or exterior mounting. They
provide a seal which is effective for many applications. The universal type of seal
(fig.10.4c) is arranged for use with waste packing or with cartridge type lip or felt seals.
An opening at the top of the seal housing facilitates waste repacking, and exposes the
waste for oiling. The packing seal housing is mounted outside the trough and between it
and the end bearing.
Packing gland seals (Fig.10.4d) are effective means for sealing the conveyor both
internally and externally. This seal also is sometimes suitable for pressure or vacuum
service. The packing pressure is adjusted by the gland bolts. Air purge shaft seals
(Fig.10.4e) are arranged for attaching to standard or special trough ends. A constant air
pressure is maintained to prevent material from escaping from the trough along the shaft.
The air purge seal is desirable for sealing highly abrasive materials.
Screw Conveyors 200
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(d) (e)
The trough is the enclosure in which the material is confined and guided in its
movement. A shaft mounted speed reducer makes a simple and compact drive
combination.
Screw conveyors are not limited to conveying horizontally. With specialised design the
unit may operate at a slope or in the vertical position. There could be many drive
arrangements to meet the practical limitation like space, type of drive, etc. Some of the
drive arrangements are presented in Fig.10.5 below.
Screw Conveyors 201
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Fig.10.5 Typical Drive Arrangements: (a) Vertical (b) Horizontal and Vertical
(c) Steep Slop
Screw conveyores serve a wide variety of purpose in many industries. Some of the
application areas are:
1. When the materials are extremely hot, cast screws and troughs may be used
or the screws and troughs may be made of high temperature alloy metals.
2. If the materials are sticky or viscous, ribbon flight screws may be the choice.
Furthermore, special coatings applied to the screw and troughs may also aid
the flow of the material.
3. When extremely abrasive materials are to be conveyed they may require
screws and troughs made of abrasion resistant metals or the screws may be
provided with hard surface flights.
4. When the materials are corrosive it may be desirable to make the conveyor
screws and troughs of stainless steel, Monel metal, nickel, aluminium, etc.
Screw Conveyors 202
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The trough is commonly fabricated from flat sheet from 2 and 8mm thick. The screw
pitch t = (0.5 to 1.0) D, where D is the screw diameter. The screw diameter D is
governed by the lump size, being at least twelve times that for loads of uniform lump
size and at least four times the maximum lump size in case of unsized bulk materials.
The screw speed is influenced by the nature of load and screw diameter, increasing
inversely with the bulk weight, screw diameter and the intensity of abrasive action of the
material. Conveyors handling heavy materials operate at around 50rpm and those
designed to convey light loads, at up to 150rpm.
π d2
A =ϕ (10.1)
4
Material ϕ
Heavy-weight abrasive loads 0.125
Heavy-weight mildly abrasive 0.250
Light-weight mildly abrasive 0.320
Light-weight non abrasive 0.400
β (degrees) 0 5 10 15 20
k 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.75
tn
v= (10.3)
60
π D 2 tn
Q = 3600 ϕ γ k
4 60
= 47ϕ ⋅ t ⋅ n ⋅ D 2 ⋅ k ⋅ γ (10.4)
QL
N h = C0 (10.5)
367
QH QL
Ns = + C0 (10.6)
367 367
Q
q= (10.7)
3.6 ν
Mo
P= (10.8)
r tan(α + ϕ )
102 N o × 60
Mo =
2πn
N0
= 975 kgm (10.9)
n
Material Co
Flour, cereal, saw dust 1.2
Peat, Soda ash, pulverised coal, finely ground chalk 1.6
Coal (lump anthracite and bituminous, air dry brown), rock salt 2.5
Gypsum, dry clay, sand, cement, ash, lime, moulding sand 4.0
Screw Conveyors 205
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Example10.1.
Solution:
1. Main parameters of the conveyor. Considering that the material is heavy and
abrasive, we take the trough loading efficiency ψ = 0.125 and the screw pitch
t = 0.8 D . Hence, shaft speed will also be low, i.e. n = 37.5 rpm. A reducer with two
spur gear pairs will suit the purpose.
