NISHANT TANWAR CLASSES

Igniting excellence in learning

WZ-1390/7A First Floor, Nangal Raya Ext. (Opp. Janakpuri D Block Bus Stand)
Email – nishant.tanwar@ntcphysics.in Contact – 9711727561

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

Work function – the minimum amount of energy required by an electron to just escape from the metal
surface is known as work function of the metal. It depends on the nature of the metal and the condition
of the surface. It is represented by Wo or φo and measured in eV (1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J)

Electron emission – the phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface is known as electron
emission. For the emission of electron from the metal surface the energy of electron should be more
than the work function. The electron may be supplied sufficient amount of energy using following
methods.

(1) Thermionic emission – when a metal is heated, its electrons get sufficient thermal energy and they can
overcome surface barrier. This method of removal of electron is called thermionic emission and the
electrons emitted are known as thermions or thermo-electrons.
(2) Field emission – when metal surface is subjected to very strong electric field of about 103 to 108N/C
electrons are emitted from it. This is known as field emission or cold cathode emission. This method of
emission of electron is less efficient and dangerous.
(3) Photoelectric emission – it is the process in which the electrons are emitted from the metal surface
when electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high frequency is incident on it. The emitted electrons are
called photoelectrons.
(4) Secondary emission – when fast moving electrons strikes the metal surface, they transfer their some of
the energy to the free electron of the metal. As a result, the energy of the free electron becomes more
than the work function and they get ejected from the metal surface. The emitted electrons are called
secondary electrons.

The photon picture of electromagnetic radiation – some phenomenon like refraction, reflection,
diffraction, polarization, interference can be explained using the wave nature. But there are some
phenomenon like photoelectric effect can not be explained on the basis of wave theory, this can be
explained using the particle nature of light. The particles of light are called photon which are different
from the material particles. PHOTON – an electromagnetic wave travels in the form of discrete packets
of energy called quanta. One quantum of light radiation is called photon.
(1) All photons emitted by any source travels through free space with the same velocity as that of light, c =
3 x 108ms-1.
(2) Each photon have a definite energy, depending on the frequency of the radiation and not on the
intensity. E = hc/λ.
(3) The frequency of a photon does not change when it travels from one medium to another medium.
(4) The speed of photon changes as it travels through different medium due to the change in its
wavelength.
(5) The rest mass of photon is zero.
(6) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
 NISHANT TANWAR CLASSES
Igniting excellence in learning
WZ-1390/7A First Floor, Nangal Raya Ext. (Opp. Janakpuri D Block Bus Stand)
Email – nishant.tanwar@ntcphysics.in Contact – 9711727561

(7) When a photon collide with a particle then its momentum and energy remains conserved but the
number of photon may not be conserved. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be
created.
(8) If the intensity of light of a give wavelength is increased, it will increase only the number of photon and
not the energy.

Photoelectric effect – when a light of suitable frequency is incident on the photosensitive metal surface
then it start emitting the electron. This phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect and the electrons
emitted re known as photoelectrons.
The minimum value of frequency of incident radiation at which photoelectric effect takes place is known
as threshold frequency.
Alkali metals like Li, Na, K, Cs and Rb are highly photosensitive. They emit electron even with visible
light. Metals like Zn, Al, Cd and Mg respond only to ultraviolet light. X-rays can eject electrons from
heavy metals.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

(1) When no light is allowed to incident on the photosensitive cathode then no deflection is seen in the
microammeter, which shows no current is flowing the circuit and hence no photo
electrons are emitted, so we can say that no Photoelectric effect will takes place.

(2) When light beam of some certain frequency is allowed to incident on the photosensitive cathode, then a
deflection is seen in the microammeter, which shows that the current is flowing in the circuit. Hence we
can say that the photoelectric effect is taking place.
(3) When the intensity of light beam is increased then the deflection in the microammeter also increases
which shows that more photoelectric current is flowing in the circuit, which indicates more number of
photoelectrons are emitted per second.
Number of photo electrons per second varies directly proportional to the intensity of the incident beam
(4) When anode is given with positive potential then the positive polarity of the anode increases and it start
attracting more number of photoelectrons, due to which the photo electric current increases and after
some time it becomes maximum and is known as saturated photoelectric current.
 NISHANT TANWAR CLASSES
Igniting excellence in learning
WZ-1390/7A First Floor, Nangal Raya Ext. (Opp. Janakpuri D Block Bus Stand)
Email – nishant.tanwar@ntcphysics.in Contact – 9711727561

(5) When anode is given with negative potential, then the positive polarity of the anode start decreasing
and it start becoming negative, due to which initially highly energetic electron are attracted by the
anode but after some time it start repelling the electrons and hence the photoelectric current becomes
zero.
The minimum negative potential for which the photoelectric current becomes zero is known as stopping
potential.

