Electric Charge and Electric Field: For GENERAL PHYSICS 2/ Grade 12/ Quarter 3/ Week 1

ELECTRIC CHARGE AND
ELECTRIC FIELD
for GENERAL PHYSICS 2/ Grade 12/
Quarter 3/ Week 1
NegOr_Q3_GenPhysics2_SLKWeek1_v2
NegOr_Q3_GenPhysics2_SLKWeek1_v2 1
FOREWORD
Electrical phenomena result from a fundamental property of matter:

electric charge. The atoms that constitute most matter we encounter contain
charged particles. Protons and electrons each have one unit charge, but of
opposite sign. Atoms are generally neutral because the number of electrons
and protons are the same.
Electric charges at rest have been known much longer than electric
current. It was discovered centuries ago that certain types of materials would
mysteriously attract one another after being rubbed together. For example,
after rubbing a piece of silk against a piece of glass, the silk and glass would
tend to stick together. Indeed, there was an attractive force that could be
demonstrated even when the two materials were separated. In this SLK, we
will learn more about role of electron transfer in electrostatic.
An electric field on the other hand, is an elegant way of characterizing

the electrical environment of a system of charges. The electric field at any
point in space around a system of charges represents the force a unit positive
test charge would experience if placed at that point. The term field in physics
generally refers to a quantity that is defined at every point in space and may
vary from point to point. The electric field is a vector field since force is a
vector quantity.
In this Self-Learning Kit, we will explore the knowledge of the value of
the electric field at a point and which is all that is needed to determine what
will happen to electric charges close to that particular point.
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OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Self‒Learning Kit, you should be able to:
K: explain the role of electron transfer in electrostatic charging by
rubbing and charging by induction;
S: calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using
Coulomb‘s law and the superposition principle; and
A: recognize the real-world applications of the study of electrostatics.
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
Describe using a diagram charging by rubbing and charging by

induction (STEM_GP12EMIIIa-1).
Explain the role of electron transfer in electrostatic charging by rubbing

(STEM_GP12EMIIIa-2).
Describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by induction

(STEM_GP12EMIIIa-3).
Calculate the net electric force on a point charge exerted by a system

of point charges (STEM_GP12EMIIIa-6).
Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge

experiences a force. (STEM_GP12EM-IIIa-7)
Calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using

Coulomb‘s law and the superposition principle. (STEM_GP12EM-IIIa-10)
Calculate the electric flux through a surface given the electric field.
(STEM-GP12EM-IIIb-12)
Use Gauss‘ Law to infer the electric field due to uniformly distributed
charges on long wires, spheres, and large plates. (STEM-GP12-IIIb-13)
Solve problems involving electric charges, dipoles, forces, fields, and

flux in contexts such as, but not limited to, systems of point charges,
classical models of the atom, electrical breakdown of air, charged
pendulums, control of electron and proton beams, electrostatic ink-jet
printers. (STEM_GP12EMIIIb-14)
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I. WHAT HAPPENED
PRE-TEST
Directions: Read the sentences carefully then select the letter of the
correct answer. Write the letter of your choice in your notebook/answer
sheet.
1. The property of material due to which it attracts or repels other objects
is ________________.
a. friction b. velocity c. current d. charge
2. Plastic rod rubbed with fur and glass rod rubbed with silk will
a. repel each other b. mix up with each other
c. attract each other d. none of above
3. A negative change ___________.

a. repels neutral charge b.attracts neutral charge
c. repels negative charge d. repel positive charge
4. The electric charge between two bodies can be produced by _______.
a. sticking b. rubbing c. oiling d. passing AC current
5. If mica and woolen cloth are rubbed together, then mica gets
a. positively charged b. negatively charged
c. remains neutral d. dual charged
6. The net accumulation of electric charges on an object.
a. current b. Static electricity c. voltage d. negatively charged
7. An area surrounding an electron that exerts a force on anything
nearby with an electric charge.
a. green field b. flux c. electric field d. lumen
8. What is a large discharge of static electricity?
a. lightning b. rain floods c. floods d. wind
9. What charges attract?
a. like b. opposite c. negative d. positive
10. What charges repel?
a. like b. opposite c. negative d. positive
11. A negatively charged particle is placed in a uniform electric field
directed from South to North. In which direction will the particle move
after it is released?
a. West b. East c. South d. North
12. What is the SI unit for the electric field?
a. Newtons c. Newtons per Coulomb
b. Coulombs d. Newtons per meter
13. For a negative source charge, the lines will point _____________.
a. inward b. outward c. sideward d. away
14. Field lines start from a ___________________.
a. Negative charge c. proton
b. positive charge d. neutron
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15. Field lines ends on a ___________________.
a. negative charge c. proton
b. positive charge d. neutron
16. ____________________ states that the net flux of an electric field in a closed
surface is directly proportional to the enclosed electric charge.
a. Coulomb's Law c. Faraday's Law
b. Gauss Law d. Ohm's Law
17. ____________________ is defined as the electric field passing through a
given area multiplied by the area of the surface in a plane perpendicular
to the field.
a. Electromagnetism c. Electric Flux
b. Electric Charge d. Electric Field
18. If the flux is going from the inside to the outside, we call that a
____________flux.
a. Positive c. Negative
b. Neutral d. Cannot Tell
19. The field inside the uniformly distributed spherically symmetric charge
distribution increases linearly with __________.
a. r b. θ c. dA d.
20. There are three charges q1, q2, and q3 having charge 6C, 5C and 3C
enclosed in a surface. Find the total flux enclosed by the surface.
a. 2.584 Nm2/C c. 1.584 Nm2/C
b. 3.584 Nm2/C d. 4.584 Nm2/C
II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION
The ancient Greeks discovered as early as 600 B.C. that after they
rubbed amber with wool, the amber could attract other objects. Today we
say that the amber has acquired a net electric charge, or has become
charged. The word ―electric‖ is derived from the Greek word elektron,
meaning amber. When you scuff your shoes across a nylon carpet, you
become electrically charged, and you can charge a comb by passing it
through dry hair. Plastic rods and fur (real or fake) are particularly good for
demonstrating electrostatics, the interactions between electric charges that
are at rest (or nearly so). After we charge both plastic rods.1a by rubbing
them with the piece of fur, we ﬁnd that the rods repel each other. When we
rub glass rods with silk, the glass rods also become charged and repel each
other (1b). But a charged plastic rod attracts a charged glass rod;
furthermore, the plastic rod and the fur attract each other, and the glass rod
and the silk attract each other (1c). These experiments and many others like
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them have shown that there are exactly two kinds of electric charge: the
kind on the plastic rod rubbed with fur and the kind on the glass rod rubbed
with silk. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) suggested calling these two kinds of
charge negative and positive, respectively, and these names are still used.
The plastic rod and the silk have negative charge; the glass rod and the fur
have positive charge.
Two positive charges or two negative charges repel each other. A

