Section A&B: Alina Elena Radescu - TESOL DIPLOMA COURSE
Section A&B: Alina Elena Radescu - TESOL DIPLOMA COURSE
Section A&B: Alina Elena Radescu - TESOL DIPLOMA COURSE
MODULE 4
A&B
Alina Elena Radescu -TESOL DIPLOMA COURSE
SECTION A
MODULE 4 SECTION A
Alina Elena Radescu
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What is the Place of Grammar in Language Teaching?
Grammar is the backbone of a language and it is very important, giving us structures, rules. Grammar is essential from a young age the the old age. Without it any single
thing you know may be flux, in a sort of jelly without much consistency. In a nutshell, grammar provides you with the structure you need in order to organize and put your
messages and ideas across. It is the railway through which your messages will be transported. Without it, in the same way as a train cannot move without railways, you won’t
be able to convey your ideas to their full extension without a good command of the underlying grammar patterns and structure.
The grammar of a language is the description of the ways in which words can change their forms and can be combined into sentences in that language. If grammar rules
are too carelessly violated, communication may suffer, although creating a 'good' grammar rule is extremely difficult. Linguists investigating native-speaker speech (and
writing) have, over the years, devised various different systems to describe how the language works. The first English grammar book appeared in the sixteenth century –
William Bullokar’s” Pamphlet for Grammar”, published in 1586. By the end of the seventeenth century, 16 new grammars had hit the shelves in addition to Bullokar’s book.
The number expanded to 270 new titles by the end of the following century. Publishing and demand for grammar book conti nued to boom during the 1800s with
nearly 900 new books on English grammar published during the first half of that century. Interest in grammar continued well into the twentieth century. During the
1950s and 1960s, both in England and in Asian countries colonized by the English, students were taught using a structural syllabus that emphasized grammar proficiency. The
reality is that the absence of grammar instruction in a foreign language classroom will eventually cause learners L2 development to plateau at some point (Jeremy Harmer,
2001) labels this the plateau effect, which tends to affect higher levels of L2 learners, such as those at the immediate levels.
A typical tree diagram will show us one such description and demonstrate how grammar rules provide the scaffolding on which we can create any number of different
sentences. If we take a simple sentence like The mongoose bit the snake, we can represent it in the following way:
This formulation tells us that the sentence (S) contains a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). The noun phrase contains a determiner (D) and a noun (N) whilst the verb
phrase contains a verb (V) and another noun phrase (NP). What is important is not so much the particular way the grammar is represented here, but the fact that the
representation shows us how this simple sentence is structured. It allows us to substitute different words yet retain the same structure.
If we are unsure whether grammar-teaching works, it may be partly because the question is too general. The word ‘grammar’ covers very many different kinds of thing, not all
of which are equally teachable or learnable. As Jan Hulstijn puts it in an important article (Hulstijn 1995), ‘not all grammar rules are equal’. Let’s look at three examples.
· To make a yes/no question in Mandarin Chinese, put ‘ma’ at the end of the corresponding statement.
· To make a question in English, put the auxiliary verb before the subject. If there is no auxiliary, introduce the dummy auxiliary do, and proceed as before (remembering
that do has a distinct 3rd-person singular present form does). But don’t do any of this if the question has as its subject an interrogative expression such as who or what – in this
case, the structure is that of a statement.
How Necessary is it for a Teacher of English as a Foreign Language to Have a Knowledge of English Grammar?
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I, as I teacher, I must know the grammar and explain it to my students. I need to analyze the language and know my theory in a very detailed way. While teaching, I need to
breakIn order to teach a functional-grammatical item effectively, I must first understand that item myself. I should know its meaning, how it is used in communication, how it is
structured, its pronunciation and spelling, and the grammatical relationships and rules which affect it. I should also be able to anticipate the specific problems your learners are
likely to have with it. Much of this information may be carefully considered in my course book, but international courses cannot take account of every problem for specific
language groups, for example, the tendency of Spanish-speaking learners to soften or drop final consonants and to omit pronoun subjects, or the difficulty Russian-speaking
learners have with reading and writing Roman script or using 'am’, ‘is', and 'are'. Only I, the teacher, can do that.
Students need to be exposed to language (in order to study it). They need to understand its meaning, understand its seen that students can be exposed to language by
the teacher using it for them to listen to/see, by listening to tapes, by reading texts and by looking at computer printouts. In each case, the students are given chances to see or
hear the language before they are asked to produce it themselves. When I teach grammar I need to make my students understand the meaning of words and grammar. I show
objects, pictures and drawings. I usually use mime, gesture and expressions. I also use check questions to make sure my students understand concepts. Time lines for verb
tenses (for example) are also my aid or I explain meaning by listing opposite meanings. I get more advanced students to write dictionary definitions and then
compare them with the real thing.
Once I know the grammatical rules of a language subconsciously, I am in a position to create an infinite number of sentences. However, while some rules are fairly
straightforward, others seem to be horribly complex, and some grammatical patterning seems to have escaped perfect description so far. One of the easiest rules to explain is
the use of the s morpheme on the third person of the present simple (see above). I always add it with the pronouns “he, she, and it”. This is a straightforward rule, but it
needs qualifying immediately. I restate it by saying that we add s to all verbs for the third person singular of the present simple unless they are modal verbs (must, can, will,
should, etc.) So a simple rule has become slightly less simple. Michael Swan, an author not only of textbooks but also of one of the most widely-used pedagogic grammars,
suggests a number of measures of a good rule (Swan 1994).
Before I start to use the material I have selected, it would be good to introduce the students to the topic I am going to work on. I can have them guess or infer what the
material will say about it, they can make predictions and when they fail to use appropriate language, I will provide it. This is good to elicit vocabulary that may be necessary for
them to know in order to understand the topic. After I have created curiosity in the topic and provided students with key terms on the topic, I make sure you follow a
progression such as the one that follows:
Provide them with exposure to real language and real situations in context.
Initial focus on gist, not form.
Focus on more specific meaning.
We can then focus on very specific meaning.
Analysis and systematization: after we make sure the students have a good understanding of the whole material, you can have them focus on particular items or
patterns that may be important for them to learn at their stage (i.e. grammar) You can systematize it more formally and teach them how it works. After all, they have
already seen it in practice and they have also worked around meaning, now it is time for them to learn how to use it.
Give them exercises for them to practice the new structure. Do not be afraid of using grammar drills and patterns. They could be VERY useful for them to fix the new
structures in their brains.
