PET 323: RESERVOIR ENGINEERING I

D. Orodu, D. Alaigba and I. Seteyeobot

Department of Petroleum Engineering,
Covenant University, Ota
Nigeria
 COURSE CONTENT

• Part 1: Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

• Part 2: Petroleum Reservoir Fluid Properties
• Part 3: Reservoir Fluid Distribution, Classification and Drive
Mechanisms
• Part 4: Darcy‟s Law and its Applications
• Part 5: Oil Displacement Concepts
• Part 6: Estimation of Oil- and Gas-in-place.
• Part 7: Recovery Factor
• Part 8: The Material Balance Equation (MBE)
• Part 9: Water Influx

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 RECOMMENDED TEXTS
• Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, L. P Dake

• Practice of Reservoir Engineering, L. P. Dake

• Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, Craft, Hawkins and Terry

• Gas Reservoir Engineering, SPE Textbook Series

• Petroleum Reservoir Fluid Property Correlations, McCain. Jr., Spivey and Lenn

• The Holy Bible. Joshua 1:8

“This BOOK of the law shall not depart out of thy mouth; but thou shalt
meditate therein day and night, that thou mayest observe to do according to
all that is written therein: for then thou shalt make thy way prosperous, and
then thou shalt have good SUCCESS.”
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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING

• Outline:
– Essence of Reservoir Engineering
– Roles of Reservoir Engineering (in a multi-disciplinary field
development team)
– Specific Responsibilities of Reservoir Engineers
• Stages in Reservoir Engineering Operations
– Methods in Reservoir Engineering
– Physical Principles underlying Reservoir Engineering

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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING

Essence of Reservoir Engineering

• The essence of reservoir engineering is simply to make forecasts

of petroleum reservoir potentials and to optimize the recovery of
the hydrocarbon contents of the reservoirs (by continually
evaluating field performance)

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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Roles of Reservoir Engineering
(in a multi-disciplinary field development team)
• Reservoir Engineering (RE) occupies a central position within the
multi-disciplinary team responsible for planning the development
of an oilfield.

(Don‟t tell other guys I told you! They will be green with envy)

• The Reservoir Engineers takes a central coordinating role in which

data are received from others, processed and the interpreted results
passed on to other specialists. The situation is described in the
figure next slide.

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 Petrophysics

Formation properties:
porosity, permeability,
payzone thickness, fluid
saturations.

Reservoir Engineering
Constructing models to predict the performance of
the field under a variety of development scenarios,
in conjunction with Production/Process
Engineering

Core Data, PVT

Analysis, DST, RFT
jection profile
Production/in

oil/gas/water
of

Project Engineering
Constructing platforms
(offshore), surface
production/injection and
process facilities
 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Specific Responsibilities of Reservoir Engineers
• Estimation of amount of hydrocarbon-in-place, in conjunction with
geologists and petrophysicist.

• Determination of recovery factors – the fraction of hydrocarbon-in-

place that can be recovered.

• Development of production profile i.e. attaching a time scale to the

recovery. Injection profiles too, where secondary recovery is being
considered.

• On-going, day-to-day operational reservoir engineering (described

in a later slide)

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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Stages in Reservoir Engineering Operations
1. Appraisal Stage:
Essence: to estimate the HC in place in order to ascertain viability of
development
Commencement: from the day of discovery.
Here, the Reservoir Engineer is engaged in collection, collation and
interpretation of the following data/tests.
• Well tests: Drill Stem Test (DST): Information gathered here includes rate
of production (to ascertain commercial viability or otherwise), type of
hydrocarbon present, and pressure (drawdown) analysis.
• Pressure-Depth Relationship – Repeat Formation Tester (RFT): Fluid
pressures measured at varying depths, in order to determine fluid
contacts required in estimation of HC in place.
• Fluid Sampling, for PVT analysis needed to determine recovery factor
and design surface handling facilities.
• Core data

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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Stages in Reservoir Engineering Operations
2. End of Appraisal Stage:

The appraisal stage is terminated upon the following considerations:

• Whether it has been sufficiently proven that sufficient stock exists

in the accumulation for a viable development.
• Whether sufficient meaningful data have been acquired to perform
long-term project development calculations such as
production/injection surface facility design.
If the data collected is inadequate the reservoir engineer may request
for additional appraisal well be drilled.

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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Stages in Reservoir Engineering Operations
3. Development Stage: This stage spans the period between the
commencement of continuous production and field abandonment.
Throughout this stage, the RE is involved in the following day-to-day
activities (mentioned earlier)
– Determining location of in-fill wells based on unswept part of reservoir
– Determining Well Completion Interval based on fluid contacts and degree of
pressure communication.
– Well recompletion/sidetracking: RE takes a decision on the choice and timing
– Conducting regular well surveys – pressure analysis, production logging
– Generating forecasts of production profiles:
• Full project profile – for field appraisal
• Detailed 5-year profile: for company „s medium term budgeting
• Monthly profiles - for regulatory agencies
• Weekly profiles - for scheduling oil transportation facilities like tanker
– Deciding on Decline Policy: RE decides on what way to arrest decline. Options
include: drilling new wells, sidetracking, stimulation work over, and recompletion.

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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Stages in Reservoir Engineering Operations
3. Development Stage (cont‟d)
– Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Operations

Homework 1: Read Dake‟s Practice of Reservoir Engineering, page 22 – 23

and write a page on EOR. Your write-up should answer the following
questions
• What are the two categories of oil recovery method that preceed
EOR?
• What is the target of EOR, i.e. what does EOR attempt to recover?
• What is the force that traps oil in the pore space even after in
waterflooding?
• How does EOR mobilizes the trapped oil?
• What are the three factors that makes it practically impossible for
EOR to achieve 100% recovery of trapped oil?
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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Physical Principles underlying Reservoir Engineering
Applied Reservoir Engineering requires the application of the
following physical principles.

• Conservation of mass:
Rate of flow IN – Rate of flow OUT = Rate of Accumulation.
It is the principle underlying the MBE, a prominent analytical tool in RE

• Darcy‟s Law: Most basic governing equation if fluid flow through

porous media. States as follows:

– In field units: Why the minus sign???

q (STB/D), k (mD), P (psi), A (ft2) L (ft), μ (cP) and Bo (RB/STB)

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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Physical Principles underlying Reservoir Engineering (cont‟d)
• Isothermal Depletion: It is an assumption in Reservoir Engineering that as
the reservoir depletes, the temperature remain constant (Isothermal).
Assumption predicated on the fact that base and cap rock are infinite heat
sources.

• Isothermal Compressibility (methinks we should say Isothermal

expansivity): The concept relates the change in volume (of fluids and pore
space) to change in pressure (due to depletion) at constant temperature. It
is defined as:

Again, why the minus sign???

• Newton‟s Second Law of Motion (F = mg)
The law is relevant when considering displacement of one fluid (say oil) by
another fluid (say water or gas) with differing densities; in which case the
effect of gravity must be accounted for.
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 PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Methods in Reservoir Engineering
• Observation: This methods involves data collection, verification and
interpretation. Varieties of data involved includes: geological data, core
data, logs, Well tests data, fluid samples. In interpreting data, basic laws of
physics must be adhered to.
• Assumption: Reservoir Engineers are usually faced with the need to make
some simplifying assumption concerning the physical state of the system,
(not data). Typical assumptions are:
– Linear flow of fluids
– Incompressible fluid
– Single phase flow
• Calculations: Reservoir Engineers are paid to make calculations rather
than merely expressing personal opinions. Maths is key but should not be
over-relied on; always subject it to physical judgement.
• Development Decision: Essence of any RE activity is to make a
development decision; e.g. whether to drill infill, whether to inject water,
number of wells to drill etc.