positive charge and a negative charge attract each other.
Electric Attraction and Repulsion

The attraction and repulsion of two charged objects are sometimes
summarized as “Like charges repel, and opposite charges attract.” But keep
in mind that the phrase ―like charges‖ does not mean that the two charges
are exactly identical, only that both charges have the same algebraic sign
(both positive or both negative). ―Opposite charges‖ means that both
objects have an electric charge, and those charges have different signs (one
positive and the other negative).
Figure 1. Experiments in electrostatics. (a) Negatively charged objects repel each other. (b)
Positively charged objects repel each other. (c) Positively charged objects and negatively
charged objects attract each other.
One application of forces between charged bodies is in a laser printer.

The printer‘s light-sensitive imaging drum is given a positive charge. As the
drum rotates, a laser beam shines on selected areas of the drum, leaving
those areas with a negative charge. Positively charged particles of toner
adhere only to the areas of the drum ―written‖ by the laser. When a piece of
paper is placed in contact with the drum, the toner particles stick to the
paper and form an image.
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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the operation of a laser printer
Conductors and Insulators
Figure 3. This power adapter uses metal wires and connectors to conduct electricity from the
wall socket to a laptop computer. The conducting wires allow electrons to move freely
through the cables, which are shielded by rubber and plastic. These materials act as
insulators that don‘t allow electric charge to escape outward. (credit: Evan-Amos, Wikimedia
Commons)
Some substances, such as metals and salty water, allow charges to

move through them with relative ease. Some of the electrons in metals and
similar conductors are not bound to individual atoms or sites in the material.
These free electrons can move through the material much as air moves
through loose sand. Any substance that has free electrons and allows charge
to move relatively freely through it is called a conductor. The moving
electrons may collide with fixed atoms and molecules, losing some energy,
but they can move in a conductor. Superconductors allow the movement of
charge without any loss of energy. Salty water and other similar conducting
materials contain free ions that can move through them. An ion is an atom or
molecule having a positive or negative (nonzero) total charge. In other
words, the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of
protons.
Other substances, such as glass, do not allow charges to move through

them. These are called insulators. Electrons and ions in insulators are bound in
the structure and cannot move easily—as much as times more slowly
than in conductors. Pure water and dry table salt are insulators, for example,
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whereas molten salt and salty water are conductors.
Figure 4. An electroscope is a favorite instrument in physics demonstrations and student

laboratories. It is typically made with gold foil leaves hung from a (conducting) metal stem
and is insulated from the room air in a glass-walled container. (a) A positively charged glass
rod is brought near the tip of the electroscope, attracting electrons to the top and leaving a
net positive charge on the leaves. Like charges in the light flexible gold leaves repel,
separating them. (b) When the rod is touched against the ball, electrons are attracted and
transferred, reducing the net charge on the glass rod but leaving the electroscope positively
charged. (c) The excess charges are evenly distributed in the stem and leaves of the
electroscope once the glass rod is removed.
Charging by Contact
Figure 4 above shows an electroscope being charged by touching it

with a positively charged glass rod. Because the glass rod is an insulator, it
must actually touch the electroscope to transfer charge to or from it. (Note
that the extra positive charges reside on the surface of the glass rod as a
result of rubbing it with silk before starting the experiment.) Since only
electrons move in metals, we see that they are attracted to the top of the
electroscope. There, some are transferred to the positive rod by touch,
leaving the electroscope with a net positive charge.
Electrostatic repulsion in the leaves of the charged electroscope

separates them. The electrostatic force has a horizontal component that
results in the leaves moving apart as well as a vertical component that is
balanced by the gravitational force. Similarly, the electroscope can be
negatively charged by contact with a negatively charged object.
Charging by Induction
It is not necessary to transfer excess charge directly to an object in
order to charge it. Figure 5 shows a method of induction wherein a charge is
created in a nearby object, without direct contact. Here we see two neutral
metal spheres in contact with one another but insulated from the rest of the
world. A positively charged rod is brought near one of them, attracting
negative charge to that side, leaving the other sphere positively charged.
This is an example of induced polarization of neutral objects.

Polarization is the separation of charges in an object that remains neutral. If
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the spheres are now separated (before the rod is pulled away), each sphere
will have a net charge. Note that the object closest to the charged rod
receives an opposite charge when charged by induction. Note also that no
charge is removed from the charged rod, so that this process can be
repeated without depleting the supply of excess charge.
Another method of charging by induction is shown in Figure 𝟼. The

