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Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation

➢ Electron Emission and Photoelectric Effect

Metals have free electrons which are responsible for their conductivity. These free electrons cannot
normally escape out of the metal surface. If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the metal surface
acquires a positive charge and pulls the electron back to the metal. The free electron is thus held inside the
metal surface by the attractive forces of the ions. The electron can come out of the metal surface only if it
has got sufficient energy to overcome the attractive pull.

➢ Work function − A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be given to an electron to pull it out
from the surface of the metal. This minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal
surface is called the work function of the metal.
• It is measured in eV (electron volt).
• One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has been accelerated by a potential
difference of 1 volt, so that 1 eV = 1.6 ×10–19 J.

Work function φo = hυo = hc/λo.

• The work function (φ0) depends on the properties of the metal and the nature of its surface. The work
function of platinum is the highest (φ0 = 5.65 eV) while it is the lowest (φ0 = 2.14 eV) for cesium.

➢ Threshold frequency (υo) - The minimum frequency of incident radiation which is just sufficient to eject
an electron from the metal surface. If the incident frequency is less than υo then no photoemission takes
place.
➢ Threshold wavelength (λo) – The maximum wavelength of the light incident on a metal after which no
photoelectrons are emitted from the metal. If the incident light has a wavelength greater than λo, no
photoemission takes place. λo = c/υo
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➢ Electron Emission

• The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal is called electron emission.
• The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal surface can be supplied to the free
electrons by any one of the following physical processes:

1) Thermionic emission: - By suitable heating, sufficient thermal energy can be imparted to the free
electrons to enable them to come out of the metal.

2) Field emission: - By applying a very strong electric field to a metal, electrons can be pulled out of
the metal.

3) Photoelectric emission: - is the phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal surface when light
of suitable frequency is incident on it.

➢ Photoelectric effect According to Einstein, radiant beam of light energy consist of small packets of energy
called quanta or

photons. The energy of the photon is given by E = hυ = hc/λ where h is the Planck’s constant. h = 6.62 x 10
-34Js.

• When light of sufficiently small wavelength is incident on a metal surface, electrons are ejected from the metal.
This phenomenon is called as 'photoelectric effect' and the ejected electrons are called as
'photoelectrons' and the current produced in the circuit is called photoelectric current .

• Here conversion of light energy to electrical energy takes place. Metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium,
etc., respond only to ultraviolet light, having short wavelength. Some alkali metals such as lithium,
sodium, potassium, cesium and rubidium are sensitive even to visible light.

➢ Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s Experimental setup to explain photoelectric emission

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The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube, which encloses a photosensitive plate C and a metal
plate A. The window W will allow the light of a particular frequency to pass through it.When a monochromatic
radiation of suitable frequency obtained from source S falls on the photosensitive plate C, the photoelectrons are
emitted from C, which get accelerated towards the plate A (kept at positive potential). These electrons flow in the
outer circuit, resulting in the photoelectric current. Due to this, the microammeter shows a deflection.

Lenard’s observations

1) It was observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated
glass tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit. As soon as the ultraviolet
radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped. This shows that when ultraviolet radiations fall on
the emitter plate C, electrons are ejected from it which are attracted towards the positive, collector plate
A by the electric field. The electrons flow results in the current flow. Thus, light falling on the surface of
the emitter causes current in the external circuit.
2) Also studied how photo current varied with collector plate potential, and with frequency and intensity of
incident light.
3) It was also observed that when ultraviolet light fell on the emitter plate, no electrons were emitted at all
when the frequency of the incident light was smaller than a certain minimum value, called the threshold
frequency. This minimum frequency depends on the nature of the material of the emitter plate.

➢ Factors affecting photoelectric current:

I. Effect of intensity of incident radiation on photoelectric current

• By keeping frequency of incident radiation constant and plate A at a positive potential, when the intensity
of incident radiation increases, number of photoelectrons emitted also increases.
• The number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.
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II. Effect of potential on photoelectric current

• Keep plate A at some positive accelerating potential with respect to plate C and illuminate plate C with
light of fixed frequency ν and fixed intensity I1.
• It is found that photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating potential. At some stage, for
a certain positive potential of plate A, all the emitted electrons are collected by plate A and the
photoelectric current becomes maximum or saturates. This maximum value of photoelectric current is
called saturation current.