Give them homework to force them to revise this at a later time. The homework does not necessarily need to be communicative in nature. Profit from the time in class
to communicate and interact. If possible, avoid drilling activities while you are with them in class. However, the time they are on their own could be very well used to do
all the drilling and rote practice that may prove useful for them to gain a good command of the grammar form you are trying to teach them. Personally I feel that the
time in class must be used for providing learners with as many communicative situations as possible, rather than making them focus on drills and patterns that they
could easily practise on their own.
Provide them with ample opportunities to practice what they have learned in REAL or REALISTIC communicative situations. Create situations so that they can make lots
of mistakes and encourage them to improve on them by reminding them of what they have studied.
Recycle and mention the topic again as many times as necessary, time and again.
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Teachers should have a depth knowledge about the English grammar because grammar is considered the heart of the language. In the old days all the Roman and Latin
educators used grammar extensively and in 1800s there was the use of the Grammar-Translation method, in which grammar became the basis of the English language.
However, when the person’s mastery of grammar is not sufficient, communication is more likely to be disrupted and misconceived. What follows is an attempt to
demonstrate the role grammar plays in each of the four skills (speaking, writing, listening, and reading) areas.
“We know that the strength of a tree lies in its roots. Similarly, the strength of any spoken language lies in its grammar.” That it to say, grammar serves the base and
foundation of all spoken languages. Human interaction and communication are based on mutual understanding. This requires the person to have a decent level of grammar to
be able to convey the message the same way he/her has in mind.
Speaking is an everyday activity and one can’t do without it. Therefore, a good command of
grammar is vital for effective communication. More to the point, the way one expresses himself during communication gives off hints as to one’s knowledge and education.
Whether we like it or not, we are judged by the way we speak. A correct use of grammar on all occasions will make people perceive you as a well-educated person. By contrast, if one’s
usage of grammar is weak, then the impression formed by others will be a very poor one and they might take you to be poorly educated.
The second skill in which grammar monopolizes a great role in is writing. Grammar governs the mechanisms of writing and ensures that it can be easily understood by all. A
person may have splendid ideas and distinctive perspectives which would make great changes in the world. Nevertheless, if this person lacks the aptitude to fluently and
accurately express these ideas, they wouldn’t matter at all and would not even entice others’ attention. To exemplify the status grammar has in writing, syntax governs word
order in a sentence. Imagine reading an English sentence in which words are arbitrary placed. It would clearly be impossible to understand. Punctuation also helps the reader to
pause or switch to a new thought. As an English teacher, for fourteen years, I have noticed the importance of the grammar here, in China.
So often we find errors of punctuation and syntax that change the meaning of the sentence; we then need to go back and re-read, perhaps several times, in order to find out
what the writer actually meant, a waste of time and effort. The function of grammar does not extend only to the written and spoken forms; it rather exceeds that to be also an
underlying component in listening and reading. The role of grammar pertains not only to one’s production but also to one’s understanding and perception.
When the student already knows grammar, it makes it considerably easier for him/her to process what they hear and not dwell on it because they are not sure what it really
means. A teacher, for instance, asks a student to bring him/her the books on the desk, only to have the
student bring one book because he/her didn’t hear the S sound or didn’t understand it. In this case, a better grip over grammar would have improved the student’s listening.
This applies to reading as well. The way grammar contributes to reading is that it helps the reader better understand what he/she reads.
“…an understanding of grammar and how it works, will improve your writing and speaking skills, allow you to develop your own unique style of writing and communication
and express your thoughts and feelings effectively. More, this knowledge and understanding of your language enables you to read more and more widely, and absorb the ideas
and techniques of the world’s great thinkers and writers.” (The Importance of Grammar by Maureen)
I, as an educator, I should build the learner’s language awareness through exposure to the language through different tenses, moreover detailed explanation about the use of
each tense. As we deal with beginners, we must stress the element of accuracy rather than fluency since fluency can be acquired through time but accuracy needs a lot of
training and practice. Students may get bored of grammar rules, so we as educators can use different ways and tools to equip them with the information. It can be done
through games, mime and gestures, guessing the tenses or even quizzes and block exams. Being proficient and confident of your language, moreover your assets, would mean a
great deal to your students and to yourself as an instructor of the language whether you are teaching children or even adults. Both fields require you to be accurate, capable
and gifted.
How Necessary is it for the Teacher to Have a Knowledge of the Grammar of the Students’ Language or Languages?
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Braj Kachru{1985: 12—15) suggests the division of the English-speaking world into three concentric circles. This classification is widely used and may help us to think about
English around the globe. In the first 'inner circle' Kachru puts countries like Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Britain, and the United States where English is spoken as a
first language. In the second 'outer circle' are all the countries where English is spoken as a second or significant language, such as Singapore, India, Pakistan, Malawi, Malaysia,
Nigeria. In the third 'expanding circle' we find countries where English has acquired cultural or commercial importance (China, Sweden, the Czech Republic, Greece, Japan,
Israel.)
Cook (1994) believes that teachers are obliged to be aware of the new ideas about grammar and language learning today so that they can take from them whatever they find
beneficial.
Whether the teacher of English needs the knowledge of the students’ native language or not came to my mind when I was studying the types of errors the learners may
make during the process of learning. Knowing what grammatical processes happen in the learners’ minds enables the teacher to diagnose the problem, if there are any, and
inform the students of them. Speakers of Chinese, before the verb “enjoy”, use an adverb meaning “very” in English which they also use when they are using the verb “enjoy” in
English. There are many other differences between Chinese and English. For example, Chinese language has no prepositions. The Chinese teacher who knows this can prevent
the students from making such a mistake by focusing the students’ attention on the absence of preposition before the verb in English on the day of presenting the verb for the
first time. However, in my opinion, lacking the knowledge of the grammar of students’ native language cannot be considered a weak point for a teacher who has an in-depth
knowledge of the grammar of the language he is teaching notices the smallest grammatical errors and devises a solution for each.
However, the use of native language in teaching English grammar should be one of the many tools that teacher should use when dealing with grammatical aspects of language.
Using the students’ native language in the classroom helping students to raise their awareness and knowledge about the similarities and differences between the two
languages, and helping them to discover different methods to practice and to express themselves in the target language. The good teacher should know when and where the
code switching is suitable.