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
• Outline:
– Fundamental Concepts
– Properties of Reservoir Gases
• Gas Specific Gravity
• Calculation of Pseudo-critical Properties of Reservoir Gases
• Gas Z-Factor
• Gas Density
• Gas Formation Volume Factor
• Gas Viscosity
• Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility of gas
– Properties of Reservoir Oils
• Oil Formation Volume factor
• Bubble Point Pressure
• Solution GOR
• Oil Compressibility
• Oil Viscosity
– Properties of Reservoir Waters
• Water Formation Volume Factor
• Water Viscosity
• Gas Solubility in Water

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES

• Prominent method employed in RE is calculation.

• Fluid properties constitute a large chunk of parameters required in

performing RE calculations.

• Ideally, lab procedures are the most accurate way to determine values of
properties of a particular fluid.

• In the absence of lab procedures, correlations (mostly empirical) are

employed.

• Correlations can be incorporated into spreadsheets (as would be done in

this class) and computer programs for efficiency.

• At the end of this chapter, the class shall be divided into groups; with
each group assigned to develop spreadsheets for given correlations.

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Fundamental Concepts
1. Mole: A mole (say pound-mole, lb-mole) of a substance is the
quantity of the substance having a mass in (pounds) equal to
the molecular weight of the substance
2. Mole Fraction of a component in a mixture is the number of
moles of that component divided by the total number of all
components present in the mixture.
𝒏𝒄
𝒚𝒊 = 𝒏𝒊 /( 𝒋<𝟏 𝒏𝒋 ) …… 2.1
1. Ideal Gas Law: The ideal gas is defined by the following
properties:
1. Volume of gas molecule is insignificant compared with the total volume
2. No attractive/repulsive forces among molecules or molecule and
container wall.
3. All molecule collision are elastic i.e. no loss of internal energy upon
collision
Mathematically, the ideal gas law is thus: 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 …… 2.2
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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Fundamental Concepts (cont‟d)
In equation 2.2, take note that P is absolute pressure in psia; T is
absolute temperature in 0R; n is number of moles of the gas in lb-
mol; V is volume in ft3 and R is universal gas constant = 10.732 psia-
ft3/ 0R lb-mol.

4. Molar Volume: This is the volume occupied by one mole of a

𝑽
gas. 𝑽𝒎 = … . . 𝟐. 𝟑
𝒏

For all gases, standard conditions (Tsc = 600F, Psc = 14.65psia), Vm

= 380.7 scf/lb-mol. (Assignment: Derive this value)
Significance: useful in converting a given mass of gas to volume:
Given mass:
Number of moles = mass/molar mass
Then, Volume = (Number of moles) X (molar volume)

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Fundamental Concepts (cont‟d)
5. Real gas law: Real gas don‟t behave like ideal gas!!!
– Need to modify the ideal gas law by multiplying with a
correction factor that accounts for the non-ideal behavior.
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝒁𝑹𝑻 … . . 𝟐. 𝟒

– Z = gas deviation factor or compressibility factor or z-factor.

6. Critical Pressure (Pc) and Critical Temperature (Tc): The

critical point of (Pc, Tc) for a pure substance is the pressure
and temperature at which the properties of liquid and vapor
phases becomes identical (more info in PET 326)
For mixtures we say pseudo-critical pressure (Ppc) and pseudo-
critical temperature (Tpc). Not true criticals.
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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Fundamental Concepts (cont‟d)
7. Reduced Pressure and Reduced Temperature (Ppr, Tpr)
It has been observed that chemically similar gases (e.g hydrocarbons)
have identical values for their properties at some
„reduced‟/pseudo reduced‟ pressure and temperature. The
reduced P and T are defined as follows
𝑷
for pure substances: 𝑷𝒓 = … … 𝟐. 𝟓
𝑷𝒄
𝑻
𝑻𝒓 = … . . 𝟐. 𝟔
𝑻𝒄
For mixtures of gases:
𝑷
𝑷𝒑𝒓 = … … 𝟐. 𝟕
𝑷𝒄
𝑻
𝑻𝒑𝒓 = … … 𝟐. 𝟖
𝑻𝒄
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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Reservoir Gases
Properties of reservoir gases which shall be considered are:
• Gas z-factor
• Gas Density
• Gas Formation Volume Factor (FVF)
• Gas Viscosity
• Coefficient of isothermal compressibility of gas

Now the logical way to go is here discusssed:

The most fundamental of all the properties is the z-factor; all others are calculated form
the z-factor.
There are two alternatives to calculating z-factor: either with gas composition known or
with gas specific gravity (γg) known (gas composition unknown). The gas composition
(from lab analysis) is not always available; infact, if it is chosen to perform the lab
analysis, it might well be chosen to determine values of the properties using the same lab
procedures. In any case we will consider the two alternatives.
To calculate z-factor with known gas gravity (γg), the parameter γg becomes a fundamental
concept to understand On the other hand, to calculate z-factor with composition
known, it is important to understand the concept of mixing rules. Mixing rules are
used to develop pseudo-properties for gas mixtures (required in calculations)
utilizing the properties of pure components.

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Specific Gravity, γg
The specific gravity of a gas, γg, is the ratio of the density of the gas to the
density of dry air, with both densities measured at same temperature
and pressure.
𝝆𝒈
𝜸𝒈 = … … 𝟐. 𝟗 ρg = gas density (lbm/ft3)
𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒎
𝝆 = ρair = air density (lbm/ft3)
𝑽

𝒏𝑹𝑻
For ideal gas, 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻, 𝑽 = i.e.
𝑷
𝑽 𝟏 𝒏𝑹𝑻
Dividing through by mass; = =
𝒎 𝝆 𝒎𝑷
𝒏 𝟏 𝟏
But = =
𝒎 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑴

𝑷𝑴
Therefore, 𝝆 = … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝑻

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Specific Gravity, γg
Further more,
𝑷𝑴𝒈
𝝆𝒈
𝜸𝒈 = = 𝑹𝑻
𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑷𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑹𝑻
𝑴𝒈
Therefore, 𝜸𝒈 = 𝑴 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏
𝒂𝒊𝒓

Mair = 28.9625 lbm/lb-mol (Assignment Derive this value)

With gas composition known, the Apparent Molecular weight, Mg of a gas mixture can be
calculated using the simple mixing rule below:
𝒏𝒊

𝑴𝒈 = 𝒚𝒊 𝑴𝒊 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐
𝒊<𝟏

yi is the mole fraction of the ith component and Mi is the molecular weight of the ith
component

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Class Exercise
Calculate the apparent molecular weight and the gas gravity of the
gas mixture whose composition appear in the table below:

Component Mole Fraction Molecular Weight

N2 0.0138 28.013

CH4 0.9302 16.043

C2H6 0.0329 30.07

C3H8 0.0136 44.097

i-C4H10 0.0023 58.123

n-C4H10 0.0037 58.123

i-C5H12 0.0012 75.15

n-C5H12 0.001 75.15

C6H14 0.0008 86.177

C7+ 0.0005 114.231

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Z-factor Correlation
Standing and Katz (great guys!) had proposed a graphical correlation
of gas Z-factor plotted against the pseudo-reduced pressure, Ppr
and pseudo-reduced temperature, Tpr. With Ppr and Tpr
determined, the z-factor can easily be read out of the chart.
Again,
𝑷
𝑷𝒑𝒓 = … … 𝟐. 𝟕
𝑷𝒑𝒄