• When intensity of light is increased, I2>I1 and frequency kept constant, the saturation current is greater,
but the stopping potential remains the same.

Stopping potential (V0

• The minimum retarding anode potential at which the photoelectric current is zero or completely cut is
called stopping or cut off potential.
• The stopping potential is related to the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons. The fastest
photoelectron as it reaches the anode has kinetic energy given by

K.Emax = eV0 = ½ mvmax2

Where
KEmax - energy of the photoelectron when it leaves the emitter,
Vo - the stopping potential, m - the mass of the
emitted photoelectron and vmax - the maximum velocity.
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• Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to repel even the most energetic
photoelectrons, with the maximum kinetic energy (Kmax). Note-
1) For a given frequency of the incident radiation, the stopping potential is independent of its
intensity. In other words, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light
source and the emitter plate material, but is independent of intensity of incident radiation.
2) For incident radiation of the same intensity but of higher frequencies (ν3 > ν2 > ν1) the stopping
potential have higher values. The energy of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the
incident radiations. The stopping potential is more negative for higher frequencies of incident
radiatio
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III. Effect of frequency of the incident radiation

• Taking radiations of different frequencies but of same intensity, the variation
between photoelectric current and potential of plate A is obtained and shown in
graph given below.

From the graph, we note that

1) The value of stopping potential is different for radiation of different frequency.

2) The value of stopping potential is more negative for radiation of higher incident
frequency.

3) The value of saturation current depends on the intensity of incident radiation, but
is independent of the frequency of the incident radiation. Note-
1) Greater the frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons. Consequently, greater retarding potential to stop them
completely.
2) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the
frequency of incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.

➢ Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

The graph between the frequency of incident radiation and the corresponding stopping
potential for different metals is a straight line, as shown.
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The graph shows that

1) The stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation
for a given photosensitive material.
2) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν0 for which the stopping
potential is zero.
3) For a frequency ν of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency ν0, no
photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large. This minimum, cutoff
frequency ν0, is called the threshold frequency.

Note-
Threshold frequency is different for different metals. Different photosensitive
materials respond differently to light. Selenium is more sensitive than zinc or copper.
The same photosensitive substance gives different response to light of different
wavelengths. For example, ultraviolet light gives rise to photoelectric effect in copper
while green or red light does not.

Draw the following graphs:-

1) Current with frequency at constant intensity

2) Maximum KE is independent of incident light (graph a) and depends

only upon its frequency (graph b).

➢ Laws of photoelectric effect

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1) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (above the
threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light.

2) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation

current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity.

3) For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off

frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below which no
emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the incident light is.

4) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends on the frequency of

incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.

5) If frequency of the incident radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, the

photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag,
even when the incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.

➢ Particle nature of light - Photon theory of radiations

According to Max Planck, radiations are emitted as packets of energy called
photons. The energy of each photon is directly proportional to the frequency of
radiations.
i.e. E α v or E = h v
Photons: are packets of energy emitted by a source of electromagnetic radiation.
Properties of photons:

1) They travel in straight lines with the speed of light. 2)

Energy of each photon:

E = h ν = h c/λ Where h = 6.62 x 10-34 Js

3) Photon has zero rest mass m = m0/(1 – v2/C2)1/2

When velocity of photon v=c, m0 = 0. i.e photon cannot exist in rest.
4) A Photon of energy E possesses mass
m = E/c2 = hν/c2
5) Momentum of each photon = mc = E/c = hν/c= h/λ
6) All photons of light have the same frequency, energy and momentum, independent of
the intensity of radiation. By increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there
is only an increase in the number of photons per second crossing a given area, with
each photon having the same energy.
7) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
8) In a photon particle collision, the total energy and total momentum are conserved.
However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may
be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
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➢ Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

When a photon of light of frequency ν is incident on a photosensitive metal surface,

the energy of the incident photon hν is spent in
a) overcoming the surface barrier equal to the work function Φ0 of the metal and
b) the rest in imparting KE to the emitted photoelectrons

-------------------------------(1)
This is called as Einstein's photoelectric equation.