Conclusion
So then, when asked: “is grammar really important for a second language learner?” I always say “yes”, but, the real question, or issue here is not whether grammar is important
or not but rather how we should present grammar to our students. You may be surprised to hear that most of my own students, even advanced ones, have very little awareness
of grammar jargon and terminology, in spite of the fact that they can make a pretty good use of the second language. “How is that possible?” you may ask. First and foremost,
teachers need to know precisely what they are trying to prepare their students for. I do know that what I want is to “create” users of a new language. I want to prepare people
to actually engage in communicative situations using appropriate language and patterns. I am definitely not interested in their explaining to me or making a mental list of all the
grammar uses that a certain pattern has. Again, our primary goal as second language teachers must be to create users or the language, not linguists! It escapes the aim of this
article to describe how we can achieve this but basically we are going to name the main elements to consider to create “language users.”
Communication is a crucial part of language and so is grammar; they need each other. Effective lessons strike this balance between the two so that students can learn, enjoy
and make progress in their target language. Grammar is the foundation for building language skills. Learning grammar enables students to speak and write more accurately,
confidently and fluently. I have found that asking students to explain grammar rules to each other and to the rest of the class gives them more confidence. It also indicates to
the teacher whether the grammar needs clarifying or explaining. By teaching each other, they also consolidate their own knowledge or discover holes that need filling.
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References
o Cook, Vivian, (1994). The Role of Grammar in Language Teaching. Retrieved from
http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Writings/Papers/GhentGrammar.htm Furaidah, D. N. M., (2008). The
Place of Grammar in Language Teaching: An Attempt Towards a Synthesis of its Teaching Approaches. Retrieved
from http://sastra.um.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/The-Place-of-Grammar-in- Language-Teaching-an-
Attempt-Towards-a-Synthesis-of-Its-Teach-ing- Approaches-Furaidah-dan-Nur-Mukminatin.pdf
o Huddleston. R. (1988). English grammar: an outline. N.Y, Cambridge University Press.
o Ladefoged, P. (2006). A course in phonetics. Los Angeles: University of California.
o Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
o Mirhassani, S. A. (2000). A contrastive analysis of English and Persian Adjectives (noun modifiers).
o Modarres, 4(3), 99-112. Murphy, R. (1997). Grammar in use. N.Y., Cambridge University Press. Najarzadegan, S. (2012).
The subset- superset asymmetry hypothesis and
o Quirk, R. et al. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London: Longman. Richards, Jack. C. et al.
(1992). Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics. Second Edition. Essex: Longman Group UK Limited.
p.186.
o Ruseiccki, J. (1985). Adjectives and comparison in English. N.Y. Longman.
o Shawet, H. et al. (1970). Hand-book of English. Toronto. McGraw-Hill.
o Stockwell, R., Bowen, J., & Martin, J. (1965). The grammatical structures of English and Spanish. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
o Swan. M., (2006). Teaching Grammar- Does Grammar Teaching Work? Retrieved from
http://www.mikeswan.co.uk/elt-applied-linguistics/teaching-grammar.htm
o Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis. TESL Quarterly, 4, 123-130. Yarmohamadi, L., & Rashidi, N.
(2009). Practical contrastive analysis of English and Persian with special emphasis on grammar. Tehran: Rahnama Press.
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SECTION B
MODULE 4- SECTION B
Alina Elena Radescu
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4. A. What are these words in normal English script?
1. /naɪf / knife
2. / mɪɵɒlədʒɪ / mythology
3. / aɪlənd / island
4. / kjʊə / cure
5. / Һjʊməres / humorous
6. / əkwaɪə / acquire
7. / krʌmz / crumbs
8. /ɪgzæmɪneɪʃən / examination
9. / juːniːk / unique
10. / Ɵættʃ / thatch
1. thumb / ɵʌm /
2. weather / weðə /
3. deserve / dɪzɜːv /
4. knights / naɪts /
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5. walked / wɔːkt/
6. stupid / stjuːpɪd /
7. houses / haʊsɪz /
8. watching / wɒtʃɪŋ /
9. shoelace / ʃuːleɪs /
/ əmerɪkǝ /
From the phonological point of view, the word ‘had’ can be transcribed in two different ways. In the English language, some words have two pronunciations, the weak form or
the strong form of the word. The word ‘/həd/’ is phonemically in its “weak form”; a phonemic weak form can be characterized as an alternative phonetic version of a word that
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is decreased in its articulation. The ‘strong form’ of the word ‘/hæd/’ is when the word is stressed. So /həd/ in the passage is a word with an unstressed syllable; the weak
form is the usual pronunciation and it is produced in continuous speech. On the other hand, the word /hæd/ is stressed: these words are generally produced in isolation and
they are also referred to as the citation form. In general, auxiliary verbs tend have two pronunciations, a weak and strong form.
F. Write this sentence in phonemic script.
Mrs Thatcher flew to New York to have talks with President Reagan- is Reegan or Raygan, by the way?
/ mɪsəz θæʧə fluː tə njuː jɔrk tə həv tɔːks wɪð prezɪdənt reɪgən ɪz ri:gən ə raɪgən baɪ ðə weɪ/
G. Write down some minimal pairs which distinguish the sounds.
Minimal pairs actually decide what is or is not a phoneme in the language. A single difference in sound produces a difference in meaning. A single difference in sound produces
no change in meaning. Minimal pairs should be found with sounds that are reasonably closely related:
pat/fat; fat/vat; pat/bat; bat/bet; bat/bite; bite/bait; bait/beat, etc. Now I am going to give more examples of minimal pairs and the levels I use them to.
i. / f / and / v /
/f/ and /v/ are pronounced with the same mouth position of the top teeth biting the bottom lip, but with /f/ pronounced with more air.
- fan van
- ferry very
- leaf leave
- off of
Intermediate
- fast vast
- fat vat
- fee V
- fine vine
- foul vowel
- gif give
- half halve
- life live (adjective)
- proof prove
- safe save
Upper-Intermediate
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- belief believe
- fail veil
- fear veer
- feel veal
- fender vendor
- grief grieve
- staff starve
- surf serve
Advanced
- calf carve
- chaff chav
- duff dove
- fault vault
- feign vain
- feign vein
- fie vie
- file vile
- foist voiced
- foal vole
- fox vox
- guff guv
- reef reeve
- serf serve
- skiff skiv
- strife strive
- waif waive
ii. / θ / and / f /:
/f/ has the same mouth position as the voiced sound /v/, with the top teeth on the bottom lip and the tongue inside the mouth. /θ/ has the mouth more open with the tongue
between the teeth or even poking out of the mouth.
