CELLS

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• compare the structure of the generalized plant and animal cells, and
selected microbes
• distinguish between cell wall and cell membrane; mitochondrion and
chloroplast
• relate the structure of organelles to their functions;
• differentiate between plant and animal cells;
• explain the importance of cell specialization in multicellular organisms
• explain the processes of diffusion and osmosis;
• discuss the importance of diffusion, osmosis and active transport in living
systems
 CELLS
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.

• Some organisms are unicellular, being composed of a single cell; others

are multicellular, being composed of many cells.

• Cells are so small that they can only be seen with a microscope and not
with the naked eye.
Animal and Plant cells
• All plant and animal cells contain structures called organelles which are
specialised to carry out one or more vital functions, e.g. the nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplasts and vacuoles.

• Organelles are found within the cytoplasm of the cells and most are
surrounded by one or two membranes.
 1. Plasma Membrane
Structure 2. Nucleus

Of Cell
3. Cytoplasm

A. Cytosol
B. Cell Organelles
If we study a cell under a microscope,
we would come across three features a) Endoplasmic reticulum
in almost every cell: plasma membrane, b) Golgi body
nucleus and cytoplasm. c) Lysosomes
All activities inside the cell and d) Vacuoles
interactions of the cell with its e) Mitochondria
environment are possible due
to these features.
f) Plastids
g) Centrosome
h) Cytoskeleton
Plasma Membrane • Extremely delicate, thin , elastic, living
and semi-permeable membrane
• Made up of two layers of lipid molecules
Carbohydrates in which protein molecules are floating
• Thickness varies from 75-110 A˚
• Can be observed under an electron
microscope only

Functions:
• Maintains shape & size of the cell
• Protects internal contents of the cell
• Regulates entry and exit of substances
Proteins in and out of the cell
Lipids
• Maintains homeostasis
 Cell wall • Non-living and outermost covering of a cell
(plants & bacteria)
• Can be tough, rigid and sometimes flexible
Pectin Cellulose
• Made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin
• May be thin or thick, multilayered structure
• Thickness varies from 50-1000 A˚

Functions:
• Provides definite shape, strength & rigidity
• Prevents drying up(desiccation) of cells
• Helps in controlling cell expansion
Plasma membrane Hemicellulose • Protects cell from external pathogens
 Nucleus
• Dense spherical body located near the
centre of the cell
Nucleus
• Diameter varies from 10-25 µm
• Present in all the cells except red blood
cells and sieve tube cells
• Well developed in plant and animal cells
• Undeveloped in bacteria and blue-green
algae (cyanobacteria)
• Most of the cells are uninucleated (having
only one nucleus)
• Few types of cells have more than one
nucleus (skeletal muscle cells)
 Nucleus
• Nucleus has a double layered covering called
Nuclear nuclear membrane
Nucleolus
pores
• Nuclear membrane has pores of diameter
about 80-100 nm
• Colourless dense sap present inside the
nucleus known as nucleoplasm
• Nucleoplasm contains round shaped
nucleolus and network of chromatin fibres
• Fibres are composed of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and protein histone
Chromatin • These fibres condense to form chromosomes
during cell division
Nuclear
envelope Nucleoplasm
 Nucleus
Gene DNA • Chromosomes contain stretches of DNA
called genes
• Genes transfer the hereditary information
from one generation to the next

Chromatin
Functions:
• Control all the cell activities like metabolism,
protein synthesis, growth and cell division
Histone
• Nucleolus synthesizes ribonucleic acid (RNA)
to constitute ribosomes
• Store hereditary information in genes
Chromatin fibre

Chromosome
Cytoplasm • Jelly-like material formed by 80 % of water
• Present between the plasma membrane
Organelles and the nucleus
• Contains a clear liquid portion called
cytosol and various particles
• Particles are proteins, carbohydrates,
nucleic acids, lipids and inorganic ions
• Also contains many organelles with distinct
structure and function
• Some of these organelles are visible only
under an electron microscope
• Granular and dense in animal cells and thin
in plant cells
Cytoplasm
 Endoplasmic • Network of tubular and vesicular structures
which are interconnected with one another
Reticulum • Some parts are connected to the nuclear
membrane, while others are connected to
the cell membrane
• Two types: smooth(lacks ribosomes) and
rough(studded with ribosomes)