4Q 4 × 35
D=3 =3
60π × 0.8 × n ⋅ψ ⋅ γ ⋅ k 60 × 3.14 × 0.8 × 37.5 × 0.125 × 1.65 × 1
= 0.495 m ≈ 0.5 m.
2. Required power. The resistance to motion factor for moulding sand being C o = 4 ,
we determine the power required on the screw shaft from equation 10.5:
QL 35 × 20
N h = C0 = 4× ≈ 7.7 kW
367 367
Taking the efficiency of the reducer with two spur gears η = 0.9 , the required motor
power will be
Nh 7.7
N= = ≈ 8.5 kW
η 0.9
The torque transmitted by the electric motor to the screw shaft is obtained from
equation 10.9:
N0 7.7
M o = 975 = 975 × = 200 kgm
n 37.5
3. Load propulsion rate ( t = 0.8 D = 0.8 × 0.5 = 0.4 m ), and from equation 10.3
Screw Conveyors 206
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tn 0.4 × 37.5
v= = = 0.25 m / sec .
60 60
4. The load per meter of conveyor length is obtained from equation 10.7:
Q 35
q= = = 38.8 kg / m.
3.6 ν 3.6 × 0.25
5. Axial force along the screw: this can be obtained from equation 10.8 as
D 0.5
r = 0.8 × = 0.8 × = 0.2 m.
2 2
hence,
Mo 200
P= = = 660 kg .
r tan(α + ϕ ) 0.2 × 1.5
Since not all of these forces can be determined precisely, the calculation for the strength
of the components is usually simplified by estimating according to M 0 and P.
This system utilizes a vacuum created in the pipeline to draw the material with the
surrounding air.
This type of system can be used in those operations where products must be fed into a
dump hopper. The conveying air can be used to control the dust that is generated
from the dumping operation. An air intake scoop or filter is required depending on
the products to be handled. The receiver can be a cyclone connected with a
centrifugal fan that will tolerate small amounts of product and dust passing through it.
However, if a rotary positive-displacement blower is the vacuum source, the receiver
must be a filter type to prevent any product passing through the blower because of its
close tolerances.
These systems are particularly suited to moving material from multiple pickup points
to a single location, the reason being that the bulk of the system's expense is in the
terminal end where the receiver, rotary valves, and vacuum source are located. The
pickup points are Y-branches or manifolds with cutoff valves that can be manually or
automatically operated.
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A positive pressure exhauster 6 causes material to flow through a nozzle 1 and a duct
2 into a cyclone collector 3 where it is separated from the conveying air. The exhaust
air is fed to a filter collector 5 for complete recovery of the fine material, leaving then
through the exhauster into the atmosphere. The material is discharged form the
collectors through rotary air lock feeders 4 preventing in leakage of air. Vacuum
conveying eliminates the dust problem and is successfully applied for unloading
material at a number of points, using a network of pipes and delivering to a single
point. This system operates at 0.5-0.6atm and is utilized mainly in conveying light
free flowing materials over short distances.
The next pneumatic system is the straight pressure type, which is ideally suited for
conveying from one pickup location to many discharge locations (Fig.11.2). The
greatest cost in this system is at the pickup location where the rotary valve and the
blower are located. At the terminal end, the system is blowing into some bins and
utilizes some diverter valves or a manual switch station. If the product is the same in
all bins, just one filter is necessary by interveting the bins. Generally, this type of
system is more economical when going from one point to several. The one drawback
of this type of system is that the air leakage at the pickup point must be handled.
Because of the clearances in the rotary valve and the displacement of the rotor, there
is a constant flow of air passing out of the system at the pickup location. This has to
be vented in some manner, either by a simple sock (depending on the product) or an
elaborate and expensive secondary dust-collecting method which may make the
system more expensive in the final analysis than a vacuum type.
displacement blower, can provide only about 400mm of mercury, or roughly 0.53bar.