neutral metal sphere is polarized when a charged rod is brought near it. The
sphere is then grounded, meaning that a conducting wire is run from the
sphere to the ground. Since the earth is large and most ground is a good
conductor, it can supply or accept excess charge easily. In this case,
electrons are attracted to the sphere through a wire called the ground wire,
because it supplies a conducting path to the ground. The ground connection
is broken before the charged rod is removed, leaving the sphere with an
excess charge opposite to that of the rod. Again, an opposite charge is
achieved when charging by induction and the charged rod loses none of its
excess charge.
Figure 5. Charging by induction. (a) Two uncharged or neutral metal spheres are in contact
with each other but insulated from the rest of the world. (b) A positively charged glass rod is
brought near the sphere on the left, attracting negative charge and leaving the other
sphere positively charged. (c) The spheres are separated before the rod is removed, thus
separating negative and positive charge. (d) The spheres retain net charges after the
inducing rod is removed—without ever having been touched by a charged object.
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Figure 6. Charging by induction, using a ground connection. (a) A positively charged rod is
brought near a neutral metal sphere, polarizing it. (b) The sphere is grounded, allowing
electrons to be attracted from the earth‘s ample supply. (c) The ground connection is
broken. (d) The positive rod is removed, leaving the sphere with an induced negative
charge.
Figure 7. Both positive and negative objects attract a neutral object by polarizing its
molecules. (a) A positive object brought near a neutral insulator polarizes its molecules. There
is a slight shift in the distribution of the electrons orbiting the molecule, with unlike charges
being brought nearer and like charges moved away. Since the electrostatic force decreases
with distance, there is a net attraction. (b) A negative object produces the opposite
polarization, but again attracts the neutral object. (c) The same effect occurs for a
conductor; since the unlike charges are closer, there is a net attraction.
Neutral objects can be attracted to any charged object. The pieces of

straw attracted to polished amber are neutral, for example. If you run a
plastic comb through your hair, the charged comb can pick up neutral
pieces of paper. Figure 7 shows how the polarization of atoms and molecules
in neutral objects results in their attraction to a charged object.
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When a charged rod is brought near a neutral substance, an insulator
in this case, the distribution of charge in atoms and molecules is shifted
slightly. Opposite charge is attracted nearer the external charged rod, while
like charge is repelled. Since the electrostatic force decreases with distance,
the repulsion of like charges is weaker than the attraction of unlike charges,
and so there is a net attraction. Thus a positively charged glass rod attracts
neutral pieces of paper, as will a negatively charged rubber rod. Some
molecules, like water, are polar molecules. Polar molecules have a natural or
inherent separation of charge, although they are neutral overall. Polar
molecules are particularly affected by other charged objects and show
greater polarization effects than molecules with naturally uniform charge
distributions.
Coulomb’s Law
Through the work of scientists in the late 18th century, the main features
of the electrostatic force—the existence of two types of charge, the
observation that like charges repel, unlike charges attract, and the decrease
of force with distance—were eventually refined, and expressed as a
mathematical formula. The mathematical formula for the electrostatic force
is called Coulomb‘s law after the French physicist Charles Coulomb (1736–
1806), who performed experiments and first proposed a formula to calculate
it.
Coulomb’s Law
|𝑞 𝑞 |
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟
Coulomb‘s Law calculates the magnitude of the force 𝐹 between two
point charges, 𝑞 and 𝑞 , separated by a distance 𝑟. In SI units, the
constant 𝑘 is equal to
𝑁∙𝑚 𝑁∙𝑚
𝑘 = 8.988 𝑥 9 ≈ 8.99 𝑥 9
𝐶 𝐶
The electrostatic force is a vector quantity and is expressed in units of

newtons. The force is understood to be along the line joining the two
charges. (See Figure 8)
Figure 8. The magnitude of the electrostatic force between point charges and
separated by a distance is given by Coulomb‘s law. Note that Newton‘s third law (every
force exerted creates an equal and opposite force) applies as usual—the force on is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force it exerts on . (a) Like charges. (b)
Unlike charges.
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Electric Field
Electric force is described as a non-contact force. A charged balloon
can have an attractive effect upon an oppositely charged balloon even
when they are not in contact. The electric force acts over the distance
separating the two objects. Electric force is an action-at-a-distance force.
Action-at-a-distance forces are sometimes referred to as field forces.
The concept of a field force is utilized by scientists to explain this rather
unusual force phenomenon that occurs in the absence of physical contact.
The space surrounding a charged object is affected by the presence of the
charge; an electric field is established in that space. A charged object
creates an electric field - an alteration of the space or field in the region that
surrounds it. Other charges in that field would feel the unusual alteration of
the space. Whether a charged object enters that space or not, the electric
field exists. Space is altered by the presence of a charged object; other
objects in that space experience the strange and mysterious qualities of the
space. As another charged object enters the space and moves deeper and
deeper into the field, the effect of the field becomes more and more
noticeable.
Electric field is a vector quantity whose direction is defined as the
direction that a positive test charge would be pushed when placed in the
field. Thus, the electric field direction about a positive source charge is always
directed away from the positive source. And the electric field direction about
a negative source charge is always directed toward the negative source.
Direction of an Electric Field
Adapted from https://www/physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-4/Electric-Field-Intensity
Figure 9. The electric field direction is always directed away from positive source charges
and towards negative source charges
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Electric Field, Work, and Potential Energy
Electric fields are similar to gravitational fields - both involve action-at-
a-distance forces. In the case of gravitational fields, the source of the field is
a massive object and the action-at-a-distance forces are exerted upon other
masses. In addition, the force of gravity is an internal or conservative force.
When gravity does work upon an object to move it from a high location to a
lower location, the object's total amount of mechanical energy is conserved.
However, during the course of the falling motion, there was a loss of potential
energy (and a gain of kinetic energy). When gravity does work upon an
object to move it in the direction of the gravitational field, then the object
loses potential energy. The potential energy originally stored within the object
as a result of its vertical position is lost as the object moves under the
influence of the gravitational field. On the other hand, energy would be
required to move a massive object against its gravitational field. A stationary
object would not naturally move against the field and gain potential energy.
Energy in the form of work would have to be imparted to the object by an
external force in order for it to gain this height and the corresponding
potential energy.
Adapted from https://www/physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-4/Electric-Field-Intensity
The important point to be made by this gravitational analogy is that

work must be done by an external force to move an object against nature -
from low potential energy to high potential energy. On the other hand,
objects naturally move from high potential energy to low potential energy
under the influence of the field force. It is simply natural for objects to move
from high energy to low energy; but work is required to move an object from
low energy to high energy.
In a similar manner, to move a charge in an electric field against its
natural direction of motion would require work. The exertion of work by an
external force would in turn add potential energy to the object. The natural
direction of motion of an object is from high energy to low energy; but work
must be done to move the object against nature. On the other hand, work
would not be required to move an object from a high potential energy
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location to a low potential energy location. When this principle is logically
extended to the movement of charge within an electric field, the relationship
between work, energy and the direction that a charge moves becomes
more obvious.
The Force per Charge Ratio