Work function Φ0 or threshold energy is the minimum energy that must be supplied
to the electron so that it ejects from the metal surface. Φ0 = h 0

Where ν0 is the threshold frequency

Therefore (1) becomes

hυ = h υ0 + ½ mvmax2 ----------------------------------(2)
or

½ mvmax2 = hν – hν0 ------------------------------------ (3)

Significance of V0 – ν graph. To find the value of h

If the stopping potential is V0, then the maximum kinetic energy with which electrons leave
the cathode.

KEmax = ½ mvmax2 = eV0

Then Einstein's photoelectric equation can be written as

hν = φo + eV0

eV0 = h ν – φ0;

For ν ≥ ν0 eV0 = h ν – φ0

This Equation is of the form y = mx + c

• This equation predicts that the V0 versus ν curve is a straight line with slope = (h/e),
independent of the nature of the material.
• Using the known value of e, Planck’s constant h can be determined. h = slope
x e,
and the y –intercept gives -φ0 /e.
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• The value of h calculated from the graph if in agreement with the theoretical value.
Millikan performed experiment on photoelectric effect and plotted graph between
different stopping potentials and the corresponding frequencies as given beside. The
value of ‘h’ determined from the graph using the equation (1) is found to be the same
as its theoretical value.
• This verifies the Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

Verification of photoelectric emission

1. a) KE cannot be negative implies that hν = hν0 + ½ mvmax2

. . . hν > hν0 photoelectric emission takes place

if ν > ν0 if ν < ν0 , no photoelectric emission
takes place.

2. One photon can emit only one electron from the metal surface, so the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
light which depends upon number of protons present in the incident light.

3. It is clear that kinetic energy, 1/2mv2 α frequency, v because Planck’s constant, h and
cut off frequency, v0 are constant for a given photo emitter. This shows that K.E.
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of photoelectron is directly proportional to the frequency of the in the incident light.

4. Photoelectric emission is due to elastic collision between a photon and an electron in

the substance. As such there cannot be any significant time lag between incidence of
photons and emission of photoelectron. Thus, the process of electric emission
instantaneous.

➢ Photocell

A photocell is an application of the photoelectric effect. A photocell converts a

change in intensity of illumination into a change in photocurrent. This current can
be used to operate control systems and in light measuring devices

1) Construction
It consists of a thin glass enclosed in a highly evacuated glass bulb. The cathode C
is a parabolic metal surface made of photosensitive metal such as Cesium and
anode A series as a collector of photoelectrons.
2) Working When light of frequency ν > ν0 falls of the cathode, photoelectrons are
emitted. These electrons are attracted to the anode and measured.
3) Uses: -
In an automatic controlling of street light, reproduction of audio in motion pictures,
burglar alarms for detecting minor flaws or holes in metal sheets etc.

➢ Particle nature of light

Photoelectric effect gives evidence to the particle nature of light which is made of
quanta or packets of energy, each of energy h ν.

According to wave theory when light falls on a metal surface, energy is continuously
distributed over the surface. The free electrons receive light energy and when the energy
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received exceeds that of work function, an electron may escape the surface. If a low
intensity source is used, it may take hours f or an electron to come out. In photon theory,
the intensity of the light is related to the number of photons and the energy of every
photons. The energy of every photon is related to the frequency of light. So, when low
intensity light falls on the metal, less number of photons fall on the metal and hence less
number of electrons get a chance to absorb energy. The electron that gets the photon
receiving all the energy ejects out immediately. Hence, photoelectric effect can be
explained with the particle nature of light.

Wave Nature of Particles De-Broglie hypothesis (De-Broglie relation)

Matter has wave property was first put forward by Louis De Broglie. He argued that if
light, which consists of waves behave like particles, then it should be possible for matter,
which consists of particles to exhibit wave-like character.
According to de – Broglie, a wave is associated with every moving particle. These waves
are called de-Broglie waves or matter waves.