𝑻
𝑻𝒑𝒓 = … … 𝟐. 𝟖
𝑻𝒑𝒄

From the foregoing, the attention, for now is focused on how to

calculate the pseudo-critical gas properties to be used in
equations 2.7 and 2.8.
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Z Chart by Standing and Katz

TTOWG!
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Calculation of Pseudo-critical Gas Properties
As discussed earlier, there are two scenarios: gas composition known;
gas gravity, γg known (composition unknown). The two scenarios
are handled separately by the following correlations:
• Gas gravity and Gas Composition known; use mixing rule.
• Gas Gravity, γg known; use Sutton‟s correlation

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Calculation of Pseudo-critical Gas
Properties from Specific Gravity
of Gas
• Use the chart on the right hand
developed by Brown et al. (1948)
• Enter from the bottom using the
specific gravity to read the pseudo
critical pressure and temperature
of the gas.
• NB Limitaions: Max 5% N2
2% CO2
2% H2S
Class Work: Use the chart to find Pc
and Tc for the following gas gravities:
0.6, 0.65, 0.75, 0.85 and 0.9.

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Calculation of Pseudo-critical Gas Properties Using Standing‟s
Correlation
Standing developed used Brown et al‟s charts to generate correlations
for estimating Ppc and Tpc as functions of gas gravity, γg thus:
For Natural Gas Streams
𝑻𝒑𝒄 = 𝟏𝟔𝟖 + 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝜸𝒈 − 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝜸𝟐𝒈 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒
𝑷𝒑𝒄 = 𝟔𝟕𝟕 + 𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝜸𝒈 − 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓𝜸𝟐𝒈 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑
For Gas Condensate Streams
𝑻𝒑𝒄 = 𝟏𝟖𝟕 + 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝜸𝒈 − 𝟕𝟏. 𝟓𝜸𝟐𝒈 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓
𝑷𝒑𝒄 = 𝟕𝟎𝟔 − 𝟓𝟏. 𝟕𝜸𝒈 − 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝜸𝟐𝒈 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔
Where Ppc and Tpc = pseudo-critical pressure and temperature of
the hydrocarbon components alone and γg is the gas gravity

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Class Exercise 1
Calculate:
• the apparent molecular
weight Component Mole Fraction Molecular Weight

• the gas gravity of the N2 0.10 28.013

gas CH4 0.40 16.043

• The critical Pressure C2H6 0.30 30.07

and Temp using C3H8 0.20 44.097

Brown‟s chart
• At 3000psia and 180
deg F, find the z factor
of the mixture whose
composition is shown
in the table to the right:
• Also find the critical P
and T using Standing‟s
correlation

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Effect of NonHydrocarbon Components on the Z-Factor
In addition to Hydrocarbons, natural gases usually contain impurities
such as Nitrogen, Hydrogen Sulphide, CO2 and so on. These
impurities tend to introduce errors into the correlations presented
earlier. So it becomes necessary to correct for them.
The Wichert-Aziz Correction Method
This method corrects for H2S and CO2 by using a pseudo critical P
and T adjustment factor. It also makes use of the Standing and
the Katz chart.
𝑻′𝒑𝒄 = 𝑻𝒑𝒄 − 𝜺, … . . 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕
𝑷 𝑻′
𝒑𝒄 𝒑𝒄
𝑷′𝒑𝒄 = … . . 𝟐. 𝟏𝟖,
𝑻𝒑𝒄 + 𝑩 𝟏 − 𝑩 𝜺
𝑩 = 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝟐 𝑺 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆,
𝜺 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑨𝟎.𝟗 − 𝑨𝟏.𝟔 + 𝟏𝟓 𝑩𝟎.𝟓 − 𝑩𝟒.𝟎 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟗
𝑨 = 𝒚𝑯𝟐𝑺 + 𝒚𝑪𝑶𝟐 … … 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎
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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Effect of NonHydrocarbon Components on the Z-Factor
Example 2 - The Wichert-Aziz Correction Method
Given that a sour natural gas has a specific gravity of 0.65 and it
contains 6.5 percent CO2 and 12 percent H2S. Calculate the density
of the gas at 4000 psia and 145 deg F.

𝑻′𝒑𝒄 = 𝑻𝒑𝒄 − 𝜺, … . . 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕
𝑷 𝑻′
𝒑𝒄 𝒑𝒄
𝑷′𝒑𝒄 = … . . 𝟐. 𝟏𝟖,
𝑻𝒑𝒄 + 𝑩 𝟏 − 𝑩 𝜺
𝑩 = 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝟐 𝑺 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆,
𝜺 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑨𝟎.𝟗 − 𝑨𝟏.𝟔 + 𝟏𝟓 𝑩𝟎.𝟓 − 𝑩𝟒.𝟎 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟗
𝑨 = 𝒚𝑯𝟐𝑺 + 𝒚𝑪𝑶𝟐 … … 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Formation Volume Factor, Bg
This relates the volume of the gas at reservoir conditions to the
volume at standard conditions.
𝑽𝒑,𝑻
𝑩𝒈 =
𝑽𝒔𝒄
𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑩𝒈 = 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓, ,
𝒔𝒄𝒇
𝐕𝐩,𝐓 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐚𝐭 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐩 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞, 𝐓, 𝐟𝐭 𝟑 ,
𝐕𝐬𝐜 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬, 𝐬𝐜𝐟,
𝐏𝐬𝐜 𝐳𝐓
𝐁𝐠 = ,
𝐓𝐬𝐜 𝐳𝐬𝐜 𝐏
𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐏𝐬𝐜 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕 𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚, 𝐓𝐬𝐜 = 𝟓𝟐𝟎°𝐑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐳𝐬𝐜 = 𝟏,
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕𝐳𝐓 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟑𝟓𝐳𝐓
𝐁𝐠 = , 𝐨𝐫 𝐁𝐠 = 𝒃𝒃𝒍/𝒔𝒄𝒇
𝐏 𝒔𝒄𝒇 𝐏
𝟓. 𝟔𝟏𝟓𝒇𝒕𝟑 = 𝟏𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕𝐌𝐚 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟑𝟓𝐌𝐚 𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝐁𝐠 = 𝒐𝒓 𝐁𝐠 =
𝐑𝛒𝒈 𝒔𝒄𝒇 𝐑𝛒𝒈 𝒔𝒄𝒇
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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Formation Volume Factor, Bg
This relates the volume of the gas at reservoir conditions to the
volume at standard conditions.
𝑽𝒑,𝑻
𝑩𝒈 =
𝑽𝒔𝒄
𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑩𝒈 = 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓, ,
𝒔𝒄𝒇
𝐕𝐩,𝐓 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐚𝐭 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐩 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞, 𝐓, 𝐟𝐭 𝟑 ,
𝐕𝐬𝐜 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬, 𝐬𝐜𝐟,
𝐏𝐬𝐜 𝐳𝐓
𝐁𝐠 = ,
𝐓𝐬𝐜 𝐳𝐬𝐜 𝐏
𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐏𝐬𝐜 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕 𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚, 𝐓𝐬𝐜 = 𝟓𝟐𝟎°𝐑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐳𝐬𝐜 = 𝟏,
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕𝐳𝐓 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟑𝟓𝐳𝐓
𝐁𝐠 = , 𝐨𝐫 𝐁𝐠 = 𝒃𝒃𝒍/𝒔𝒄𝒇
𝐏 𝒔𝒄𝒇 𝐏
𝟓. 𝟔𝟏𝟓𝒇𝒕𝟑 = 𝟏𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕𝐌𝐚 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟑𝟓𝐌𝐚 𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝐁𝐠 = 𝒐𝒓 𝐁𝐠 =
𝐑𝛒𝒈 𝒔𝒄𝒇 𝐑𝛒𝒈 𝒔𝒄𝒇
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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Class Exercise 1
Calculate:
• the apparent molecular
weight Component Mole Fraction Molecular Weight
• the gas gravity of the
gas N2 0.10 28.013