Elementary
- free three
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Pre-Intermediate
- deaf death
- fought thought
- four thaw
Intermediate
- fin thin
- first thirst
- for thaw
- fresh thresh
- freeze threes
- fro throw
- froze throws
Upper-Intermediate
- fief thief
- firm Therm
- fort thought
- frill thrill
- furred third
Advanced
- duff doth
- fang thang
- fawn thorn
- fore thaw
- fret threat
- frieze threes
- fug thug
- oaf oath
- trough troth
iii. / æ/and/aɪ:/
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These minimal pairs are pronounced by the native speakers /æ/ in several different ways and /æ/ is quite similar to /e/. The clearest difference is that /e/ is spoken with a
wider, more stretched mouth.
Elementary
- bad bed
- man men
Pre-Intermediate
- and end
- axe X
- bag beg
- had head
- ham hem
- jam gem
- pan pen
- pat pet
- sad said
- sat set
Intermediate
- band bend
- bat bet
- dad dead
- flash flesh
- gas guess
- gnat net
- land lend
- shall shell
- spanned spend
Upper-Intermediate
- axe ex
- fad fed
- gassed guest
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- manned mend
- marry merry
- mat met
- sacks sex
- sax sex
- tack tech
- track trek
Advanced
- bland blend
- cattle kettle
- dab deb
- flax flecks
- frat fret
- rabble rebel
- tamp temp
- tamper temper
- trad tread
- vat vet
iv. / ɒ / and / ɔ /:
- stock, stalk
The Chinese speaker does have problems. Just as the English speaker cannot easily distinguish the Hindi rs, Chinese speakers cannot easily distinguish/r/form/V in English.
Speakers of most Indian languages have difficulty with/v/and/w/in English. The Hindi speaker tends to hear sounds similar to his//. He may consistently use his own sound for
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both/v/and/w/, or he may attempt/v/and/w/but quite randomly confuse them. Contrastive analysis can predict students' errors in pronunciation better than in grammar or
vocabulary.
Being a teacher for 14 years in China, throughout all this time, knowing precisely how the sounds are formed in both languages, I use strategies for improving pronunciation,
such as:
H. Would you teach your elementary class bucket or a pail, or would you teach both words, and why?
As an English teacher, I would teach my students both “bucket” and “pail”. There is an accepted misperception that ‘pail’ is used in British English and ‘bucket’ in American
English. But both of these words are widely used in American and British English (as I was taught by my American teachers, so I would follow my own experience as a guide). I
would further explain the usage and different perceptions with realia; (a) size; bucket is used for larger quantities (show: the large trash bucket outside the school, the large
school mop bucket etc.) whereas, pail is used for smaller quantities (show: a child’s sand pail, the mop pail used at home). (b) The word bucket is used with different metaphors
such as;” it rains with the bucket”, “bucket of fun”, “head in bucket”, “bucket list” the same cannot be applied to the word pail. I would also reinforce the lesson with the
children song “Jack and Jill”, the visual video clip will further help me differentiate between the words ‘pail’ and ‘bucket’. For further materials, please use the video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ecQYsQkfNPc
I. What is the mistake in each of these sentences? If you can suggest how it might have arisen.
i. One speaks English here. (On a notice outside the shop)
The following mistakes are common amongst the Asians. One reason can be their native language that has a strong influence in the English language. The statement above is
not necessarily wrong. It is possible to use the sentence just as it is seen in the example however, it depends on the situation, and it is a very formal way to express this
statement which may not be very clear to the customers. Another alternative can be ‘We speak English here or English is spoken here’. This passive sentence is more typical and
may be easier to understand.
ii. No one of them answered my letters.
Here is a confusion of the grammar rule. This mistake that regards the lack of English Grammar. It should be “None of them answered my letters.” Usually, ‘no one’ isn't followed
with a qualifier such as ‘of them.’ The error might have developed because of the direct translation of the sentence from L1 to L2.
iii. He’s used up all what I gave him.
Depending on the context, this sentence is not necessarily a mistake. Using ‘that’ as a relative pronoun instead of ‘what’ would be more appropriate: “He’s used up all that I
gave him.” Even though ‘what’ can function as a relative pronoun in certain situations, it usually indicates question therefore it does not suit this sentence.
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would be correct. The error might have developed because of an interference from the structure in the persons own language. This error may have result in the teaching
strategy.
v. I have finished the composition this morning.
If it is still morning, it is not a mistake. If it is in the afternoon, it is a mistake. These types of mistakes are made by learners who do not have the present
perfect in their language, or speaks a language in which the present perfect has the same meaning as the simple past Chinese, German and Spanish speakers make
this mistake, for example. It is not possible to use the present perfect in conjunction with something (for this instance the action of ‘finishing the composition’) that is
complete or done. The correct form would be: “I have finished the composition this morning.” This error may have result in the teaching strategy.
Another reason can be due to the usage of wrong time expressions.
vi. Please take your dinner with us.
The correct form of this sentence would be: “Please have dinner with us.” It is not possible “to take” your dinner with someone, this usage is wrong and the meaning of the
offer is not clear. Non-native speakers tend to overextend these expressions, such as: the idiom “take lunch”. For ex: Let’s take lunch. In this example, taking lunch is another
way of saying ‘Let’s take a break.’
vii. I didn’t ate it because I am not eating pork.
Some foreign speakers don't understand that the helping verb already carries the tense and that they don't have to put the main verb into the past. In the second clause, it
could be because the person thinks that the present continuous expresses imperfective aspect, while the simple present expresses perfective aspect. Many ESL students have
this misconception. Speakers of Polish and other Slavic languages do this all the time. There are two mistakes in this sentence. The correct version is: “I didn’t eat it because I
don’t eat pork.” In the second clause, the learner might have confused that the present continuous expresses imperfective aspect, while the simple present expresses perfective
aspect. Many English language learners have this misconception and make the same type of mistakes. This error may have result in the teaching strategy.
viii. We enjoyed so much at the beach.
This error is very frequent in Chinese. Here items are wrongly ordered. “I very like English “is a sentence that is very often heard in China. This error may have result in the
teaching strategy.
There are a few ways this sentence can be corrected:
a) We enjoyed ourselves so much at the beach! This sentence is missing an object that refers to the same person or thing, a reflexive pronoun
(ourselves). Enjoy is a transitive verb therefore it needs a reflexive pronoun (a direct object).
b) We really enjoyed the beach. The adverb ‘so much’ is not correct when it is between the verbs it modifies. It should be omitted. This error happens when learners place the
adverb differently; learners who don’t have a reflexive pronoun in their language tend to fail or forget to use it.
ix. The driver damaged his arms and three passengers were destroyed. Only one was not wounded in the accident.