Electric field strength is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and
direction. The magnitude of the electric field strength is defined in terms of
how it is measured. Let's suppose that an electric charge can be denoted by
the symbol Q. This electric charge creates an electric field; since Q is the
source of the electric field, we will refer to it as the source charge. The
strength of the source charge's electric field could be measured by any other
charge placed somewhere in its surroundings. The charge that is used to
measure the electric field strength is referred to as a test charge since it is
used to test the field strength. The test charge has a quantity of charge
denoted by the symbol q. When placed within the electric field, the test
charge will experience an electric force - either attractive or repulsive. As is
usually the case, this force will be denoted by the symbol F. The magnitude of
the electric field is simply defined as the force per charge on the test charge.
If the electric field strength is denoted by the symbol E, then the

equation can be rewritten in symbolic form as
. The standard metric units on electric field strength arise from its
definition. Since electric field is defined as a force per charge, its units would
be force units divided by charge units. In this case, the standard metric units
are Newton/Coulomb or N/C.
Another Electric Field Strength Formula

The above discussion pertained to defining electric field strength in
terms of how it is measured. Now we will investigate a new equation that
defines electric field strength in terms of the variables that affect the electric
field strength. To do so, we will have to revisit the Coulomb's law equation.
Coulomb's law states that the electric force between two charges is directly
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centers. When applied to our two
charges - the source charge (Q) and the test charge (q) - the formula for
electric force can be written as
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∙ ∙
=
where k = 8.99 x 109 N∙m2/ C2 (constant value)

r = separation distance between charges (meters)
If the expression for electric force as given by Coulomb's law is

substituted for force in the above E = F/q equation, a new equation can be
derived as shown below.
𝑭 𝒌 ∙ 𝒒 ∙ 𝑸/𝒓𝟐 𝒌∙𝑸
𝑬= = =
𝒒 𝒒 𝒓𝟐
𝒌∙𝑸
𝑬=
𝒓𝟐
Note that the derivation above shows that the test charge q was
canceled from both numerator and denominator of the equation. The new
formula for electric field strength expresses the field strength in terms of the
two variables that affect it. The electric field strength is dependent upon the
quantity of charge on the source charge (Q) and the distance of separation
(r) from the source charge.
In addition, the above equation shows that E is the electric field, Q is
the source charge, and r is the distance from the source charge where the
electric field is being measured. The unit used to measure electric field is
Newton per Coulomb (N/C). The source charge is the charge from where the
electric field comes from. In simpler terms, you determine how the test
charge will behave as the result of the electric field coming from the source
charge.
In this equation, is the electrostatic force experienced by the

electric charge. An electric field is also a vector quantity. It has the same
direction as the electrostatic force exerted on an electric charge.
Note that the derivation above shows that the test charge q was
canceled from both numerator and denominator of the equation. The new
formula for electric field strength expresses the field strength in terms of the
two variables that affect it. The electric field strength is dependent upon the
quantity of charge on the source charge (Q) and the distance of separation
(r) from the source charge.
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Sample Problem 1:
 Calculate the electric field that a test charge will experience on the
following distances from the source charge of +5.02 x 10-13 C.
a. Distance from source charge: 2.04 x 10-3 m
Solution: E =
𝑁∙𝑚
(8.99𝑥 ) . 𝑋 𝐶
𝐶
E= ≈ 1084.43 N/C
. 4𝑥 𝑚
The source charge will experience an electric field of

approximately 1084.43 N/C.
b. Distance from source charge: 1.55 x 10-12 m
Solution: E=
∙
(9 ) .
E= ≈ 1.88 x 1021 N/C
.
The source charge will experience an electric field of

approximately 1.88 x 1021 N/C.
Sample Problem 2:
Compute the electric field experienced by a test charge q = +0.80 μC
from a source charge q = +15 μC in a vacuum when the test charge is
placed 0.20 m away from the other charge.
Solution:
The magnitude of the electrostatic force between the two charges is
determined as follows:
9𝑁 ∙𝑚 −6 𝐶 −6 𝐶
(8.99𝑥 ) .8𝑋 5𝑋
𝐶
𝐹𝐸 = ≈ .7 𝑁
. 𝑚
The magnitude of the electric field is computed using
𝐹𝐸 .7 𝑁 6
𝐸= ≈ ≈ 3.4 𝑥 𝑁/𝐶
𝑞 .8 𝑥 −6 𝐶
The test charge experiences an electric field of approximately 3.4 x 10 6
N/C.
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Electric Flux
In order to understand Gauss‘s Law, first we need to understand the

term Electric flux.
Electric flux is the rate of flow of the electric field through a given
surface.
It is the amount of electric field penetrating a surface. And that surface

can be open or closed.
Electric Flux Through Open Surfaces
First, we‘ll take a look at an example for electric flux through an open
surface.
Retrieved from https://howtomechatronics.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/1.Electric-Flux-and-