Functions:
• Gives internal support to the cytoplasm
• RER synthesize secretory proteins and
membrane proteins
Rough ER
• SER synthesize lipids for cell membrane
Smooth ER • In liver cells SER detoxify drugs & poisons
• In muscle cells SER store calcium ions
Ribosomes
 Golgi body • Discovered by Camillo Golgi
• Formed by stacks of 5-8 membranous sacs
Incoming • Sacs are usually flattened and are called
Cis face transport the cisternae
Cisternae vesicle
• Has two ends: cis face situated near the
Lumen endoplasmic reticulum and trans face
situated near the cell membrane

Functions:
• Modifies, sorts and packs materials
synthesized in the cell
• Delivers synthesized materials to various
targets inside the cell and outside the cell
Outgoing • Produces vacuoles and secretory vesicles
Newly Trans face
forming transport • Forms plasma membrane and lysosomes
vesicle vesicle
 Nucleus
Smooth ER

Lysosomes

Golgi Body
At Work
Rough ER

Golgi body

Plasma
Vesicles
membrane
 Lysosomes • Small, spherical, single membrane sac
• Found throughout the cytoplasm
• Filled with hydrolytic enzymes
Hydrolytic enzymes Membrane • Occur in most animal cells and in few
type of plant cells

Functions:
• Help in digesting of large molecules
• Protect cell by destroying foreign
invaders like bacteria and viruses
• Degradation of worn out organelles
• In dead cells perform autolysis
Vacuoles • Single membrane sac filled with liquid
or sap (water, sugar and ions)
• In animal cells, vacuoles are temporary,
small in size and few in number
Tonoplast
• In plant cells, vacuoles are large and more
in number
• May be contractile or non-contractile

Functions:
• Store various substances including waste
products
• Maintain osmotic pressure of the cell
Vacuole • Store food particles in amoeba cells
• Provide turgidity and rigidity to plant cells
 Mitochondria • Small, rod shaped organelles bounded by two
membranes - inner and outer
• Outer membrane is smooth and encloses the
Ribosomes contents of mitochondria
Matrix • Inner membrane is folded in the form of shelf
like inward projections called cristae
Cristae
• Inner cavity is filled with matrix which contains
many enzymes
• Contain their own DNA which are responsible
for many enzymatic actions
DNA
Functions:
• Synthesize energy rich compound ATP
Outer membrane • ATP molecules provide energy for the vital
Inner membrane activities of living cells
Plastids
Plastids are double membrane-bound
organelles found inside plants and
some algae.

They are responsible for activities

related to making and storing food.

They often contain different types of

pigments that can change the colour
of the cell.
 Carrot
Pigment: Carotene

Chromoplasts

Chromoplasts are plastids that Mango

produce and store pigments Pigment: Xanthophyll

They are responsible for different

colours found in leaves, fruits,
flowers and vegetables.

Tomato
Pigment: Lycopene
 Potato tubers
Food: Starch

Leucoplasts

Leucoplasts are colourless Maize grains

plastids that store foods. Food: Protein

They are found in storage organs

such as fruits, tubers and seeds.

Castor seeds
Food: Oil
 Chloroplasts • Double membrane-bound organelles found
mainly in plant cells

Outer
• Usually spherical or discoidal in shape
Inner
membrane
membrane • Shows two distinct regions-grana and stroma
• Grana are stacks of thylakoids (membrane-
bound, flattened discs)
Thylakoid
• Thylakoids contain chlorophyll molecules
which are responsible for photosynthesis
• Stroma is a colourless dense fluid

Functions:

Stroma
• Convert light energy into chemical energy
in the form of food
Granum • Provide green colour to leaves, stems and
vegetables
 Centrosome
• Centrosome is the membrane bound organelle
Centrosome
present near the nucleus
matrix
• Consists of two structures called centrioles
• Centrioles are hollow, cylindrical structures
Microtubules
made of microtubules
• Centrioles are arranged at right angles to each
other

Functions:
Centrioles • Form spindle fibres which help in the movement
of chromosomes during cell division
• Help in the formation of cilia and flagella
 Cytoskeleton
• Formed by microtubules and microfilaments
Cell membrane
• Microtubules are hollow tubules made up of
protein called tubulin
• Microfilaments are rod shaped thin filaments
made up of protein called actin

Functions:
• Determine the shape of the cell
• Give structural strength to the cell
• Responsible for cellular movements

Microtubules
Microfilaments
 Microbe cells
• Microbes or micro-organisms are extremely small organisms that include all members of
the Prokaryotae kingdom, e.g. bacteria, many members of the Protoctista kingdom, e.g.
amoeba, and some members of the Fungi kingdom, e.g. yeast.