Thus a larger conveying job can be done with a smaller pipe in a pressure system than
in a vacuum system, but the power consumption should be the same because the same
amount of work is being done. A vacuum system with a bigger pipe is not going to
take more power to do the same work; the same amount of product is being moved
over the same distance. Power consumption should be the same, provided that the
same vacuum or pressure source is being used.
This is a system in which a sanction system is used to convey material form a number
of loading points and pressure system is employed to deliver it to a number of
Pneumatic Conveyors 210
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unloading points. Such installations are utilized when conveying over a long distance
is required.
A combination of the vacuum and pressure system has obvious advantages. Such a
system can pick up from a railroad car and convey by pressure to storage tanks, or
pick up from any other device that requires a vacuum-type intake to handle
particularly fine, dusty material that is difficult to introduce into a pressure system
because of the blow-back. In going from many pickup points to many discharge
points, it is usually more economical because the meat of the system-a filter receiver
the pressure side-is in the middle.
For best results, a pull-push system should utilize a separate blower on the vacuum
and a separate blower for the pressure side. The main advantage of this is that the
vacuum side can be sized for a full 400mm of mercury vacuum while allowing the
pressure side to be sized for a full gauge pressure of 1bar. This helps to maintain a
smaller pipe on each side and keeps the filters, diverter valves, and blowers
considerably smaller. It also provides good control over the volumes on each leg.
When both legs are tied together to a common fan or blower and velocity is too low
on the pressure side (which is usually the case because of compression ratio), the
blower must be sped up to increase the velocity on the pressure side. Velocity on the
negative side then goes out of sight and product degradation or abrasion increases.
Separate blowers for the vacuum leg and the pressure leg can be fine-tuned
independently of each other. Velocity can be increased on the vacuum side by
changing the drive on the blower, without affecting the pressure side or vice versa.
There are limitations of the system. Some of them are high power requirements
(these amount to 15kWh/t, being 10 to 15 times higher than for mechanically driven
conveyors), rapid wear of equipment, the problem of dust recovery from the exhaust
air before this leaves into the atmosphere and inability to convey wet, caking and
sticky loads.
a. Nozzle Injector
The increased velocity due to the nozzle pushes the material into the pipe of
pneumatic conveyor. The difference in pressure (as a result of velocity increase) has
a sucking effect from the feeding chamber.
Blower
Feeder
b. Rotating Valve
This is used for non-abrasive materials and a capacity less than 15t/h and of
conveying length 100 to 200 m.
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This is widely applied for cement and other powdered materials. The material from
the hopper is forced by high-speed motor driven screw through feed funnel into a
mixing chamber.
d. Suction Nozzles
They are used to charge material into the pipe of sanction conveyors. They work in
the following way: the nozzle, attached to a flexible hose connected with the pipe, is
buried into the bulk material to be conveyed. The pressure drop creates a stream of
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air which partly posses through the material, the other part being fed from the annular
slot of the nozzle through a controlled valve.
Seamless steel pipes ranging in diameter from 50 to 250 mm are used in high
conveyors. Lighter pipes with a wall thickness of 1 to 3mm may be used in medium
and low-pressure conveyors. The pipes are joined with standard flanges,
correspondingly sealed.
A changeover valve serves to connect the pumping unit to one of the branches of the
pipe.
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11.3.3 Separators
rators and Dust Collectors
The material-laden air enters the separator where the loss of velocity, change of
direction of the flux and the action of the centrifugal force separate the material from
the air stream. The mixture looses its velocity due to the sudden expansion of the
separator which may be a container, hopper or chamber.
The cross-sectional area of the separator is 50 to 150 times larger than that of the
conveying pipe. The velocity falls as low as 0.2 to 0.8m/s which is low enough to
clean the conveying air stream even of small particles.
Fig.11. 8 Separator
Although the air velocity in the separator is much reduced, it remains high enough to
carry dust and very light particles in suspension to the outlet. Various types of filters
may be centrifugal cyclones, bag filter, wet electronic filters, etc.