Gausss-Law-Electric-Flux-through-an-Open-Surface.png
Figure 10. Electric Flux through open surfaces
The red lines represent a uniform electric field. We will bring in that field
a rectangle, which is an open area, and we will divide it into very small
elements, each with size dA (differential of area).
Now we‘re going to make the area dA a vector, with a magnitude dA.
The vector direction is always perpendicular to the small element dA.
= ⃗ ∙
=
The electric flux that passes through this small area dφ, (also called a
differential of flux), is defined as a dot product of the magnitude of the
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electric field E and the magnitude of the vector area dA, times the angle
between these two vectors θ.
It is a scalar quantity and the end result can be positive or negative. If
the flux is going from the inside to the outside, we call that a positive flux, if it is
going from the outside to the inside, that‘s a negative flux.
[ ]=[ ]
*The unit of electric flux is Newton meters squared per Coulomb (Nm2/C)
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Rectangles-with-Different-Orientation-into-an-Electric-Field.png
Figure 11. Rectangle with Different Orientation into an Electric Field
To get a better understanding of what electric flux is, let us examine this
electric field three rectangles. In fact, these rectangles represent one
rectangle with different orientations. Now let‘s explain the flux through each
one of those open areas.
In the first case, the area is perpendicular to the electric field, and the
angle between their vectors θ is 0°. Cos0° is 1, so the electric flux is going to
be EdA. Here we have maximum flux.
= 𝟼
In the second case, the angle between E and dA θ is 60°, and cos60° is
0.5, so the electric flux will be half EdA.
= 9
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In the third case, the area is parallel to the electric field, which means
that their vectors are perpendicular to each other, and the angle θ between
them is 90°. Cos 90° is 0, so the electric flux here will be 0. This means that
nothing goes through that rectangle, so here we have zero flux.
Electric Flux Through Closed Surfaces
Now, let‘s take a look at a surface that is completely closed.
Retrieved from https://howtomechatronics.com/wp-

content/uploads/2018/09/9.Electric-Flux-and-Gausss-Law-Electric-Flux-through-
Closed-Surfaces.png
Figure 12. Electric Flux and Gauss Law Electric Flux through Closed
Surfaces
How do we define flux?
Here, we put some normal, dAs in different directions. By convention,

the normal to the closed surface always points from the inside to the outside.
The total flux can be positive, negative, or equal to zero. If the same
amount of flux is entering and leaving the surface, we have zero total flux. If
more flux is leaving than entering the surface, then we have positive total
flux. Opposite, if more flux is entering than leaving the surface, we have
a negative total flux.
Let‘s take a look at another example and see how the electric flux is
related to Gauss‘s Law.
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Retrieved from https://howtomechatronics.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/11.Electric-Flux-and-
Gausss-Law-Point-Charge-in-the-Center-of-a-Sphere-251x300.png
Figure 13. Electric Flux and Gauss Law Point Charge in the Center of a Sphere
We have a point charge +Q in the center of a sphere with radius R.

Now, we‘ll take a small segment dA, which vector is perpendicular to the
surface and is radially outward. The electric field generated by Q at that
point is also radially outward. This means that dA and E anywhere on the
surface of this sphere are parallel to each other, the angle between them θ is
0°, and cos0° is 1.
The magnitude of the electric field everywhere is the same because

the distance from the charge is the same at each point.
The total area of the sphere A is 4πR2.
= =
4
From the previous discussion we know that E is equal to k times Q

divided by r2, which is equal to Q divided by 4πE0R2.
= 4 =
4
And the total flux through this closed surface is simply E times 4πR2. Here
we can cancel out 4πR2, and we can notice that the total flux is equal to Q
divided by E0, where E0 is permittivity of free space.
The flux doesn‘t depend on the distance r. We would get the same
result no matter the size of the closed surface around the point charge.
What if we bring more charges inside the closed surface?
20
The equation should also hold for any system of charges inside.
∑
=
This leads us to the Gauss’s Law, which says that the electric flux going
through a closed surface, is the sum of all charges Q inside that closed
surface, divided by permittivity of free space E0.
If that flux is zero, that means there is no net charge inside the shape.
There could be positive and negative charges inside the shape, but the net is
zero.
No matter how weird the shape, Gauss‘s Law always holds, as long as
there‘s symmetry in the charge distribution inside the surface.
Using Gauss' Law to Calculate Electric Fields
Even though charge is quantized, we often can treat it as being

continuously distributed inside some volume, since one quantum of charge is
a tiny amount of charge. On a macroscopic scale we define:
volume charge density as the charge per unit volume
ρ = limΔV -> 0 ΔQ/ΔV
surface charge density as the charge per unit area
ς = limΔA -> 0 ΔQ/ΔA
line charge density as the charge per unit length
λ = limΔL -> 0 ΔQ/ΔL
Electric Field for a Uniform Sphere of Charge
Imagine a sphere of radius R with charge Q uniformly distributed

inside. The symmetry of the charge distribution requires a spherically
symmetric electric field. The field must either point radially inward toward the
center or outward from the center of the sphere. (If we have a spherically
symmetric charge distribution, then, no matter how we orient our coordinate
system, the distribution always looks the same. The field therefore also must
look the same, no matter how we orient our coordinate system. A field that is
21
not radial will look different if we rotate our coordinate system, i.e. if we look
at it from another angle.)
For a spherical symmetric charge distribution, the magnitude of E can

therefore only depend on the radial coordinate r and on the charge Q. To
determine E as a function of r, we use Gauss' law. We draw a
spherical Gaussian surface of radius r centered at the center of the spherical
charge distribution. The radius r of the surface can be larger or smaller than
the radius R of the distribution.
Let r be greater than R, so that the surface encloses the entire charge
distribution. The electric field is radial, the vector E is normal to any surface
element dA.
Thus
ΦE = E 4πr2 = Qinside/ε0 = Q/ε0
from Gauss' law. We therefore have
E = Q/ 4πε0r2)n.
Figure 14
The field outside a uniformly distributed spherically symmetric charge

distribution looks like the field of a point charge. If Q is positive, the field
points outward, and if Q is negative, it points inward. Qinside can be written as
the charge density ρ = Q/V times the volume of the charged sphere V =
4πR3/3. We can therefore also write
E = ρR3/ 3ε0r2)n.
Let r be smaller than R, so that the surface only encloses a part of the
charge distribution. Now Qinside is the charge density ρ= Q/V times the
volume 4πr3/3 of the distribution which lies inside the spherical Gaussian
surface. We therefore have
E = ρr/ 3ε0)n.
The field inside the uniformly distributed spherically symmetric charge

distribution increases linearly with r. Its direction is outward for a positive
distribution, and inward for a negative distribution.
22
Electric Field Near an Infinite Plane of Charge
For an infinite plane of charge lying in the x-y plane, with its normal
parallel to the z-axis, the field cannot depend on x or y. (If we shift the origin
of our coordinate system along the x- or y-axis, or rotate our coordinate
system about the z-axis, the charge distribution looks the same. The field must
therefore also look the same.) The field must therefore be parallel to the z-
axis. The field must also be symmetric under reflection about the x-y plane.
This means that the field must have the same magnitude at +z as it has at -z,
but that it must point in opposite directions at +z and at -z.
For our Gaussian surface we can choose

a simple right circular cylinder with faces
parallel to the plane of charge. The field lines
are parallel to the sides of the cylinder, so the
sides do not contribute to the flux. The flux
through the top surface is EA and the flux
through the bottom surface is EA. (On the top,
both E and n point upward, and on the bottom
both E and n point downward.) Gauss' law
yields,
ΦE net = 2EA = Qinside/ε0.