• The critical Pressure CH4 0.40 16.043

and Temp using C2H6 0.30 30.07

Standings Correlation C3H8 0.10 44.097
• At 3000psia and 180 deg
F, find the z factor of H2S 0.06
the mixture whose CO2 0.04
composition is shown in
the table to the right:
• Calculate the gas
density,
• The gas formation
volume factor,
• The gas expansion
factor
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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Viscosity 𝝁𝒈
Definition
 The viscosity of a fluid is generally defined as the ratio of the
shear force per unit area to the local velocity gradient.
 Viscosities are expressed in terms of poises, centipoise, or
micropoises.
 One poise equals a viscosity of 1 dyne-sec/cm2 and can be
converted to other field units by the following relationships:

𝟏 𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

;𝟐
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
= 𝟔. 𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝒇𝒕

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Viscosity 𝝁𝒈
Measurement
 The viscosity of a gas is a function of its pressure, temperature
and composition i.e., 𝝁𝒈 = 𝒇(𝒑, 𝑻, 𝒚𝒊 )

The Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Correlation Method

 This is a graphical method for estimating the viscosity of natural
gas as a function of pressure, temperature and gas gravity.
Steps
 Calculate Pc, Tc and Ma and correct for the effect of non-
hydrocarbons if their mole fractions exceed 5%
 Read off the gas viscosity at 1 atmosphere and the desired
temperature

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Viscosity 𝝁𝒈
Measurement
The Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Correlation Method
Steps
 Calculate Pc, Tc and Ma and correct for the effect of non-
hydrocarbons if their mole fractions exceed 5%
 Calculate the pseudo-reduced pressure and temperature
 Read off the gas viscosity at 1 atmosphere and the desired
temperature, 𝝁𝟏 from Chart GV1
 Correct 𝝁𝟏 for the presence of impurities by using the inserted
graphs.
 𝝁𝟏 = 𝝁𝟏 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 + ∆𝝁 𝑵𝟐 + ∆𝝁 𝑪𝑶 𝟐 + ∆𝝁 𝑯𝟐 𝑺
 Using the pseudo reduced T and P, get the viscosity ratio (𝝁𝒈 /𝝁𝟏 )

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Viscosity 𝝁𝒈 Chart GV1

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Viscosity 𝝁𝒈 Chart GV2

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Gas Viscosity 𝝁𝒈
Class Exercise
The gas from COV01 Well at OJUERE is at 2000psia and 120 degree F
and contains 7% CO2 and 6% H2S. Given that it has a specific
gravity of 0.75, Find the viscosity of the well stream.
Steps
 Calculate Pc, Tc and Ma
𝑻𝒑𝒄 = 𝟏𝟔𝟖 + 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝜸𝒈 − 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝜸𝟐𝒈 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒
𝑷𝒑𝒄 = 𝟔𝟕𝟕 + 𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝜸𝒈 − 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓𝜸𝟐𝒈 … … 𝟐. 𝟏𝟑
 Calculate Pr and Tr
 Read off 𝝁𝟏𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 from chart GV1 using T and Ma and correct
for impurities to get 𝝁𝟏
 Read off 𝝁𝒈 /𝝁𝟏 from chart GV2 using Pr and Tr and
 Multiply the ratio 𝝁𝒈 /𝝁𝟏 by 𝝁𝟏 to get the gas viscosity 𝝁𝒈
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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Gravity of Crude Oils
Specific Gravity
𝝆𝒐 𝝆𝒐
𝜸𝒐 = =
𝝆𝒘 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒
Where:
𝜸𝒐 = 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒊𝒍,
𝒍𝒃
𝝆𝒐 = 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒊𝒍, 𝟑 ,
𝒇𝒕
𝒍𝒃
𝝆𝒘 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓, 𝟑 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝒍𝒃/𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝒇𝒕
API Gravity of Crude Oils
𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟓
°𝑨𝑷𝑰 = − 𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟓
𝜸𝒐

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Gravity of Crude Oils
API Gravity of Crude Oils
𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟓
°𝑨𝑷𝑰 = − 𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟓
𝜸𝒐

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Example
Calculate the specific gravity and the API gravity of a crude oil
system with measured densities of:
(a) 20 lb/cuft
(b) 30 lb/cuft
(c) 40 lb/ cuft and
(d) 50 lb/ cuft

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Gas Solubility Rs
This is the volume of gas at standard conditions that will
dissolve in one Stock Tank Barrels of Oil at a certain
pressure, temperature, API gravity and gas gravity

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Gas Solubility Rs
Standing‟s Correlation for Calculating Rs

𝟏.𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟖
𝑷
𝑹𝒔 = 𝜸𝒈 + 𝟏. 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝒙
𝟏𝟖. 𝟐
Where:
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑨𝑷𝑰 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝑻 − 𝟒𝟔𝟎

𝑻 = 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 °𝑹,
𝒑 = 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂,
𝜸𝒈 = 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚,
𝑵𝑩, 𝑷 ≤ 𝑷𝒃

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Gas Solubility Rs
Example - Standing‟s Correlation for Calculating Rs
Estimate the gas solubility for the cruse oil-gas systems shown in the table
below using Standings correlation and compare with that obtained
experimentally

Oil No T, Deg F Pb, psia Rs API s.g. gas

1 250 2377 751 47.1 0.851

2 237 2884 968 40.5 0.898

3 180 4239 807 27.3 0.848

𝟏.𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟖
𝑷
𝑹𝒔 = 𝜸𝒈 + 𝟏. 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝒙
𝟏𝟖. 𝟐
Where:
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑨𝑷𝑰 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝑻 − 𝟒𝟔𝟎

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Bubble Point Presure, Pb
The bubble-point pressure pb of a hydrocarbon system is defined as the
highest pressure at which a bubble of gas is first liberated from the oil. Pb
can be measured experimentally for a crude oil system by conducting a
constant-composition expansion test.