Required are:
R0
= the ratio of bend radius to the inner pipe diameter
dp
R0
Material Values of Leqe [m] at
dp
4 6 10 20
Powdered 4-8 5-10 6-10 8-10
Granular Homogenous - 8-10 12-16 16-20
Small Lumped Irregular - - 28-35 38-45
Large Lumped Irregular - - 60-80 70-90
The commonly used value for a two-way changeover valve Leqv = 8m.
Fig. 11.9 Graph Showing the Dependence of the Weight Concentration of the Mixture
μ on the Reduced Conveying Length Lred .
Note: Graph (1): 1- for dry free flowing materials of high specific weight ( γ 1 = 2.5 to
3.2 t/m3), 2- for materials of a lower specific weight ( γ 1 = 1.8 to 2.5 t/m3) but
higher moisture content and high abrasivity. Graph (2): for grain.
Q v air
Vol = = πd p2 (11.3)
3.6γ air μ 4
4Vol
dp = (11.4)
v air π
If the material is to be lifted to a height H meter, not only frictional losses but also
weight of the column of air and material reduced to one unit of the cross-sectional area
of the pipe must be taken into account.
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Hγ air μ
Pcs =
10 4
where γ air = specific weight of the air (average for a given vertical
section).
βμLred v air 2
Pi = 1 + ± Pcs (11.6)
dp
βμLred v air 2
Pf = 1 − m Pcs (11.7)
dp
The plus sign before Pcs in equation 11.6 is taken for upward, the minus sign for
downward movement. The opposite applies to equation 11.7.
πd p2 v air α '
Vo = Volα ' = (11.9)
4
LbVo
Nb = (11.10)
60 × 102η
Example 11.1
Q = 50t/h
γ 1 =3.2t/m3
Solution:
Ro
At =4 (Table 11.1), Leqe =5m,
dp
Leqe = 210+25+3×5=250m.
Q 50
Vol = = = 0.33 m/s.
3.6γ air μ 3.6 × 1.2 × 35
4Vol 4 × 0.33
dp = = ≈ 0.135 m.
v air π 3.14 × 23.5
Hence we take a seamless steel pipe of a diameter closest to the calculated, i.e.,
one with outer diameter of 146mm with a wall thickness of 5mm ( d p = 136mm).
6. The required (absolute) air pressure at the initial point of the conveying pipe, Pi
β = 2.5 × 10 −7
7. The required air pressure in the air main of the compressor, (equation 11.8)
πd p2 v airα '
Vo = Volα ' = × 60 = 3.14 × (0.136) 2 × 23.5 × 1.1 × 60 = 22 m3/min.
4
9. The required motor power of the compressor, N b (equation 11.10)
LbVo 15 × 10 3 × 22
Nb = = = 98 kW.
60 × 102η 60 × 102 × 0.55
P 4.3
Where Lb = 23,030 P0 log b = 23,030 × 1 × log ≈ 15 × 10 3 kgm/m3.
P0 1
Example 11.2
Q =25t/h
γ 1 =1.4t/m3 (the load to be discharged is wheat)
H= ∑ l v =15m
∑ l hor =10m
Solution:
1. Lred
Lred = ∑ Lhor + ∑ Lv + ∑ Leqe + ∑ Leqv
Ro
At =6 (Table 11.1), Leqe =10m,the calculated number of elbows with the
dp
flexible section included is 2.5.
Lred =10+15+2.5×10=50m.
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2. v air
v air = α γ 1 = 18 1.4 ≈ 22 m/s.
3. μ
4. Vol
Q 25
Vol = = = 0.385 m/s.
3.6γ air μ 3.6 × 1.2 × 15
5. d p
4Vol 4 × 0.385
dp = = = 0.14 m.
v air π 3.14 × 22
Take: d p = 140mm (with outer diameter of 152mm and wall thickness of 6mm).
μLred v air 2 15 × 50 × 22 2
Auxiliary quantity s, s = = = 25.8 × 10 5 .
dp 0.14
with β = 1.5 × 10 −7 .
Pw = Po − Pf = 1- 0.764 = 0.236kg/cm2.
7. Pb :
8. Vo
9. N b
where Lb = 5000kg/m3.
Bibliography