GRAPHS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

(1) Variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident beam.
(2) Variation of photoelectric current with anode potential for different frequencies of incident radiation.
(3) Variation of photoelectric current with anode potential

LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

(1) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, the photoelectric current is
directly proportional to the intensity of light.
(2) For a given photosensitive material, there exist a certain minimum cut-off frequency below which no
photoelectrons are emitted, however high is the intensity of incident radiation. This frequency is called
threshold frequency.
(3) Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectron is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation, but is independent
of the intensity.
(4) Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous phenomenon which will take place in 10-9seconds.
 NISHANT TANWAR CLASSES
Igniting excellence in learning
WZ-1390/7A First Floor, Nangal Raya Ext. (Opp. Janakpuri D Block Bus Stand)
Email – nishant.tanwar@ntcphysics.in Contact – 9711727561

PHOTOELECTRIC EINSTIEN’S EQUATION

Photoelectric effect will takes place only when the energy of incident light is greater than the work
function of the metal surface.
i.e., E > φo
then, K.E = E - φo
because, E = hυ and φo = hυo
 K.E. = hυ - hυo => K.E. = h(υ - υo)
 MV2 / 2 = h(υ - υo)

Explanation of effect of intensity – the increase of intensity means the increase in the number of
photons striking the metal surface per unit time. As each photon eject one electron, so the number of
photoelectrons increases with the increase in intensity of incident radiation.

Explanation of threshold frequency – if the frequency of incident radiation is less than the threshold
frequency, the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons becomes negative, which has no physical meaning.
So, photoelectric effect does not occur below the threshold frequency.

Explanation of kinetic energy - if the frequency of incident radiation is more than the threshold
frequency, then the maximum kinetic energy of electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation.

DETERMINATION OF PLANK’S CONSTANT AND WORK FUNCTION

According to photoelectric Einstein’s equation, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is given
by,
K.E. = hυ - φo
If Vo is the stopping potential
Then, K.E. = eVo
Therefore, eVo = hυ - φo
Vo = (h / e)υ - φo / e ------------- (1)
We compare this equation with the straight line equation,
y = mx + c
therefore, m(slope) = h /e

de – BROGLIE WAVES – the waves associated with material particles in motion are called matter or de-
Broglie waves and their wavelength is called de-Broglie wavelength.

According to Plank’s quantum theory,

 NISHANT TANWAR CLASSES
Igniting excellence in learning
WZ-1390/7A First Floor, Nangal Raya Ext. (Opp. Janakpuri D Block Bus Stand)
Email – nishant.tanwar@ntcphysics.in Contact – 9711727561

E = hυ ------------------ (1)
According to energy mass equivalence,
E = mc2 ------------------ (2)
From equation (1) and (2):-
hυ = mc2
because, υ = c / λ
therefore, hc / λ = mc2
λ = h / mc = h / p
for a particle moving with velocity ‘v’
λ = h / mv

de – BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON

let us consider an electron of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘e’ is accelerated through potential difference V so
that it start moving with velocity ‘v’, then the kinetic energy gained by the electron will be,
K.E = mv2 / 2 = p2 / 2m -------------- (1)
Work done on the electron (potential energy of electron),
P.E = eV -------------- (2)
Using equation (1) and (2) :-
p2 / 2m = eV
p = √2meV ------------ (3)
according to de-Broglie wavelength,
λ=h/p
using equation (3) :-
λ = h / √2meV

PHOTO-CELL
A photocell or photoelectric cell is an arrangement which converts light energy into electrical energy. It
works on the principle of photoelectric emission. It is of three types photo-emissive cell, photo-
conducting cell, photo-voltaic-cell.
PHOTO-EMISSIVE CELL - it works on the principle of photo electric emission.
Construction :- it is consisting of evacuated glass or quartz tube which encloses two electrodes as shown
in the figure. The cathode or emitter is a parabolic metal plate coated with a layer of some
photosensitive material like oxides of Na, Cs, Rb etc. the anode is a thin rod of Pt or Ni which faces the
cathode. It is also known as a collector. The two electrodes are connected externally to a high tension
battery and a microammeter.
 NISHANT TANWAR CLASSES
Igniting excellence in learning
WZ-1390/7A First Floor, Nangal Raya Ext. (Opp. Janakpuri D Block Bus Stand)
Email – nishant.tanwar@ntcphysics.in Contact – 9711727561

Working :- when light of frequency greater than the threshold frequency falls on the cathode,
photoelectrons are emitted which are collected by the collector. The circuit gets completed and the
current starts flowing in the circuit. As the number of photoelectrons emitted per second varies directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light therefore the reading of current in the microammeter
gives the measure of the intensity of light. The photoelectric current produced is very feeble. So, it is
first amplified and then used for some useful purpose.
Uses and applications :- in cinematography, in counting devices, in burglar’s alarm, in fire alarm, in
photographic camera’s, in automatic control of street light system, in preparation of solar battries, to
control the temperature of furnaces and chemical reactions.

DAVISSION AND GERMER EXPERIMENT

This experiment was performed to study the wave properties of electron.
Here the electron emitted from the hot filament of an electron gun are accelerated by applying a
suitable potential difference V between the cathode and anode. The fine collimated beam of electron
gun is directed along the face of a Ni crystal. The crystal is capable of rotation about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The electrons, scattered in different directions by the atom of
Ni crystal are received by a movable detector which is just an electron collector. Thus we measure
scattered electron intensity as a function of φ, the angle between the incidence and the scattered
electron beam. The experiment is repeated for different accelerating potentials V.
There is strong peak corresponding to a sharp diffraction maximum in the electron distribution at an
accelerating voltage of 54V and scattering angle 50o.