Standing‟s Correlation for Estimating Pb

𝟎.𝟖𝟑
𝑹𝒔 𝒂
𝑷𝒃 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏. 𝟒 ,
𝜸𝒈

𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝑻 − 𝟒𝟔𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑨𝑷𝑰

Where
Pb = bubble-point pressure, psia and T = system temperature, degree R

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Bubble Point Presure, Pb
Example - Standing‟s Correlation for Estimating Pb
Calculate the bubble point pressures of the rude oil systems shon in the table
below using Standing‟s correlation and compare with those obtained
experimentally

Oil No T, Deg F Pb, psia Rs API s.g. gas

1 250 2377 751 47.1 0.851

2 237 2884 968 40.5 0.898

3 180 4239 807 27.3 0.848

𝟎.𝟖𝟑
𝑹𝒔 𝒂
𝑷𝒃 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏. 𝟒 ,
𝜸𝒈

𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝑻 − 𝟒𝟔𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑨𝑷𝑰

Where
Pb = bubble-point pressure, psia and T = system temperature, degree R

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Oil Formation Volume Factor, Bo

𝑽𝟎 𝒑,𝑻
𝑩𝒐 = , 𝑩𝟎 ≥ 𝟏
𝑽𝒐 𝒔𝒄
Bo – Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
𝑩𝒐 = 𝒇(𝑹𝒔 , 𝜸𝒈 , 𝜸𝒐 , 𝑻)
Standing‟s Correlation for Bo
𝟎.𝟓 𝟏.𝟐
𝜸𝒈
𝑩𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟓𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑹𝒔 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝑻 − 𝟒𝟔𝟎
𝜸𝒐
T = Temperature in Deg. Rankine

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Crude Oils
Oil Formation Volume Factor, Bo

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 PART 2: PETROLEUM RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES
Properties of Reservoir Fluids
Question
A natural gas has the following composition:
Component yi
C1 0.75
C2 0.1
C3 0.02
i-C4 0.02
CO2 0.06
N2 0.05

Reservoir conditions are 3500 psia and 200 Deg. F

Calculate the gas viscosity using the Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows
method
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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Objectives

 Introduce and give a detailed discussion of the various

primary recovery mechanisms and their effects on the overall
performance of oil reservoirs.
 Provide the basic principles of the material balance equation
and other governing relationships that can be used to predict
the volumetric performance of oil reservoirs.

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Introduction
 All petroleum reservoirs can be grouped according to the
primary recovery mechanism by which they produce.
 Each drive mechanism is characterized by a unique
performance in terms of:
 Ultimate recovery factor
 Pressure decline rate
 Gas-oil ratio evolution
 Water production evolution
Primary Recovery
 This refers to all hydrocarbons produced using the internal
energy of the reservoir without any form of supplements
such as water or gas injection.
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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
 In order to be able to predict and optimize the future
performance of the reservoir, it is important to know the
main drive mechanism(s) or energie(s) at play in a reservoir.
 There are six basic reservoir drive mechanisms and they are:
 Rock and liquid expansion drive
 Depletion drive
 Gas cap drive
 Water drive
 Gravity drainage and
 Combination drive

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Rock and Liquid Expansion
 An under saturated reservoir is one which exists above the
bubble point pressure (no gas cap).
 Oil, connate water and rocks are the only materials present in
a reservoir above the bubble point pressure.
 In the course of producing the reservoir fluid (crude oil), the
pressure declines and as the pressure reduces, the rock and
fluids expand due to their compressibilities.

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Rock and Liquid Expansion Above Bubble Point Pressure, Pb
 Two factors influence the reservoir rock compressiblity:
 Expansion of individual rock grains
 Formation compaction due to increase in net overburden pressure
 These two factors act to reduce the pore volume thus forcing
reservoir fluids out of the pore spaces and pushing them
towards the wellbore
 Since the rock and fluids are only slightly compressible, the
reservoir pressure will decline rapidly as production
proceeds.
 This mechanism is the least effective and recovers on average
less than 7 percent of the oil in place.
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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
The Depletion Drive Mechanism
 This drive is also known as: Solution Gas Drive, Dissolved
Gas Drive and Internal Gas Drive
 For an initially under saturated reservoir, as the reservoir
pressure decline below the bubble point pressure, dissolved
gas is released from solution
 In this kind of reservoir, the main source of reservoir energy
comes from the expansion of gas bubbles released from
solution as the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble
point
 As production proceeds further, the gas bubbles then expand
and force the crude oil out of the pores and into the well
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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
The Depletion Drive Mechanism

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
The Depletion Drive Mechanism

Characteristics Trend

Reservoir Pressure Declines rapidly and continuously

Gas-oil ratio Increases to maximum and then declines

Water production None
Well behavior Requires pumping at early stage
Oil recovery 5 to 30 %

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Gas Cap Drive
 These are reservoir which have a
gas cap and with little or no water
drive
 As production from the oil zone
proceeds, the reservoir pressure
drops.
 This gives room for the gas in the
gas cap and the solution gas if
liberated, to expand and push oil
from the pores towards the
production wells
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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Gas Cap Drive Reservoirs
 Slow and continuous decline of reservoir pressure. The
pressure maintenance tends to be much better, compared to
the other drive mechanisms.
 Absent or negligible water production
 The gas oil ratio (GOR) is seen to rise continuously in well
located high on the structure (well with perforation close to
the gas-oil-contact)
 The expected ultimate recovery (EUR) ranges from 20% to
40% depending on the size of the gas cap compared to the
oil volume.

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Gas Cap Drive Reservoirs

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Gas Cap Drive Reservoirs
 Well Behavior
Factors which Affect the Performance of Gas Cap Drive Reservoirs
 Size of the Original Gas Cap – Impacts on the ultimate recovery
 Vertical Permeability – If high, the evolved gas will migrate
upwards towards the gas cap
 Oil Viscosity – Oil viscosity reduces and evolved gas bypasses oil
and reach the wells
 Degree of Conservation of the Gas - Shut in wells with high
GORs
 Oil Production Rate
 Dip Angle – The higher this is, the more effective the gravity
drainage becomes

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Gas Cap Drive Reservoirs

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
The Water Drive Mechanism
 This results owing to the fact that many reservoirs are
connected to water bearing rocks called “Aquifers”. In other
instances, the reservoir rock simply outcrops and gets
replenished by surface waters

Types of Water Drive

 Bottom Water Drive
 Edge Water Drive
 Artesian Water Drive

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
The Water Drive Mechanism (Artesian Water Drive)

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
The Water Drive Mechanism (Edge and Bottom water drives)

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Water Drive Mechanism
 Reservoir Pressure – Gradual Pressure Decline
 Withdrawal from the reservoir is usually replaced by aquifer water
expanding and flowing into the reservoir

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Water Drive Mechanism
 Water Production – This is usually observed in structurally
low wells. As the aquifer water expands upwards, it moves
into the perforation of the low wells.
 Gas-Oil Ratio – Normally low and close to the intial Rs value
due to the fact that reservoir pressure is maintained.
 Ultimate Recovery – This is largest compared to other
production mechanism. Factors such as K variation have to
be considered. The performances is better for a homogenous
reservoir compared to a heterogeneous one.