• The cells of prokaryotes lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

• Their DNA exists in a region called the nucleoid, which lacks a nuclear membrane, and
also in smaller regions
• called plasmids.
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. Nucleus is undeveloped 1. Nucleus is well developed

2. Only one chromosome is present 2. More than one chromosomes are present

3. Membrane bound organelles are absent 3. Membrane bound organelles are present

4. Size ranges from 0.5-5 µm 4. Size ranges from 5-100 µm

5. Examples: Bacteria and blue green algae 5. Examples: All other organisms
Animal cell Plant cell

1. Generally small in s i ze 1. Generally large in s i ze

2. Cell wall i s absent 2. Cell wall i s present

3. Plastids are absent 3. Plastids are present

4. Vacuoles are smaller in s i ze 4. Vacuoles are larger in s i ze

and less in number and more in number

5. Centrioles are present 5. Centrioles are absent

Cell Specialization and Differentiation
 Cell Specialization

• The previous section looked at generalised animal and plant cells. Eukaryotic organisms
are not usually made of generalised cells.

• Humans have developed specialised cells that have adaptations to allow them to
complete specific functions.

• Red blood cells, for example, have a biconcave shape (which dips in the middle on both
sides) and no nucleus to maximise their surface area to absorb more oxygen.

• Key specialised cells for animals and plants, together with their adaptations, are listed
below.
 SPERM CELLS
• In humans, the production of sperm by the testes produces tens of millions of sperm
cells, which must swim through the cervix and uterus to the fallopian tubes.
• Here one cell may fertilise an egg cell (ovum). Sperm cells have a tail to propel them
towards the ovum (Figure 1.10).

• They have a relatively large number of mitochondria to release the energy from glucose
during respiration. This is needed to keep them swimming. The nucleus of a human
sperm contains the genetic material (DNA) of the father. This will make up half of the
DNA of the baby.

• At the front of a sperm is an acrosome. This contains digestive enzymes, which break
down the outer layer of the ovum, allowing the sperm to enter and fertilise it.
 Muscle Cells
• There are three types of muscle in our bodies, all of which can contract and relax. Smooth
muscle contracts and relaxes automatically and is found in places such as the linings of the
vessels that make up our circulatory system and the iris of our eyes.

• Cardiac muscle also contracts and relaxes automatically and is found in our heart. The
third type is skeletal muscle, which is usually found attached to our bones. We control the
contractions of this type of muscle, so its movements are not automatic.

• All three types of muscle are made from muscle cells (Figure 1.13). These are long thin
cells full of mitochondria. In the mitochondria the energy from glucose is released during
respiration. This energy allows the muscle to keep on contracting.
 Root Hair Cells
• Root hair cells have a small thin extension, which pokes out into the soil (Figure 1.14).

• Many plants have such high numbers of long root hairs that they can look like a spider’s
web. The purpose of these hairs is to increase the surface area of the root that is in
contact with the soil.

• This allows the plant to absorb more water and minerals from the soil.

• A single rye plant has billions of root hairs, which have a total length of hundreds of miles.

• Without these it is likely that the adult plant would not be able to absorb enough water
to survive.
Figure 1.14 The parts of a root hair cell.
 Xylem Vessels
• Xylem cells form long tubes running along the stem or trunk of plants. They are
strengthened by lignin fibres.

• They carry water and some dissolved minerals from the roots upwards to other parts of
the plant.

• This water evaporates and is lost from leaves as water vapour during the continual
process of transpiration.

• It is also used in the green parts of plants for photosynthesis during the day. Xylem tubes
are made from lots of individual cells that have died.