Here an item is wrongly chosen. The correct version is: “The driver injured his arms and three passengers were killed. Only one was not wounded in the accident.” In the
correct form of this sentence the word destroyed is replaced with killed and damaged is replaced with injured. The reason of the errors in this sentence is because the language
learner lacks the use of sufficient vocabulary.
x. She leaves in an apartment.
The correct version is: “She lives in an apartment.” This problem develops because of accent interference. The learner cannot produce or hear the high front lax vowel; so it is
not possible to make a distinction between “lives” and “leaves”. Here an item is wrongly chosen.
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It is right and natural that students should form hypotheses about the language they are learning, and apply them. So it is right and natural for them to make errors. But the
hypotheses must be provisional. They should be altered continually in the direction of the language being learned. If these hypotheses are allowed to fossilize, learning stops.
This may suggest that not all errors need to be corrected, still less drilled out of the student. Many can safely be regarded as provisional stages in the learning process. Or it may
suggest that each error has its cause, and that it may be worth the time explaining the source of the error. I developed my own approach and I tried to explain some of the ways
in the above paragraphs.
I. How transparent do you feel these words are, supposing students know at least one meaning of the constituent morphemes.
It is no doubt easier for a learner to absorb a new item whose meaning is transparent, such as meat, shop, formed from known words, than to learn a totally unfamiliar one,
butcher's. One must beware of unnatural usages (night suit) and anticipate confusions: bedclothes could be taken to mean pyjamas; bookkeeper a librarian; candlestick the
candle itself lighthouse perhaps a greenhouse. Many phrasal verbs are by no means transparent: 'turn down' in the sense of reject; look up(visit); carry out(perform)
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of the language.
A morpheme that can exist by itself as a word is called free morpheme, one that cannot exist alone is called a bound morpheme.
Firework=fire +work
This word can be taught at elementary level and it is composed of two free morphemes and they have their own separate meaning. The word “Fire” is the light and heat. While
“work” is defined as being an activity in which one does or performs something. The combination of these two words forms the word ‘firework’. Even though this word has a
unique meaning of its own, students can easily understand the meaning by dividing the word into two morphemes. Firework can be defined as; a small device that explodes to
make a display of light and noise. It is a clear word that is easy to comprehend by the elementary level students.
Lamppost=lamp +post
This word can be taught to students who are at varying levels of English and it is composed of two free morphemes: Lamp + post. Lamp is “a device that produces light and post
is a piece of metal that is fixed firmly as stay or support”. A student who is familiar with the meaning of these words can predict that ‘lamppost’ means a post with an outdoor
lamp or lantern on top. “He stood by the lamppost, undecided as to which course to pursue.” This word seems difficult at first however once it is separated to its morphemes
it can be clearly understood by the learners.
Right-hand man=right+ hand+ man
I would prefer to teach this word with examples to learners that are on an intermediate level because this word has 3 free morphemes. This word is not transparent. It can be
understood by intermediate level students. It refers to someone (usually a male) who can be trusted and be relied upon to get things done and achieve the results desired.
These words are used more or less like an idiom. If taken literally, the meaning would be lost. Three of them are fairly easy to understand, all of these three words (while
standing alone: right, hand and man) are taught in elementary level. But, the word as whole has a quite different meaning: “A right-hand man is a valuable assistant upon whom
one is accustomed to rely on”. It is not so easy for the learners to get this meaning only from the morphemes above. “The administration claims he remains the right-
hand man of the president on economic matters. “
Half-heartedly=half + heart + ed + ly
Not transparent. Can be understood by intermediate level students. Meaning is figurative. Means lack of interest or enthusiasm as in “half-heartedly” response. I would teach
this word to higher levels such as intermediate and upper intermediate because it is not a common word for the elementary level and it may be confusing for the learners.
““Half-heartedly” has two free morphemes (half and heart) and two bound morphemes (-ed, past tense morpheme and -ly). “Half-heartedly” is an adverb that can be defined
as; lacking heart, spirit, or interest. The meaning is almost metaphoric therefore, I would teach the word using examples such as; ‘He tried to help him half-heartedly’. It may
be difficult for the learners to infer the meaning by dividing it to its morphemes; the meaning is not concrete, as in having an actual half heart.
Left-winger=left + wing + er
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I would not prefer to teach my students unless they are advanced and this word is hard to understand. Not transparent. It is a political term. This word is composed of two free
(left and wing) morphemes and one bound morpheme (-er, person with this characteristic). Knowing the meaning of the words “left” and “winger” will not help the learners
infer the meaning which can be defined as; the part of a political group that consists of people who support liberal or socialist ideas and policies.”
You'll see the looniest elements of the left wing on full display.”
Birthday card=birth +day + card
I would choose to teach this word to any level of English learners because this word has three free morphemes it means” a card expressing a birthday greeting”. Highly
transparent. Generally understood. This word is easily understood by the learners.” She got a nice birthday card from her friends”. Even before they learn the language they are
generally familiar with terms about ‘birthdays’.
Leave out=leave +out
Not transparent. A highly complex word. I would choose to teach this word to varying level of learners. “Leave out” has two free morphemes and can be defined as” to omit
and exclude someone or something”. This verb phrase is easy to comprehend and may be described to the learners with examples such as; ‘She left out an important detail
about Physics in her research.’
Good-looking=good + look+ ing
I would choose to teach this word to early language learners. “Good- looking” has two free morphemes (“good” and “look”) and one bound morpheme (-ing). Fairly
transparent. Elementary level student will understand this word. It either means beautiful (for female gender), handsome (male gender) or something presentable. “Good-
looking” is an adjective that means:” to have a pleasing or attractive appearance”. The meaning of the word can be easily inferred when separated into its morphemes.” Good
means of high quality and looking to seem to be something especially because of appearance, the meaning of the word is clear as a whole.”
“Mick Coury was a normal teenager with a Firebird and a good-looking girlfriend until schizophrenia incapacitated him at 17.”
First-class=first +class
I would choose to teach to varying learners because this word is a semitransparent word.
” First -class” has two free morphemes and can be defined as of the best quality and of the highest excellence. It can be an adverb and an adjective. Not transparent. This is a
complex word. Students at upper intermediate level can understand this word has multiple meanings. Usually means of a luxurious class and the price will commensurate with
the comfort level offered. Also refers to an outstanding performance in sports, theatre or even achieving excellent results in an examination. Learners who travel for vacation
with a plane or train may be familiar with the term however it might be confusing for other students. The meaning of the word is not necessarily inferable from its morphemes,
the learners might confuse it with ‘first grade’ of school because of the words first (confusion with ‘one’) and class (confusion with ‘classroom’).