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Water Drive Mechanism

Characteristics Trends
Reservoir Pressure Remains High
Surface GOR Remains low
Starts Early and Increases to
Water Production
appreciable amounts
Flows until water production gets
Well behavior
excessive (liquid loading of wells)

Expected Recovery 35% to 70%

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Water Drive Mechanism

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Gravity-Drainage-Drive Mechanism
 Results from density difference between fluids in the
reservoir

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 PART 7: RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS
Primary Drive Mechanisms
Characteristics of Gravity-Drainage-Drive Mechanism
 Gas-Oil Ratio – Low GOR from well completed low on
structure (due to migration of evolved gas upwards)
 Secondary gas cap for initially under saturated reservoirs
 Water Production – Little or no water production
 Ultimate Oil Recovery – Depends on a host of factors. Could
get as high as 80%

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT

Before Start of Production After Production Start

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT

Pressures in the Reservoir System

𝑷𝒓 − 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒐𝒊𝒓 𝑷, 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂
𝑷𝒘𝒇 − 𝑩𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂
𝑷𝒘𝒉 − 𝑾𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 − 𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝑻𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂
𝑷𝒓 > 𝑷𝒘𝒇 > 𝑷𝒘𝒉 > 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT
 Two possible uses of the MBE
 Evaluation/ calculation of Original Hydrocarbon In Place
(OHIP) from production history
 Field behavior forecast for a given production mechanism
(production/recovery for different reservoir pressures or
pressure vs. cumulative production)
 Needed data for MBE
 Petrophysic data of the reservoir (rock characterization)
 PVT data (fluid characterization)
 Production data ( productions, cumulative productions,
pressure)

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT
SYSMBOLS NAME
Pi Initial reservoir pressure, psi
p Volumetric average reservoir pressure
∆p Change in reservoir pressure = pi − p, psi
Pb Bubble point pressure, psi
N Initial (original) oil in place, STB
Np Cumulative oil produced, STB
Gp Cumulative gas produced, scf
Wp Cumulative water produced, bbl
Rp Cumulative gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
GOR Instantaneous gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
Rsi Initial gas solubility, scf/STB
Rs Gas solubility, scf/STB
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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT
SYSMBOLS NAME
Boi Initial oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bo Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bgi Initial gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Bg Gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Winj Cumulative water injected, STB
Ginj Cumulative gas injected, scf
We Cumulative water influx, bbl
m Ratio of initial gas-cap-gas reservoir volume to initial reservoir oil volume, bbl/bbl
G Initial gas-cap gas, scf
P.V Pore volume, bbl
Cw Water compressibility, psi−1
cf Formation (rock) compressibility, psi−1
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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT
The expression for the total pore volume can be derived by conveniently
introducing the parameter m into the relationship as follows:
Initial volume of gas cap 𝑮𝑩𝒈𝒊
 𝒎= =
Volume of oil initially in place 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊
 Initial volume of gas cap = GBgi = mNBoi
 Initial oil volume + initial gas cap volume = (P.V) (1 − Swi)
 N Boi + m N Boi = (P.V) (1 − Swi)
or
𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 (𝟏:𝒎)
 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑷. 𝑽 =
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊
 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑷. 𝑽 =
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT
The MBE can be written in a generalized form as follows:
Pore volume occupied by the oil initially in place at pi
+
Pore volume occupied by the gas in the gas cap at pi
=
Pore volume occupied by the remaining oil at p
+
Pore volume occupied by the gas in the gas cap at p
+
Pore volume occupied by the evolved solution gas at p
+
Pore volume occupied by the net water influx at p
+
Change in pore volume due to connate water expansion and pore
volume reduction due to rock expansion
+
Pore volume occupied by the injected gas at p
+
Pore volume occupied by the injected water at p

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT

Pore Volume Occupied by the Remaining Oil

Volume of the remaining oil = (N − Np) Bo
Pore Volume Occupied by the Gas Cap at Reservoir Pressure p
𝑚 𝑁 𝐵𝑜𝑖
Volume of the gas cap at 𝑝 = 𝐵𝑔
𝐵𝑔𝑖

Pore Volume Occupied by the Evolved Solution Gas

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
− 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
−[𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
or

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = [𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑁 − 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑠 ]𝐵𝑔
Pore Volume Occupied by the Net Water Influx
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤
Change in Pore Volume Due to Initial Water and Rock Expansion
−1 𝜕𝑉
𝑐=
𝑉 𝜕𝑝
or
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 ∆𝑝

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [(𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)𝑆𝑤𝑖 ]𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑝
Substituting for the pore volume (P.V) with its Equation:
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 (1 + 𝑚)
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖

Similarly, the reduction in the pore volume due to the expansion of the
reservoir rock is given by:

𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 (1 + 𝑚)
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑐𝑓 ∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT

Combining the expansions of the connate water and formation:

𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 (1 + 𝑚)( )∆𝑝
𝑆𝑤𝑖

Pore Volume Occupied by the Injection Gas and Water

Assuming that Ginj volumes of gas and Winj volumes of water have
been injected for pressure maintenance, the total pore volume occupied
by the two injected fluids is given by:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝐵𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑗 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝐵𝑤

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT

Combining equations from the volume occupied by initial oil, through total
pore volume with the equation of MBE written in a generalized form and
rearranging gives:
𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + (𝐺𝑝 −𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑠 )𝐵𝑔 − (𝑊𝑒 −𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤 ) − 𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝐵𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑗 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝐵𝑤
𝑁=
𝐵𝑔 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓
(𝐵𝑜 −𝐵𝑜𝑖 ) + (𝑅𝑠𝑖 −𝑅𝑠 )𝐵𝑔 + 𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 − 1 + 𝐵𝑜𝑖 (1 + 𝑚)[ ]∆𝑝
𝐵𝑔𝑖 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖

The cumulative gas produced Gp can be expressed in terms of the

cumulative
gas-oil ratio Rp and cumulative oil produced Np by:

𝐺𝑝 = 𝑅𝑝 𝑁𝑝

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MBE DEVELOPMENT

Combining both Equations give:

𝑁𝑝 [𝐵𝑜 +(𝑅𝑝 −𝑅𝑠 )𝐵𝑔 ] − (𝑊𝑒 −𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤 ) − 𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝐵𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑗 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝐵𝑤𝑖
𝑁=
𝐵𝑔 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓
(𝐵𝑜 −𝐵𝑜𝑖 ) + (𝑅𝑠𝑖 −𝑅𝑠 )𝐵𝑔 + 𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 − 1 + 𝐵𝑜𝑖 1 + 𝑚 [ ] ∆𝑝
𝐵𝑔𝑖 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖

Introducing the concept of the total (two-phase) formation volume factor Bt

into the equation. This oil PVT property is defined as:

𝐵𝑡 = 𝐵𝑜 +(𝑅𝑠𝑖 −𝑅𝑠 )𝐵𝑔

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE DEVELOPMENT
Introducing Bt into the MBE formula and assuming, for sake of simplicity,
no water or gas injection gives:
𝑁𝑝 [𝐵𝑡 +(𝑅𝑝 −𝑅𝑠𝑖 )𝐵𝑔 ] − (𝑊𝑒 −𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤 )
𝑁=
𝐵𝑔 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓
(𝐵𝑡 −𝐵𝑡𝑖 ) + 𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 − 1 + 𝐵𝑡𝑖 1 + 𝑚 ∆𝑝
𝐵𝑔𝑖 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
In a combination drive reservoir where all the driving mechanisms are
simultaneously present, it is of practical interest to determine the relative
magnitude of each of the driving mechanisms and its contribution to the
production. Rearranging the equation gives:
𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑖 + 𝑐𝑓
𝑁(𝐵𝑡 −𝐵𝑡𝑖 ) 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 (𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑔𝑖 )/𝐵𝑔𝑖 𝑊𝑒 −𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤 𝐵𝑜𝑖 1 + 𝑚 (𝑝𝑖 −𝑝)
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
+ + + =1
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

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MBE DEVELOPMENT
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑝 [𝐵𝑡 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖 𝐵𝑔 ]
The new MBE can be abbreviated and expressed as:

𝐷𝐷𝐼 + 𝑆𝐷𝐼 + 𝑊𝐷𝐼 + 𝐸𝐷𝐼 = 1.0

Where DDI = depletion-drive index

SDI = segregation (gas-cap)-drive index
WDI = water-drive index
EDI = expansion (rock and liquid)-drive index

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The four terms of the left-hand side of Equation 11-20 represent the
major primary driving mechanisms by which oil may be recovered from
oil reservoirs. these driving forces are:
Depletion Drive: Depletion drive is the oil recovery mechanism
wherein the production of the oil from its reservoir rock is achieved by
the expansion of the original oil volume with all its original dissolved
gas. This driving mechanism is represented mathematically thus;
DDI = N (Bt − Bti)/A
Segregation Drive: Segregation drive (gas-cap drive) is the mechanism
wherein the displacement of oil from the formation is accomplished
by the expansion of the original free gas cap. This driving
force is described by :
SDI = [NmBti (Bg − Bgi)/Bgi]/A
where SDI is termed the segregation-drive index.