Figure 15
If the surface charge density is σ, the Qinside = σA, and ΦE nett = 2EA =
σA/ε0, and E = σ/2ε0.
The field of an infinite planar charge distribution is uniform. It does not

decrease with distance. Of course, there are no infinite sheets of
charge. But our result is a good approximation to the field near a finite-size
plane of charge, as long as the dimensions of the plane are much larger than
the distance away from the plane where we want to know the field.
The most important application of the

above result is the superposition of the fields
from two planar charge distributions which are
separated by some distance d. Place a
uniformly charged plane with charge density σ
at x = +d/2 and a similar plane with charge
density -σ at x = -d/2. Figure 16
23
The field due to the upper plane of charge is
E1 = σ/2ε0, x > d/2, E1 = -σ/2ε0, x < d/2.
The field due to the lower plane of charge is

E2 = σ/2ε0, x < -d/2, E2 = -σ/2ε0, x > -d/2.
The total field in the region x < -d/2 is E = E1 + E2 = -σ/2ε0 + σ/2ε0 = 0.

Similarly, the total field in the region x > d/2 is zero.
In the region between -d/2 and +d/2 the total field is
E = E1 + E2 = -σ/2ε0 - σ/2ε0 = -σ/ε0.
The fields add to yield a uniform field between the planes, but they
precisely cancel outside the planes to give zero net field outside. Between
the planes the field points from the positive towards the negative plane. This
is the common configuration of a parallel plate capacitor.
Example 3:
A sphere of radius R = 40cm has a total positive charge of 26 micro C
uniformly distributed over its surface.
Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at:

(a) 0 cm,
(b) 30 cm, and
(c) 60 cm from the center of the sphere.
The symmetry of the charge distribution requires a spherically

symmetric electric field. The field will point radially away from the center of
the positive charge distribution and its magnitude will only depend on the
distance r from the center. If we draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r
centered at the center of the spherical charge distribution, then Gauss' law
gives the flux of the electric field through this surface as
ΦE = E 4πr2 = Qinside/ε0.
The charge inside a sphere of radius r is Qinside = ρV(r) = ρ4πr3/3, where

the charge density ρ = Q/(4πR3/3).
(a) From Gauss' law we have
E(r) = Q/(4πε0r2) for r > R,

and E(r) = ρr/(3ε0) for r < R.
At r = 0 we have E(r) = 0.
(b) We have ρ(r) = 0 inside the sphere,

therefore E(r) = 0 inside the sphere.
24
(c) At r = 0.6 m
we have E(r) = Q/(4πε0r2)
= (9*109*2.6*10-5/(0.6)2)(N/C)
= 6.5*105 N/C.
Example 4:
A uniform electric field E = 8000 N/C passing through a flat square area
A = 10 m 2. Determine the electric flux.
Given:
The magnitude of the electric field (E) = 8000 N/C
Area (A) = 10 m2
q = 0° (the angle between the electric field direction and a line drawn a
perpendicular to the area)
Unknown: Electric flux (Φ)
Solution:
The formula of electric flux:
Φ = E A cos q
where:
Φ = electric flux (Nm 2/C), E = electric field (N/C), A = area (m2), q = angle
between electric field line with the normal line.
Electric flux:
Φ = E A cos q
= (8000 N/C)(10m 2)(cos 0)
= (8000 N/C)(10m 2)(1)
= 80,000
= 8 x 104 Nm2/C
Example 5:
A uniform electric field E = 5000 N/C passing through a flat square area
A = 2 m 2. Determine the electric flux.
Given:
Electric field (E) = 5000 N/C
Area (A) = 2 m2
θ = 60° (the angle between the electric field direction and a line drawn
perpendicular to the area)
Unknown: Electric flux (Φ)
25
Solution:
Φ = E A cos q
= (5000N/C)(2m 2)(cos 60)
= (5000 N/C)(2 m2)(0.5)
= 5000 Nm2/C
= 5 x 103 Nm2/C
Performance Task:
TRY THIS OUT!

Directions: Perform the activity below. After which, answer the guide
questions that follow. Write your answers on your notebook/Answer Sheet.
Task 1: Rub a comb through your hair and use it to lift pieces of paper.
Tear the pieces of paper rather than cut them neatly. Repeat the exercise in
your bathroom after you have had a long shower and the air in the
bathroom is moist.
1. Is it easier to get electrostatic effects in dry or moist air?
2. Why would torn paper be more attractive to the comb than cut
paper? Explain your observations.
Task 2: Write one situation showing the following conditions (10 points).
a. Charging by rubbing
b. Charging by induction
III. WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