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When we speak, many parts of the mouth are involved in articulating speech. According to the International Phonetic Alphabet that is not to be learned but to us, as a
Teacher, is given for reference as some of us may be interested. The International Phonetic Alphabet shows the main areas of articulation in human languages. But each sound
is an 'area' rather than a ’position'. To make [t] sounds the tongue can move from the teeth back almost to the soft palate; at some point we could say that it is no longer dental
but alveolar, and at another arbitrary point no longer alveolar but retroflex.
Now I will describe, as precisely as I can, the phrase ‘Queen of Spades’. /kwiːn əv speɪdz/ (according to the International Phonetic Alphabet). First the back of tongue is raised
against the soft palate, at the same time, the soft palate is also raised and air pressure increases.
/ k /: back of tongue (it should be felt at the back of the mouth) at or near soft palate, or velum and it is combined with the letter /w/
Manner of articulation: Plosive; Voicing: Voiceless; Place of articulation: Velar; Position of the soft palate: Oral
Then lips are pursed to articulate “Queen” (/kween/) with a little air being pushed out followed by a little raising of upper jaw while simultaneously lowering of the lower of the
upper jaw while articulating “of” (/v/) with a little biting of the lower lip on completion of the articulation and slightly pushing of the tip of the tongue against the lower upper
palate.
/ w /: The articulation of this letter makes it sound as if it starts out with the /u/ vowel before becoming an obstruction of the air flow. It is a voiced semi-vowel sound.
Position of the soft palate: Oral; Voicing: Voiced; Place of articulation: Labial-Veral; Manner of articulation: Approximant
/ iː /: is a voiced frontal long monophthong (pure vowel).
/ n /: It is a voiced sound made by the back of the tongue coming against the alveolar ridge, if the nose is closed the sound production is impossible.
Place of articulation: Alveolar; Voicing: Voiced; Manner of articulation: Stop; Position of the soft palate: Nasal
/ əv /: /ə/ is a voiced low back, central vowel. /v/ is a labia-dental; between the upper teeth and lower lip, and fricative; continuous frication at the place of articulation.
In casual speech, consonants before another consonant may be elided, which would be the case here. Next the tongue is place in the center, articulating the /schwa/ sound for
the elided “of” (/v/). Then the blade of the tongue is moved close to the alveolar ridge, and at the same time, two vocal organs come together for the movement of air to
create the phoneme of “s” (/z/). Immediately, after that, the lips close and the soft palate is raised, air pressured is release “explosively” creating the phoneme /p/.
/ s /: is voiceless. The sound is produced with the air being forced between the tongue and alveolar ridge and it has friction.
Voicing: Voiceless; Place of articulation: Alveolar; Manner of articulation: Fricative; Position of the soft palate: Oral
/ p /: is a voiceless consonant, both of the lips are required to produce the sound.
Voicing: Voiceless; Place of articulation: Bilabial; Manner of articulation: Plosive; Position of the soft palate: Oral
/ eɪ /: is a diphthong; two sound vowel; it changes the quality during pronunciation and glides up or down. It is also a front closed mid voiced vowel.
/ d /: The tongue touches the alveolar ridge and a little amount of air come out of the mouth. Voicing: Voiced
Place of articulation: Alveolar
Manner of articulation: Plosive; Position of the soft palate: Oral
/ z /: it is the voiced version of the sound / s /. The sound is produced with the air being forced between the tongue and alveolar ridge and it has friction.
Voicing: Voiced; Place of articulation: Alveolar; Manner of articulation: Fricative
Position of the soft palate: Oral
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L. How many embedded sentences are there in the following sentences? If you can analyze them by means of the tree diagram or any other. Comment on the overall
complexity.
In teaching, if a sentence proves too complex for the students to understand, I reduce it by these techniques to known patterns and then rebuild it with the students able to
understand each stage. Obviously, the techniques are not shown to the students, I just have them in my mind.
Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the
construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis. (Chomsky, 1957, p.11) Put simply, syntax
studies how to combine words into bigger linguistic units – phrases or sentences. At present, introductory linguistics courses are generally available to juniors majoring in
English at most Chinese universities, where syntax is usually viewed by both teachers and students as one of the most important and difficult chapters of the course. In syntax,
tree diagram and labelled bracketing are widely employed to characterize hierarchical structures of phrases or sentences. A tree diagram, or tree, is a two-dimensional diagram
used in generative grammar as a convenient means of displaying the internal hierarchical structure of sentences as generated by a set of rules. (Crystal, 2008, p.494) Labelled
bracketing, or labelling, is a term in grammatical analysis for the explicit marking of the parts or stages in a structural analysis of a sentence. (ibid. p. 263)
The following paragraph is extracted from the masterpiece “Alice in Wonderland” written by the well-known author, Lewis Carroll,
+ indicates coordination; (), [ ] subordination. CAPITAL LETTERS indicate how the verb is transformed: passive, infinitive with to, the –ing form etc.
I. ‘Alice was just beginning to think to herself, ‘Now, what am I to do with this creature when I get it home?’ when it grunted again, so violently, that she looked
Alice was ING [Alice just began TO (Alice thought to herself)] + Now what am I to do with this creature + when I get home + when it grunted again so violently + [PAST (she
looked down into its face in some alarm)].
This sentence is a compound complex sentence. Alice passage has five main sentences (shown by +) and two doubly embedded sentences (shown by the brackets)-one
embedded sentence is transformed into an –ing structure. Many clauses compose this passage forming a highly complex sentence.
• Main clause: Alice was just beginning to think to herself
• Independent clause set off as a quotation: “Now what am I to do with this creature when (time clause) I get it home.”
- Dependent clause introduced by “when”, adverbial clause, when it grunted again (time clause)
- Dependent clause preceded by the conjunction “so” and the conjunction or relative pronoun “that”, so violently (adjective clause), that she looked down into
its face in some alarm.
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II. ‘This time there could be no mistake about it: it was neither more nor less than a pig, and she felt that it would be quite absurd for her to carry it any further.’
The first thing we can do is notice that it’s a compound sentence, composed of two independent clauses joined by an and. This is typical of phrases joined by and: If the
component phrases are of category X, the phrase as a whole will have category X, too. (And if the component phrases have different categories, which does happen? I’m not
even going there today.) There are a couple of ways we could diagram this, shown below, and linguists have yet to agree on which approach reflects better what’s going on in
human language.