• The ends of these cells erode away, leaving long tubes through which water is naturally
drawn upwards (Figure 1.15). They have reinforced cell walls to support the weight of the
plant.
 Phloem Cells

• Phloem cells carry the glucose (as sucrose) made in photosynthesis from the leaves of a
plant to all other parts of the plant in cell sap. This process is called translocation.

• The sugar is used immediately in respiration to release energy for the plant or is stored as
starch in cells or particularly in structures such as the roots of vegetables.

• Unlike xylem, phloem cells are living. They have fewer cell organelles than many other
types of cell, which allows the sugar to travel easily.

• Connecting adjacent phloem cells are sieve plates. These have small holes to speed up
translocation (Figure 1.16).

• Phloem cells are arranged with xylem cells to form bundles. These make up the veins you
can see in a leaf (Figure 1.17).
CELL TRANSPORT AND
DIFFUSION
 Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading of molecules from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration, as a result of random
movement.

Molecules move down a concentration gradient (Figure 1.8). Diffusion

is a natural process that results from the fact that all molecules are
constantly in motion.

It is called a passive process, because it does not require an input of

energy.

The movement is random – there is nothing pushing them and the

molecules cannot possibly ‘know’ in which direction they are heading.
 Diffusion
The molecules will move in all directions, yet the overall (net) movement is
always from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Two of the most important substances that enter and leave cells by
diffusion are oxygen, which is needed for respiration, and carbon dioxide,
which is a waste product of that process.

The speed of diffusion can be increased by increasing the temperature,

because that makes the molecules move faster, or by increasing the
concentration gradient (the difference between the high and low
concentrations).
 Diffusion Example
E.g. molecules of food coloring spreading out in the beakers

• This happens in liquids and

gases
– E.g. spraying perfume
• It is a form of passive
transport
– Does not need to use cell
energy to enter the cell
 Diffusion continued…
• When the molecules are equally or evenly spread out, this is called
EQUILIBRIUM
– EQUAL amounts = Equilibrium
• The molecules move until they reach equilibrium, and they keep
moving to maintain equilibrium
 Diffusion into a cell
• Diffusion into a cell has to cross the
cell membrane.
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable
– SELECTS (chooses) what to let in
• Water is necessary for all life and all of your cells, so how
does it enter across the cell membrane?
• OSMOSIS!
– It is the diffusion of
water across a cell
membrane
 Diffusion Across the Cell Membrane
Outside of cell
Carbohydrate
Recall the chains
structure of the Proteins
cell membrane…

Protein
channel Lipid bilayer

Inside of cell (cytoplasm)

• Selectively permeable = semipermeable

– Regulates what enters and exits the cell
• Lipid bilayer (two layers of lipids = fats)
• “Mosaic Model”
– Contains many types of proteins, pumps, channels, and receptors
 Diffusion Across the Cell Membrane
• Cell membranes are selectively-permeable - they allow
some materials to pass across, but not others
(also called semipermeable)
• If the membrane is permeable to a substance, movement of
that substance (solute) will occur as shown in the diagram
below:
 Facilitated Diffusion
Glucose
molecules
High
Concentration

Cell
Membrane

Low Protein
Concentration channel

• Facilitated Diffusion
– No energy required – PASSIVE TRANSPORT
– Uses a protein channel in the membrane
• Molecules move from high to low concentration
 Osmosis
Osmosis is a specific type of diffusion. It is the diffusion of water molecules through a
selectively permeable membrane.

Diffusion of any other substance through a selectively permeable membrane is just called
diffusion. Diffusion of water, but not through a membrane, is just diffusion. To be called
osmosis, the process has to involve both water and a membrane.
• In osmosis, water moves from a solution of low solute concentration (which
has more water) to a solution of high solute concentration (which has less
water), through a selectively permeable membrane. Notice that the
substance (water) that is diffusing is still going down a concentration
gradient.

• A concentrated solution of salt, for instance, would have a low

‘concentration’ of water, whereas a dilute solution would have a high
‘concentration’ of water.

• The movement of water happens because the membrane is permeable to

water (that is, it lets it through), but not to the solute. The process of osmosis
is shown in Figure 1.10, on the next slide.
 Osmosis cont.
• All the molecules on both sides of the membrane are moving. Occasionally, a molecule hits
a membrane ‘pore’. Water molecules will go through but solute molecules will not.