Considering photon as an em wave of frequency ν,

According to quantum theory of radiation, energy of a photon of frequency ν,
E =hv ------------------(1)
Considering photon as a particle of mass m
According to Einstein relation

E = mc2-------------(2)

Comparing equations 1 and 2

hv = mc2

(Since mc = p)

Where λ is the wavelength of the radiation of frequency v and p = mc is the momentum of

photon. According to de Broglie’s hypothesis it must be true for material particles like
electron ,proton etc. If ‘m’ is the mass of the particle moving with velocity ‘v’
λ = h/mv This is de Broglie’s wave equation for material particle. This relation connects
momentum which is characteristic of the particle and wavelength which is characteristic
of the wave.
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Conclusions :

1) Lighter the particle, greater is the de Broglie wavelength.

2) Faster the particle, smaller is the de Broglie wavelength.
3) de Broglie wavelength is independent of nature or charge of the particle. 4) Matter
waves are not electromagnetic in nature.
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➢ De-Broglie wavelength of electron

Consider an electron of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘e’ accelerated through a potential difference V. acquires a
kinetic energy. According to work energy principle, work done on the electron appears as the gain in the
kinetic energy of the electron

De-Broglie wavelength associated with moving electron is given by

Substituting h = 6.62 x 10-34Js, m = 9.1x 10-31Kg and e=1.6x10-19, we get

= 12.2 A0
√V

λ = 12.27/√V Å

➢ Davisson and Germer Experiment _Explanation removed from 2020-21 syllabus

➢ This experiment could establish the existence of matter waves and wave nature of electron.

Note: - The de Broglie hypothesis has been basic to the development of modern quantum mechanics. It has
also led to the field of electron optics. The wave properties of electrons have been utilised in the design of
electron microscope which is a great improvement, with higher resolution, over the optical
microscope.

➢ According to classical wave theory,

• Intensity of a wave is the energy incident per unit area per unit time.
• Energy carried by an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave.
➢ Classical wave theory cannot explain the first 3 observations of photoelectric effect.
1) Existence of the threshold frequency
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Since energy of the wave is dependent on the square of its amplitude, the classical wave theory predicts
that if sufficiently intense light is used, the electrons would absorb enough energy to escape. There should
not be any threshold frequency.
2) Almost immediate emission of photoelectrons
Based on classical wave theory, electrons require a period of time before sufficient energy is absorbed for
it to escape from the metal. Accordingly, a dim light after some delay would transfer sufficient energy to
the electrons for ejection, whereas a very bright light would eject electrons after a short while. However,
this did not happen in photoelectric effect.

3) The independence of kinetic energy of photoelectron on intensity and the dependence on

frequency

According to classical wave theory, if light of higher intensity is used, the kinetic energy of an ejected
electron can be increased. This is because the greater the intensity, the larger the energy of the light wave
striking the metal surface, so electrons are ejected with greater kinetic energy. However, it cannot explain
why maximu m kinetic energy is dependent on the frequency and independent of intensity.

➢ The matter–wave picture elegantly incorporated the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

According to the principle, it is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of an electron
(or any other particle) at the same time exactly. And the product of minimum uncertainty in position and

momentum is always greater than or at the most equal to . i.e,

(1) If ∆𝑥 = 0 , ∆𝑃 = ∞ p cannot be measured.
(2) If ∆𝑝 = 0 ,∆𝑥 cannot be measured.
If p = 0 , then p has a definite value. Then by using de Broglie’s equation λ = h/ . Such a wave of single
wavelength extends all over space as shown in the figure. This implies that electron is not localized in any
region.
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The matter wave corresponding to a definite momentum of an electron extends all over space. In this case, If

➢ Born’s probability interpretation

According to Born, the square of amplitude (intensity) of matter wave at a point is related to the probability
density of the particle (electron) at that point. So if the intensity of matter wave is large in a certain region,
there is greater probability of the particle being found there.
➢ Localised wave

(a) The wave packet description of an electron. The wave packet corresponds to a spread of wavelength
around some central wavelength (and hence by de Broglie relation, a spread in momentum).
Consequently, it is associated with an uncertainty in position (Δx) and an uncertainty in momentum (Δp).
(b) The matter wave corresponding to a definite momentum of an electron extends all over space. In this
case, Δp = 0 and Δ x →∞.