The diagram on the left says that a coordinate structure has three parts: the two things that you’re coordinating, plus the conjunction. The diagram on the right says that a
coordinate structure naturally falls into two chunks, not three: The first thing you’re coordinating, and a chunk consisting of the conjunction and the other thing you’re
coordinating. Where I’ve put a label, there is further contention over what kind of phrase this is. To simplify things, I’ll go with the approach on the left.
The next easiest thing to do is to divide each sentence into subject and predicate, or I’m labeling them here, noun phrase (NP) and verb phrase (VP). I’ll present these as two
diagrams, and trust that you can graft them onto the one covering the whole sentence at your leisure. The first sentence:
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And now the second one:
Notice that I’ve labeled the pronouns Pro for short. (Actually, this is a bad choice on my part, since syntacticians often use Pro to refer to missing pronouns, but I’m not going to
redraw the diagrams now. I’ll just make it each have only one branch coming down from them; that means that these NPs consist of only one thing, namely a pronoun.
This time there could be no mistake about it + it was neither more nor less than a pig
[‘It’ is really a (pig)] + and she [Noun (Alice felt)] that it would be quite absurd for her to carry it any further
This sentence is a compound complex sentence. Three embedded sentences are in this passage (shown by +). This passage is composed of several clauses forming a complex
sentence.
- Independent clause: This time there could be no mistake about it.
- Independent clause: It was neither more nor less than a pig.: joined by the conjunction “and” and she (noun) felt.
- Dependent clause joined by "that": that it would be quite absurd (adjective clause) for her to carry it (the pig) any further.
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time relationship[when I grunted again]Adverb clauses showing time relationship[so violently that she looked down into its face in some alarm]Coordination Conjunctions in
terms of showing and or expressing results.
ii)this time there could be no mistake about it; it was neither more nor less than a pig and she felt it would be quite absurd for her to carry it any farther.[neither more nor
less than a pig]Coordinating Conjunction to express negatively[and she felt]Conjunction to express / show – (additional idea)[that it would be quite absurd for her]Noun Clause
object of the verb “felt”[to carry it any farther]Infinitive phrase as object of the pronoun ‘her ‘ .The above is a highly complex sentence. It has embedded sentences and
coordinating conjunctions.
M. The following passage from the ‘History of Mr. Polly’ contains a number of words which are surely beyond a 20,000 word vocabulary. They have been changed into
nonsense words so that you are in the same position as an advanced student reading the book. What can you deduce from the context (including grammatical clues)
about the italicized words?
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4) Nonsense Word: Furdor
Meaning and Original word: Parley: to discuss, speak terms with an enemy
Explanation: Verb from, it can be inferred that there is some type of argument between Uncle Jim and Mr. Polly in general; and the statement “Uncle Jim made a desperate
effort”. From this sentence I understand that Uncle Jim is trying to leave the argument, which further helps me infer the meaning of the word.
5) Nonsense Word: Wainds
Meaning and Original word: Feints: is a movement made in order to deceive an adversary; an attack aimed at one place or point merely as a distraction from the real place or
point of attack.
Explanation: Verb from, plural (–s.) it can be inferred that there is some type of argument between Uncle Jim and Mr. Polly in general. Also the word ‘parley’ and ‘feints’ seem
to be reinforcing each other, in a way they carry a similar meaning.
6) Nonsense Word: Morriers
Meaning and Original word: Osiers: a plant from such a willow, one of the long, pliable twigs of a plant.
Explanation: Noun, plural (–s.). ‘The clutch of the overhanging’ defined that Uncle Jim held on to something that has the ability to hang and an object that can be held to. From
the passage I can understand that they are surrounded by water, therefore, I can infer that ‘osier’ is some type of a branchy plant inside or near the water.
7) Nonsense Word: Poldentive
Meaning and Original word: Vindictive: disposed or inclined to revenge; vengeful.
Explanation: Adjective form, From the following statement ‘I’ll skin you for this!’ it can be understood that Uncle Jim is so angry and that he is after revenge, as he accuses Mr.
Polly for causing all the trouble.
N. Explain the difference between the following pairs of sentences. Are there any pronunciation differences?
Before analyzing the sentences, I would like to present some information about the main concepts found in the pairs I need to observe.
The comma (,) has several uses:
[1] It divides parts of the sentence, and thus can be used to control meaning, as in the example above. In this sense it also controls the flow and rhythm of the sentence. In this
use a comma helps us to distinguish between different ideas within a sentence.
[3] A comma can provide a pause within the sentence, especially within long sentences.
It has several other uses, but they all revolve around the rhythm and meaning of what is being said. For example, a comma is used to separate items in a list, for example He
picked up the paper, pencil, toys, bits of food, everything his son had left on the ground. They rhythm of this sentence would be altered by changing the place of items within
the list. The meaning of the sentence is affected by where the different things in the list are put. The most important items usually come first in the list. (This is not a rule, but is
general usage.)
The full stop (or period, as Americans call it) brings a stop to a thought. It's use divides, its non use。
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1 She read the letter which upset me.
This sentence indicates that a letter upset the speaker (me) and, that the same letter was also read by another person (she).
2 She read the letter, which upset me.
This sentence indicates that the speaker (me) was upset that the letter was read by another person (she). In the second sentence a comma is used to divide the sentence and control the meaning, flow and
rhythm. It also may provide a pause within the sentence; the use of a comma changes the pronunciation (stress, intonation etc.) and meaning of the sentence where a new meaning develops.
3 He keeps his canary in the bathroom. This sentence indicates that ‘he’ keeps a certain object in the bathroom.
4 He keeps his canary in the bathroom?
It may be a question asked by another person or a statement of surprise; ‘Really! The canary is kept in the bathroom by him! The first statement is a declarative
statement that ends with a full stop. On the other hand, the second statement is an interrogative sentence that ends with a question mark (?), it might be a question asked by
the speaker to receive an answer. The second statement may also be a rhetorical question that indicates the surprise of the speaker.
5. They went to Austria and Italy.
The sentences is spoken with a raising intonation, this statement of fact indicating the places they went to. Other people than the speaker went to the countries Austria and
Italy.
6.They went to Austria and Italy...