EVALUATION/POST-TEST:
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE: Read each question carefully. Write your answers on
your notebook/Answer Sheet. Show your solutions for items that require
such.
1. Find the flux through a spherical Gaussian surface of radius a = 1 m
surrounding a charge of 8.85 pC.
a. 1 x 10-16N m 2 /C c. 1 x 10-8 N m2 /C
b. 1 x 10 N m /C
-12 2 d. 1 N m 2 /C
2. A positive charge Q=8 mC is placed inside the cavity of a neutral
spherical conducting shell with an inner radius a and an outer radius b.
Find the charges induced at the inner and outer surfaces of the shell.
a. Inner charge = –8 mC, Outer charge = +8 mC
b. Inner charge = +8 mC, Outer charge = -8 mC
c. Inner charge = 0 mC, Outer charge = +8 mC
d. Inner charge = –8 mC, Outer charge = 0 mC
26
3. A positive charge Q=8 mC is placed inside a spherical conducting shell
with inner radius a and outer radius b which has an extra charge of 4 mC
placed somewhere on it. When all motion of charges ends (after 10-15
sec), find the charges on the inner and outer surfaces of the shell.
a. Inner charge = –8 mC, Outer charge = +8 mC
b. Inner charge = +8 mC, Outer charge = -8 mC
c. Inner charge = +8 mC, Outer charge = -12 mC
d. Inner charge = –8 mC, Outer charge = 12 mC
4. Find the value of the electric field at a distance r=10 cm from the center
of a non-conducting sphere of radius R=1 cm which has an extra positive
charge equal to 7 C uniformly distributed within the volume of the sphere.
a. 6.3 x 1012 N/C c. 7.5 x 10-6 N/C
b. 1.2 x 100 N/C d. 9.1 x 10-3 N/C
5. A positive charge is placed inside a spherical metallic shell with inner
radius a and outer radius b. The charge is placed at shifted position
relative to the center of the shell. Describe the charge distribution
induced at the shell surfaces.
a. A negative charge with uniform surface density will be induced on the
inner surface; a positive charge will be induced on the outer surface.
b. A negative charge with non-uniform surface density will be induced
on the inner surface; a positive charge will be induced on the outer
surface.
c. A positive charge with uniform surface density will be induced on the
inner surface, a negative charge will be induced on the outer surface.
d. A positive charge with non-uniform surface density will be induced on
the inner surface; a negative charge will be induced at the outer
surface.
II. TRUE OR FALSE: Write T if the statement is correct and F if incorrect.

Write your answers on your notebook/Answer Sheet.
________1. If a charged object touches a conductor, some charge will be
transferred between the object and the conductor, charging the
conductor with the same sign as the charge on the object.
_______ 2. Charging by induction is also useful for charging metals and other
conductors.
_______ 3. The ancient Greeks discovered as early as 600 B.C. that after they
rubbed amber with wool, the fur could attract other objects.
_______ 4. Two positive charges or two negative charges attract each other.
_______ 5. Like charges attract while unlike charges repel.
_______ 6. Electrostatic painting employs electrostatic charge to spray paint
onto odd-shaped surfaces.
_______ 7. Electric field is a vector quantity whose direction is defined as the
direction that a positive test charge would be pushed when placed
in the field.
27
_______ 8. A charged object creates an electric field - an alteration of the
space or field in the region that surrounds it.
_______ 9. Neutral objects can be attracted to any charged object.
_______10. Any substance that has free electrons and allows charge to move
relatively freely through it is called a conductor.
III. PROBLEM SOLVING: Read and answer the given problems below.
Show your solutions and write them in your notebook/Answer Sheet.
1. Find (a) magnitude of the electric field 0.5 m from a 2.5 -µC point
charge and (b) the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force
acting on an electron placed at that point.
a. Given:
b. Formula:
c. Solution
d. Final Answer with unit:
2. Find the electric field midway between a 2 -µC point charge which are
2.5 m apart.
a. Given:
b. Formula:
c. Solution
d. Final Answer with unit:
28
REFERENCES
Bulos, E, et.al. Worktext in Electromagnetism. Lectric Field.p.9-10.
CHED K to 12 Senior High School Teaching Guides. Retrieved from

https://chedk12.wordpress.com/teachingguides
David, Oliver M. General Physics 2. Makati City, Philippines: DIWA

Learning Systems Inc., 2017.
Dejan. Retrieved from

https://howtomechatronics.com/learn/electricity/electric-flux-gausss-
law/
Electric Field: Concept of a Field Revisited. Retrieved from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/18-4-electric-field-
concept-of-a-field-revisited
Electric flux – Problems and Solutions. Retrieved from

https://physics.gurumuda.net/electric-flux-problems-and-solutions.htm
file:///E:/BOOKS/Sears%20&%20Zemansky%20University%20Physics%20with%20
Modern%20Physics%2013e.
Gauss' law. Retrieved from

http://labman.phys.utk.edu/phys222core/modules/m1/Gauss'%20law.h
tml
K to12 Most Essential Learning Competencies with corresponding CG

Codes. Retrieved from
https://commons.deped.gov.ph/K-to-12-MELCS-with-CG-Codes.pdf
Lumen: Boundless Physics. Retrieved from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/electric-flux-
and-gausss-
law/#:~:text=In%20words%2C%20Gauss's%20law%20states,enclosed%20within
%20that%20closed%20surface
Physics Tutorial: Electric Field Intensity. Retrieved from

https://www/physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-4/Electric-
Field-Intensity
Urone, Paul Peter and Hinrichs, Roger. College Physics. 6100 Main Street MS‒
375 Houston, Texas 77005: College Physics., 2012.
29
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/Charge.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/18-8-applications-of-
electrostatics/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electrostatic-
charge#:~:text=1%20Electrostatic%20charges,through%20a%20copier%
20or%20printer
https://mcqlearn.com/physics/g10/electric-charge-mcqs.php
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/Lesson-1/Electric-
Field-and-the-Movement-of-Charge
https://web.njit.edu/~janow/Physics%20121%20Spring%2
02020/Review%20Material/Common%20Exam%201/Common%201%20P
roblem%20Solutions%20and%20Notes.pdf
https://chedk12.wordpress.com/teachingguides
https://web.njit.edu/~janow/Physics%20121%20Spring%202020/Review%20Mat
erial/Common%20Exam%201/Common%202%20Problem%20Solutions%20and
%20Notes.pdf
30
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF NEGROS ORIENTAL
SENEN PRISCILLO P. PAULIN, CESO V