• Because there is a higher proportion of water molecules in the dilute solution, more will
travel from the dilute solution to the concentrated solution than the other way.

• Although water molecules move in both directions, there is net movement from the dilute
to the more concentrated solution.

• If the concentrations of the solutions on either side of the membrane are the same, then
overall an equal number of water molecules travel in each direction – we say that such
solutions are in equilibrium.
 Osmosis Video Lab Demonstrations

The next four slides are four osmosis video presentations that
demonstrate osmosis and the various lab procedures
 Why is osmosis important?
Osmosis is important because too much or too little water inside cells can have disastrous
effects. If an animal cell is put into a solution that is more dilute than its cytoplasm, water
will go in by osmosis and the cell will burst. If a patient in hospital needs extra fluid, they
are often put on to a ‘saline drip’.

Saline is a solution of salts at the same concentration as the blood. If just water was given,
the blood would become too dilute and osmosis would make the blood cells burst. Plant
cells are not damaged by being put into water. They swell as water enters, but their cell wall
stops them bursting.

However, they can be damaged (as can animal cells) by being put into a concentrated
solution. In this case, water leaves the cell by osmosis, and the cytoplasm collapses and
shrinks. In plant cells, the cytoplasm pulls away from the cell wall, a condition known as
plasmolysis (Figure 1.11). Plasmolysis can result in the death of the cell
The Effects of Osmosis on Cells
As a result of osmosis, cells respond differently when the
water concentration inside the cell is equal to, greater than,
or less than the water concentration in the environment.
Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic
The effect of different solutions on a single animal cell
In any cell, the cell membrane is differentially permeable.

There is always cytoplasm, a solution of protein and other substances in water, on the inside of the membrane
and usually a solution on the outside.

Water molecules, therefore, move into and out of cells by osmosis.

 The effect of different solutions on a single plant cell
Plant cells are surrounded by strong, freely permeable cell walls. Because of this, they behave
differently from animal cells when placed in different solutions.
 The importance of osmosis in living organisms

• All cells are kept hydrated by water moving into them by osmosis.

• Plant cells are kept turgid by water moving into them by osmosis. This causes non-woody
stems to stand upright and keeps leaves firm.

• Water is kept moving through plants by osmosis occurring in the cells of roots and leaves.

• This ensures that leaves get water for photosynthesis.

• The size of stomatal pores is regulated by osmosis occurring in the guard cells. This controls
the loss of water from the leaves of plants.

• Water is reabsorbed into the blood from the filtrate in the kidney tubules by osmosis. This
prevents the body from losing too much water.
 Active transport

• Diffusion, and the special form of it called osmosis, both transport

substances down a concentration gradient. That is the ‘natural’ way for
molecules to move.

• Sometimes, though, cells need to get molecules into or out of the cytoplasm
against a concentration gradient. In other words, they have to be moved
from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration.

• This will not happen by diffusion, and in order to move the molecules, the
cell has to use energy to ‘pump’ the molecules in the direction they need to
go. As this type of transport requires an input of energy, it is called active
transport.
 The importance of active transport in living organisms

• Mineral ions move from the soil into plant roots by active transport.

• Sugars produced in photosynthesis move into the phloem in leaves by active transport.

• Some of the glucose and amino acids produced in digestion are absorbed from the
ileum into the blood by active transport.

• Useful substances are reabsorbed from the filtrate in the kidney tubules into the blood
by active transport.
 Active Transport
Molecule to
be carried

• Requires energy
• Moves materials from
area of LOW to HIGH
concentration (against a Energy

concentration difference)
Molecule
being carried
Active Transport
Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated Diffusion, or Active
Transport?

9
Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated Diffusion, or Active
Transport?

10
Comparing active transport, diffusion and osmosis Figure 1.12 shows the similarities and
differences between the three cell transport processes.
NUTRITION
 Specific Objectives

2.1 Distinguish among heterotrophic, autotrophic and saprophytic nutrition;

2.2 Describe the process of photosynthesis in green plants;

2.3 Relate the structure of the leaf of a flowering plant to its function in photosynthesis;

2.4 explain how environmental factors affect the rate of photosynthesis;

2.5 Discuss the importance of minerals in plant nutrition using nitrogen and magnesium as
examples;

2.6 Perform tests to distinguish among food substances;

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• 2.7 relate the structures of the human alimentary canal to their functions;

• 2.8 explain the role and importance of enzymes;

• 2.9 investigate the effect of temperature and pH on the activity of the enzymes
catalase or amylase;

• 2.10 describe what happens to the products of digestion after their absorption;

• 2.11 discuss the importance of a balanced diet in human.