The statement is spoken with a falling intonation towards the -the speaker is listing out the place they went to and the list is incomplete. This sentence also indicates that that
other people than the speaker went to the countries Austria and Italy however, this sentence finishes with an ellipsis. The first statement is a declarative statement that ends
with a full stop. On the other hand, the second statement uses an ellipsis (...); three dots used to show that words have been omitted from a quotation or to create a pause for
effect. An ellipsis can be used: (a) to show an omission of a word or words (including whole sentences) from a text. (b) To create a pause for effect. (c) To show an unfinished
thought. (d) To show a trail off into silence.
O. Analyze this sentence in to morphemes. Curly brackets { } are often used to indicate morphemes, and you can do so if you wish:
First he put his dirty sweater and socks into the washing machine, then returned to the armchair in front of the television.
A morpheme is the combination of sounds that have a meaning and does not necessarily have to be a word. There are two types of morphemes:
(A) Free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word without another morpheme. (B) Bound morpheme: a sound or a combination of sounds that cannot stand
alone as a word.
FM = Free Morpheme
BM = Bound Morpheme
{first} + {he} + {put} + {his} + {dirt} + {-y} + {sweat} + {-er} + {and} + {sock} +
FM FM FM FM FM BM FM BM FM FM
{-s} + {in} + {to} + {the} + {wash} + {-ing} + {machine} + {then} + {re-} + {turn}+
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BM FM FM FM FM BM FM FM BM FM
{-ed} + {to} + {the} + {arm} + {chair} + {in} + {front} + {of} + {the} + {tele-}+
BM FM FM FM FM FM FM FM FM FM
{vision}
FM
{first}- sequence adverb
{he}- subject pronoun
{put}- verb, past tense
{his}- possessive adjective
{dirty}-{dirt} noun{y} adjective forming suffix
{sweater}-{sweat} verb{er} suffix forming noun
{and}- conjuction to list items
{socks}-{sock} - singular noun{s} plural, suffix forming
{into}-{in} preposition
{to} preposition
{the}- definite article
{washing}-{wash} verb
{ing} bound morpheme suffix forming
{machine}- noun
{then}-adverb of sequence
{returned}-{re} prefix forming bound morpheme
{turn}-verb
{ed} simple past
{to}- preposition
{the}-definite article
{armchair}-{arm}-noun
{chair} - noun, compound noun
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{in}- preposition
{front}-preposition
{of}-preposition
{the}-definite article
{television}-{tele} -prefix
{vision} -noun
P. Are there any differences between the italicized words? Differences between the italicized words are:
You have made absolutely no progress. The noun, in the first sentence, has the accent on the first syllable. PRAW-gress (American pronunciation). The verb, in the second
sentence, has the accent on the second syllable,pruh-GRESS. (Also American). In this sentence the stress is on the first syllable. ‘Progress’ is used in its noun form. The
meaning of ‘progress’ as a noun is; a movement toward a goal or to a further or higher stage.
If you want to progress, you’ll have to work harder. In this sentence the stress is on the second syllable ‘Progress’ is used in its verb form. The meaning of ‘progress’ as a verb
is; to grow or develop, as in complexity, scope, or severity; to advance in a certain subject.
Q. Is ‘room’ in these sentences one word or two words? Are there any teaching implications?
In the following sentences, the word ‘room’ is the same word but the meaning is different. The difference can be analyzed by observing the contextual clues.
i. This room is quite small, we could use it as the office.
Here the word room means- a part of the inside of a building that is divided from other areas by walls and a door and that has its own floor and ceiling, a
portion of space within a building or other structure, enclosed by walls with a floor and a ceiling.
ii. There's not enough room in the case for your dressing grown.
But in the sentence ii, the word room means- space or extent of space occupied by or available for something. An idiom to indicate that there isn’t enough space is used here.
When I teach these types of words, I take into consideration that it would help the learners if the meaning of the word is taught in context using examples. While teaching the
varying meaning of the word ‘room’, it needs to be taken into consideration that the learners may easily confuse the usage of this word. I must also indicate that room in the
first statement is a countable noun, for example; one room, two rooms etc. Whereas, in the second statement room is used as a mass noun, such as; little room, some room
etc.
In any language you know, do these translate into one word or two?
In the Romanian language, unlike English the word ‘room’ translates into two different words with different meanings.
1. “Camera”: means room as in a room with four walls and a ceiling.
2. “Spatiu” or “Loc” is used to express an area or place.
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R. Give an example of a word in another language, whose semantic field is different from the nearest English equivalent. How do they differ in meaning, and would the
difference pose any problem for a learner (of English or the other language)?
In linguistics, a semantic field is a set of words grouped semantically (that is, by meaning), referring to a specific subject. The term is also used in other academic disciplines,
such as anthropology, computational semiotics and technical exegesis.
If we are looking for a word that is etymologically close to English with a different semantic field, a good example is the German word "Freund." Psycholinguists
like this one a lot.In German "Freund" can mean "friend" - a person someone likes, loves or trusts - just as in English, but it also has a broader meaning and
includes people that would be covered by other words in English instead : "peer, associate, colleague, companion."However, English speakers are more touchy
about this and feel that the word "friend" is too special to apply to someone who is say, just a peer, colleague or associate at work.
If we are looking for a loanword from one language to another where the semantic meaning has changed, a good example is the Japanese word "feminisuto." It
is a borrowing from the American English word "feminist" but in Japanese means "something of a lady's man" or a "man who is attendant to women" and inclined
to offer a lady his seat on a bus.
Biography
o Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.
o Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
o Chomsky, N. (1975). The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
o COOK Vivian Inside Language Arnold
o Corbett et al. (1993). Heads in Grammatical Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
o CRYSTAL The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
o GOLEBIOWSKA Getting Students to Talk Phoenix, p.37
o HADFIELD Reading Games, Writing Games Elementary Vocabulary Games, p.56
o HANCOCK Pronunciation Games.p.68
o Jakobson, R. (1962) The phonemic concept of distinctive features. In A. Sovijärvi and P. Aalto, eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. Mouton & Co.
440-455.
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o http://www.phonemicchart.com/transcribe/, October 19, 2014
o Smith, R. (2004). Unit 2. Verbal and Nonverbal Communication. In Introduction to Language and Communication (p. 1-15). New York: Buffalo State College.
o Espinoza, E. (2014, October 13). What Is the Difference Between Phonetics and Phonology? Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-thedifference-between-
phonetics-and-phonology.htm Words converted to phonetic versions (British), Retrieved from http://upodn.com/, October 19, 2014
o Question “K” retrieved from http://www.siff.us.es/fil/publicaciones/apuntes/teresals/apartado%205-0.pdf, October 28, 2014
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