Schools Division Superintendent
JOELYZA M. ARCILLA EdD

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
MARCELO K. PALISPIS EdD JD

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
NILITA L. RAGAY EdD

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent/CID Chief
ROSELA R. ABIERA
Education Program Supervisor – (LRMDS)
ARNOLD R. JUNGCO
PSDS-Division Science Coordinator
MARICEL S. RASID
Librarian II (LRMDS)
ELMAR L. CABRERA
PDO II (LRMDS)
JANICE M. SANDIGAN
JOSE MARI B. ACABAL
Writers
STEPHEN C. BALDADO
RABBI E. BALBON
Lay-out Artist/Illustrator
_________________________________________
ALPHA QA TEAM
MA. MICHELROSE G. BALDADO
ROWENA R. DINOKOT
GENEVA FAYE L. MENDOZA
BETA QA TEAM
ZENAIDA A. ACADEMIA
ALLAN Z. ALBERTO
EUFRATES G. ANSOK JR.
ROWENA R. DINOKOT
LESTER C. PABALINAS
DISCLAIMER
The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide
accessible learning modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The
contents of this module are carefully researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set
learning competencies. The writers and evaluator were clearly instructed to give credits to
information and illustrations used to substantiate this material. All content is subject to copyright and
may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written consent from the division.
31
SYNOPSIS AND ABOUT THE AUTHORS
ANSWER KEY
Knowledge on electric and electrostatic charges is
very significant because it shows how electron transfer
played the role in electric charging. This is incredibly
valuable for scientists, engineers, inventors and most
especially for teachers and learners.
An electric field is a region of space around an
electrically charged particle or object in which an electric
charge would feel force.
An electric field is a vector quantity and can be
visualized as arrows going toward or away from charges.
The lines are defined as pointing radially outward, away
from a positive charge, or radially inward, toward a
negative charge.
Coulomb‘s law: For charges 𝑞 and 𝑞 separated
by a distance 𝑟, the magnitude of the electric force on
either charge is proportional to the product 𝑞 𝑞 and
inversely proportional to 𝑟 . The force on each charge is
along the line joining the two charges—repulsive if 𝑞 and
𝑞 have the same sign, attractive if they have opposite
signs. In SI units the unit of electric charge is the coulomb,
abbreviated C.
When two or more charges each exert a force on
a charge, the total force on that charge is the vector sum
of the forces exerted by the individual charges.
Gauss‘s law is one of the four Maxwell‘s equations
which form the basis of classical electrodynamics. Gauss‘s
law can be used to derive Coulomb‗s law, and vice versa.
Gauss‘s law states that: The net outward normal electric
flux through any closed surface is proportional to the total
electric charge enclosed within that closed surface.
JANICE MANAYTAY SANDIGAN is a Junior High

School teacher of Don Emilio Macias Memorial National
High School. Graduated at Negros Oriental State
University – Main Campus, Dumaguete City with a
degree of Bachelor of Secondary Education, major in
General Science and finished Complete Academic
Requirement (CAR) for MAEd-Physics at University of
Negros Occidental-Recoletos, Bacolod City.
JOSE MARI B. ACABAL finished his Bachelor‘s

Degree in Secondary Education at NORSU-Bais major in
Biological Sciences in 2015. He also finished his Masters
Degree in Education major in General Science at
Foundation University in October 2019. Currently, he is a
Teacher 3 at Panciao High School of Manjuyod District 1
in the Division of Negros Oriental.
32

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ELECTRIC CHARGE AND

Electrical phenomena result from a fundamental property of matter:

An electric field on the other hand, is an elegant way of characterizing

Describe using a diagram charging by rubbing and charging by

Explain the role of electron transfer in electrostatic charging by rubbing

Describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by induction

Calculate the net electric force on a point charge exerted by a system

Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge

Calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using

Solve problems involving electric charges, dipoles, forces, fields, and

3. A negative change ___________.

II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

Two positive charges or two negative charges repel each other. A

Electric Attraction and Repulsion

One application of forces between charged bodies is in a laser printer.

Conductors and Insulators

Some substances, such as metals and salty water, allow charges to

Other substances, such as glass, do not allow charges to move through

Figure 4. An electroscope is a favorite instrument in physics demonstrations and student

Figure 4 above shows an electroscope being charged by touching it

Electrostatic repulsion in the leaves of the charged electroscope

This is an example of induced polarization of neutral objects.

Another method of charging by induction is shown in Figure 𝟼. The

Neutral objects can be attracted to any charged object. The pieces of

The electrostatic force is a vector quantity and is expressed in units of

Direction of an Electric Field

Adapted from https://www/physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-4/Electric-Field-Intensity

Adapted from https://www/physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-4/Electric-Field-Intensity

The important point to be made by this gravitational analogy is that

The Force per Charge Ratio

If the electric field strength is denoted by the symbol E, then the

Another Electric Field Strength Formula

where k = 8.99 x 109 N∙m2/ C2 (constant value)

If the expression for electric force as given by Coulomb's law is

In this equation, is the electrostatic force experienced by the

The source charge will experience an electric field of

b. Distance from source charge: 1.55 x 10-12 m

The source charge will experience an electric field of

In order to understand Gauss‘s Law, first we need to understand the

It is the amount of electric field penetrating a surface. And that surface

Electric Flux Through Open Surfaces

Retrieved from https://howtomechatronics.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/1.Electric-Flux-and-

Figure 10. Electric Flux through open surfaces

Retrieved from https://howtomechatronics.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/5.Electric-Flux-and-Gausss-Law-3-

Figure 11. Rectangle with Different Orientation into an Electric Field

Electric Flux Through Closed Surfaces

Now, let‘s take a look at a surface that is completely closed.

Retrieved from https://howtomechatronics.com/wp-

How do we define flux?

Here, we put some normal, dAs in different directions. By convention,

We have a point charge +Q in the center of a sphere with radius R.

The magnitude of the electric field everywhere is the same because

The total area of the sphere A is 4πR2.

From the previous discussion we know that E is equal to k times Q

What if we bring more charges inside the closed surface?

Using Gauss' Law to Calculate Electric Fields

Even though charge is quantized, we often can treat it as being

volume charge density as the charge per unit volume

ρ = limΔV -> 0 ΔQ/ΔV