 MODES OF NUTRITION
● There are two modes of nutrition - Autotrophic and
Heterotrophic.

● Autotrophic Nutrition – plants and bacteria

● In this type of nutrition food is synthesized by the organism itself

(autotrophs).

● The organism uses simple inorganic raw materials such as carbon

dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).

● In the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll (conditions)

● To many complex organic compounds example glucose and starch

 Heterotrophic Nutrition
• Some organisms are unable to synthesize their own food.

• These organisms rather obtain their food directly or

indirectly from autotrophs.

• This food is broken down with the help of some enzymes.

• In this type of nutrition no pigment or sunlight is required.

•
• All animals, fungi and some bacteria have this type of
nutrition.
Heterotrophic nutrition
● It is of three types
● 1. Saprophytic nutrition
● 2. Parasitic nutrition
● 3. Holozoic nutrition
Saprophytic nutrition

● Some organisms break-down

the food material outside the
body and then absorb it.
Examples are fungi like bread
moulds, yeast an d
2513
en
1024

mushrooms
● In this organism releases
enzymes to out side
● These enzymes break the
complex substances which
are present in the dead
organic matter into simple
substances
Parasitic nutrition
● Organism gets its
food from the host
● Ex- cuscuta.orchids
● Ticks, lice, leeches
Autotrophic nutrition
● PHOTOSYNTHESIS
● Photosynthesis is the process by which
chlorophyll-containing cells in plants synthesize
food in the form of carbohydrates using carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll.
● Raw materials - carbon dioxide and water
● Products - carbohydrates (glucose/ starch)
and oxygen.
There are many nutrients that are essential for plants.

Why are Minerals Important?

•The element must be necessary to support the growth and reproduction of the
plant.

•In the absence of this element, the plants cannot complete their life cycle, and
survival becomes very difficult.

•The element must be irreplaceable and specific in function which means no other
element can be used instead.

•Its presence or absence affects the metabolism of the plant.

Macronutrients

These are generally present in tissues of plants in large amounts (more than 10m
mole/kg of dry matter).

Some of the macronutrients are –

•Carbon
•Hydrogen
•Oxygen
•Nitrogen
•Phosphorus
•Sulphur
•Potassium
•Calcium
•Magnesium
While carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are obtained from water and carbon
dioxide, other elements are obtained from the soil as mineral nutrition.

Micronutrients
These are also known as trace elements and are required in very small amounts
(less than 10mmole/kg of dry matter).
These include –
•Iron
•Magnesium
•Manganese
•Copper
•Sodium
•Silicon
•Boron
•Nickel
Essential elements can also be divided into four categories based on their
various functions. These categories are:

•Essential elements as an ingredient of biomolecules and hence structural

elements of cells (e.g., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen).

•Essential elements that are part of energy-related chemical compounds. (e.g.,

magnesium in chlorophyll and phosphorus in ATP).
Various forms and functions of essential nutrient elements are given below

Nitrogen

•It is an essential nutrient required by plants in a large amount.

•It is absorbed mostly as NO3, however, it can also be taken as NO2 or even
NH4.
•It is required by all parts of the plant, specifically for the growth of
meristematic tissues and metabolically active cells.
•It is one of the major ingredients of proteins, vitamins, nucleic acids and
hormones
Phosphorus

•Roots of the plant absorb phosphorus in the form of phosphate ions

(either as H2PO–4 or HPO–4)

•It is the main ingredient of cells membranes, some proteins, nucleotides and nucleic
acids.

•It is essential for all the phosphorylation reactions.

Potassium

•It is absorbed by the plant as potassium ions.

•It is required in large amounts in the buds, meristematic tissues, root tips and
leaves.

•It helps to regulate an anion-cation balance in cells and is involved in the synthesis
of protein, opening and closing of stomata, maintenance of the turgidity of the cells
and activation of enzymes.