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Water Drive: Water drive is the mechanism wherein the displacement
of the oil is accomplished by the net encroachment of water into the
oil zone. This mechanism is represented by the third term of equation;
WDI = (We −Wp Bw)/A
Where WDI is termed the water-drive index.
Expansion Drive: For undersaturated oil reservoirs with no water
influx, the principle source of energy is a result of the rock and fluid
expansion. Where all the other three driving mechanisms are contributing
to the production of oil and gas from the reservoir, the contribution
of the rock and fluid expansion to the oil recovery is too small
and essentially negligible and can be ignored.

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE APPLICATION
Example 1
A combination-drive reservoir contains 10 MMSTB of oil initially in
place. The ratio of the original gas-cap volume to the original oil volume,
i.e., m, is estimated as 0.25. The initial reservoir pressure is 3000 psia at
150°F. The reservoir produced 1 MMSTB of oil, 1100 MMscf of 0.8 specific
gravity gas, and 50,000 STB of water by the time the reservoir pressure
dropped to 2800 psi. The following PVT is available:

3000 psi 2800 psi

Bo, bbl/STB 1.58 1.48
Rs, scf/STB 1040 850
Bg, bbl/scf 0.00080 0.00092
Bt, bbl/STB 1.58 1.655
Bw, bbl/STB 1.000 1.000

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The following data are also available:
Swi = 0.20 cw = 1.5 × 10−6 psi−1 cf = 1 × 10−6 psi−1
Calculate:
a. Cumulative water influx
b. Net water influx
c. Primary driving indexes at 2800 psi

Solution
Because the reservoir contains a gas cap, the rock and fluid expansion can be
neglected, i.e., set cf and cw = 0. For illustration purposes, however, the rock
and fluid expansion term will be included in the calculations.
Part A. Cumulative water influx
Step 1. Calculate cumulative gas-oil ration Rp:

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MBE APPLICATION

1100 × 106
𝑅𝑝 = = 1100𝑠𝑐𝑓/𝑆𝑇𝐵
1 × 106
Step 2. Arrange Equation 11-17 to solve for We:
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑝 [𝐵𝑡 +(𝑅𝑝 −𝑅𝑠𝑖 )𝐵𝑔 ]
𝐵𝑔 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓
−𝑁 𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑡𝑖 + 𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 − 1 + 𝐵𝑡𝑖 1 + 𝑚 ∆𝑝 + 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤𝑝
𝐵𝑔𝑖 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖

0.00092
We = 106 [1.655 + (1100-1040)0.00092] -107 [(1.655 – 1.58) + 0.25(1.58) − 1
0.00080
0.2(1.5×10−6
+ 1.58(1 + 0.25) 1;0.2
(3000 − 2800)] + 50,000 = 411,281𝑏𝑏𝑙

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Neglecting the rock and fluid expansion term, the cumulative water
influx is 417,700 bbl.

Part B. Net water influx

Net water influx =We −Wp Bw = 411,281 − 50,000 = 361,281 bbl

Part C. Primary recovery indexes

Step 1. Calculate the parameter A
A = 106 *1.655 + (1100 − 1040) 0.00092+ = 1,710,000

Step 2. Calculate DDI, SDI, and WDI by applying their equations.

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Example 2 MBE APPLICATION

The Big Butte field is a combination-drive reservoir. The current reservoir
pressure is estimated at 2500 psi. The reservoir production data and
PVT information are given below:
Initial reservoir Current reservoir
condition condition
P,psi 3000 2500
Bo, bbl/STB 1.35 1.33
Rs, scf/STB 600 500
Np, MMSTB 0 5
Gp, MMMscf 5.5
Bw, bbl/STB 1.00 1.00
We, MMbbl 0 3
Wp MMbbl 0 0.2
Bg, bbl/scf 0.0011 0.0015
cf, cw 0 0

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 PART 8: MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MBE APPLICATION
The following additional information is available:

Volume of bulk oil zone = 100,000 ac-ft

Volume of bulk gas zone = 20,000 ac-ft

Calculate the initial oil in place.

Solution
Step 1. Assuming the same porosity and connate water for the oil
and gas
zones, calculate m:
20,000
𝑚= = 0.2
100,000

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Step 2. Calculate the cumulative gas-oil ratio Rp:

5.5 × 109 1100𝑠𝑐𝑓
𝑅𝑝 = =
5 × 106 𝑆𝑇𝐵
Step 3. Solve for the initial oil-in-place:
5 × 106 1.33 + 1100 − 500 0.0015 − (3 × 106 − 0.2 × 106 )
𝑁=
0.0015
1.35 − 1.33 + 600 − 500 0.0015 + 0.2 1.35 0.0011 − 1
= 31.14𝑀𝑀𝑆𝑇𝐵

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 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of STOIIP for Initially Under saturated
Oil Reservoirs
 𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑺𝑻𝑶𝑰𝑰𝑷 ,
𝑽𝒐 , 𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝑵=
𝑩𝒐𝒊 , 𝒃𝒃𝒍/𝑺𝑻𝑩
𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒑
 𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚, ∅ = = =
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽𝒃 𝑨𝒉
 ∴, 𝑽𝒑 = 𝑨𝒉∅,
 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑨 − 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉 −
𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒐𝒊𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒕
𝑽𝒐
 𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑺𝒐 = , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑺𝒐 𝑽𝒑 ,
𝑽𝒑
 ∴ 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑨𝒉∅𝑺𝒐 , 𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑺𝒐𝒊 + 𝑺𝒘𝒊 = 𝟏,
 ∴ 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒘𝒊 , 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒆 − 𝒇𝒕
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Volumetric Estimation of STOIIP for Initially Under saturated
Oil Reservoirs
 ∴ 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑨𝒉∅𝑺𝒐 , 𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑺𝒐𝒊 + 𝑺𝒘𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐨𝐢 = 𝟏 − 𝐒𝐰𝐢
 ∴ 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒘𝒊 , 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒆 − 𝒇𝒕
 ∴ 𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝑽𝒐𝒍 = 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒘𝒊 𝒃𝒃𝒍𝒔,
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑵= , 𝑺𝑻𝑩
𝑩𝒐𝒊
 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝒃𝒃𝒍𝒔 = 𝟏𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒆 − 𝒇𝒕

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Volumetric Estimation of STOIIP for Initially Under saturated
Oil Reservoirs
 Example
 Given that 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒔, 𝑺𝒐𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓, 𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕, ∅ =
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒐𝒊 =
𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟐 , 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑵 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝑻𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑻𝑩.
𝑺𝑻𝑩
 Solution
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖∗𝟐𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎∗𝟐𝟎𝟎∗𝟎.𝟐∗𝟎.𝟖𝟓
 𝑵= = 𝟐𝟐, 𝟖𝟗𝟔, 𝟖𝟕𝟓 , 𝑺𝑻𝑩
𝟏.𝟏𝟓𝟐
 𝑵 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟗 𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑻𝑩

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Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Initially Under saturated Volumetric Oil Reservoirs
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕 = 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷 − 𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒕
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷;𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈
 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚, 𝑹𝑭 =
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷

𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷, 𝑵 =
𝑩𝒐𝒊
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒈 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 =
𝑩𝒐
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒈 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = −
𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝑩𝒐
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 𝟏;𝑺𝒈 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ −
𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝑩𝒐

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Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Initially Under saturated Volumetric Oil Reservoirs
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 𝟏;𝑺𝒈 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ −
𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝑩𝒐

(𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒊 ) 𝟏−𝑺𝒈 −𝑺𝒘𝒊

𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ ;
𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝑩𝒐
 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚, 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑩𝒐𝒊

(𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒊 ) 𝟏−𝑺𝒈 −𝑺𝒘𝒊

𝑩𝒐𝒊
; 𝑩𝒐
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑩𝒐𝒊

𝟏;𝑺𝒈 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊 𝑩𝒐𝒊

 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟏 −
𝑩𝒐 (𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 )

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 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Initially Under saturated Volumetric Oil Reservoirs
 Example
 𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑨 = 𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑨𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒔, 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕, ∅ = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓, 𝑺𝒘𝒊 =
𝒃𝒃𝒍 𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝟎. 𝟐, 𝑩𝒐𝒊 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑 , 𝑩𝒐 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟓,
𝑺𝑻𝑩 𝑺𝑻𝑩
 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝑭
𝟎.𝟖 𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟓
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖 ∗ 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 −
𝟏.𝟐𝟑 𝟏.𝟓𝟎
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟐𝟏𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑻𝑩
𝟏;𝑺𝒈 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊 𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟓∗𝟏.𝟐𝟑
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟏 − × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 − × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑩𝒐 (𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 ) 𝟏.𝟓∗𝟎.𝟖
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟔𝟕%

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Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Initially Under saturated Oil Reservoirs under Active Water
Drive
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕 = 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷 − 𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒕
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷;𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈
 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚, 𝑹𝑭 =
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷

𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷, 𝑵 =
𝑩𝒐𝒊
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅𝑺𝒐𝒓
 𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒕 = ,
𝑩𝒐𝒊
 𝑷 ≅ 𝑷𝒊 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒐𝒓 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕 =
𝑩𝒐𝒊
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 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Initially Under saturated Oil Reservoirs under Active Water
Drive
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷;𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈
 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚, 𝑹𝑭 =
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏−𝑺𝒐𝒓 −𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝑩𝒐𝒊
 𝑹𝑭 = = 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝑰𝑷
𝑩𝒐𝒊
𝟏;𝑺𝒐𝒓 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑹𝑭 =
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Initially Under saturated Oil Reservoirs under Active Water
Drive
 Example
 Given the following parameters below for an initially
undersaturated reservoir under active water drive, estimate
the reserves and recovery factor.
Parameter Unit Value
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒐𝒓 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = Area Acres 1500
𝑩𝒐𝒊
Thickness ft 75
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟔𝟖. 𝟔𝟐𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑻𝑩 Porosity % 24
Residual Oil Saturation % 28
𝟏;𝑺𝒐𝒓 ;𝑺𝒘𝒊 Initial Water Saturation % 15
 𝑹𝑭 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟏%
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 Initial Oil FVF bbl/STB 1.74

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 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Volumetric Gas Reservoirs
 Standard cubic feet of gas initially in place (G or SCFGIIP)
𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑮= , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝒇𝒕𝟑 = 𝟏𝑨𝒄𝒓𝒆 − 𝒇𝒕
𝑩𝒈𝒊

 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝑮 − 𝑮𝒂 ,
 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑮𝒂 =
𝑩𝒈𝒂

𝟏 𝟏
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒘𝒊 −
𝑩𝒈𝒊 𝑩𝒈𝒂

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Volumetric Gas Reservoirs
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔
 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓, 𝑹𝑭 = =
𝑺𝑪𝑭𝑮𝑰𝑰𝑷 𝑮

𝟏 𝟏
𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 ;
𝑩𝒈𝒊 𝑩𝒈𝒂
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑩𝒈𝒊

𝑩𝒈𝒊
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟏 −
𝑩𝒈𝒂

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 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Volumetric Gas Reservoirs
 Example
 Using the data in the table below, estimate the reserves and
recovery factor for the Daniel Hall volumetric gas Field
𝟏 𝟏
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒘𝒊 −
𝑩𝒈𝒊 𝑩𝒈𝒂

 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟖𝟕𝟒𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑪𝑭 Parameter Unit Value

𝑩𝒈𝒊 Area Acres 640
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟏 − Thickness ft 34
𝑩𝒈𝒂
Porosity % 17.2
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟓𝟏%
Bgi Cuft/SCF 0.003425
Connate Water Saturation % 23
Bga Cuft/SCF 0.01852

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Gas Reservoirs under active Water influx
 Standard cubic feet of gas initially in place (G or SCFGIIP)
𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊
 𝑮(𝑺𝑪𝑭) = ,
𝑩𝒈𝒊

 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝒇𝒕𝟑 = 𝟏𝑨𝒄𝒓𝒆 − 𝒇𝒕

 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝑮 − 𝑮𝒓 ,
𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅𝑺𝒈𝒓
 𝑮𝒓 (𝑺𝑪𝑭) = ,
𝑩𝒈𝒊
 Note that the pressure is maintained near Pi by the water influx
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 ;𝑺𝒈𝒓
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅
𝑩𝒈𝒊

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PET 323– Reservoir Engineering I – I. Steteyeobot and D. Alaigba
 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Gas Reservoirs under Active Water Drive
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔
 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓, 𝑹𝑭 =
𝑮
𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒊 −𝑺𝒈𝒓
𝑩𝒈𝒊
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑩𝒈𝒊

𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 ;𝑺𝒈𝒓
 𝑹𝑭 =
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊

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 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Volumetric Estimation of Reserves and Recovery Factors for
Gas Reservoirs under Active Water Drive
 Example
 The UpHelly Gas field is producing under active water drive.
Using the parameters in the table below, estimate the reserves
and RF.
𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎𝑨𝒉∅ 𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 ;𝑺𝒈𝒓
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = Parameter Unit Value
𝑩𝒈𝒊
Area Acres 640
 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟖𝟗𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑪𝑭
Thickness ft 34
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 ;𝑺𝒈𝒓
 𝑹𝑭 = Porosity % 17.2
𝟏;𝑺𝒘𝒊 Bgi Cuft/SCF 0.003425
 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟖𝟕. 𝟎𝟏% Connate Water Saturation % 23
Residual gas Saturation, Sgr % 10

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 PART 8: VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF HIP
Solution to PET323 Test 2
Hydrocarbon Withdrawal, A 34075772.04
Net Water Influx 10500600
Oil Expansion 0.1554
Gas Cap Expansion 0.082819741
Rock and Water Expansion 0.005589475

Initial Oil in place, STB 96695163.46

a
Initial Oil in place, MMSTB 96.69516346

DDI 0.440971033
SGI 0.235013558
b
WDI 0.308154427
EDI 0.015860982
Sum 1

Oil PV bbl 161964398.8

c Oil PV, cuft 909430099.3
Total PV, bbl 190308168.6
Total Pv, cuft 1068580367

d Oil Saturation @ 2000 psia 0.708118255

e Water Saturation assuming Wp/We=0 0.2
f Water Saturation with influx n Prod 0.264832766
g Gas Saturation at 2000psia 0.091881745

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