Emily Summers

AS OCR Biology Revision Pack

UNIT f211 Cells, exchange, transport

Module 1 Cells

Cell Structure
1. State the resolution and magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope, a transmission electron microscope
and a scanning electron microscope.

Light Microscope TEM SEM

Maximum 0.2 micrometres 0.0001 micrometres 0.005 micrometres
Resolution
Maximum X 1500 Over x 1,000,000 Under x 1, 000, 000
Magnification

2. Explain the difference between magnification and resolution

Magnification  How much bigger the image is than the specimen.

Magnification = Length of Image / Length of specimen

Resolution  How well a microscope distinguishes between two points that are close
together.

3. Explain the need for staining samples for use in light and electron microscopy

In Light microscopes and TEM’s the beam of lights/electrons pass through the object,
and there is an image produced as some parts of the specimen absorb more
light/electrons than others, but sometimes the specimen is transparent so it will look
white because light/electrons pass through so the object is stained

Light Microscope Electron Microscope

Dye- usually methylene blue/eosin Specimen dipped in metal like lead, the
metal ions scatter electrons to contrast.

4. Calculate the linear magnification of an image

Magnification = Length of Image / Length of specimen

5. Outline the functions of the structures.

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Picture Description Function

Large and contains Nucleus contains the

chromatin. Enclosed by a cell’s genetic material.
nuclear envelope  Chromatin contains DNA
double membrane. and proteins which
Nuclear pores go through regulate cell activities.
the envelope. Nucleolus Instructions for making
inside. proteins.

Flattened membranous RER transports proteins

sacs called cisternae, and SER is involved in
rough is studded with lipid synthesis.
ribosomes, smooth is not.

Stack of flat, membrane Golgi body receives

bound stacks. [Pitta proteins from ER and
bread!] modifies them.
Packages proteins into
vesicles to transport
them  exocytosis
Sausage shaped. Double
membrane separated by Site of aerobic
fluid filled space. Inner respiration, ATP is
membrane is folded to produced.
form cristae and the
middle part of the
mitochondria is called the
matrix.

In plant cells. Double Site of photosynthesis,

membrane. Membranous carbohydrate molecules
sacs called thylakoids, made.
plural=granum.
Plural=grana.

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Enzymes break down

Spherical sacs cells. E.g. white blood
surrounded by a single cell lyosomes break
membrane, with no clear down invading
internal structure. microorganisms and
Contains enzymes. lyosome in the sperm’s
head breaks down the
material surrounding the
egg.

TINY. Site of protein synthesis,

Bound to ER to make they are like an
RER and also in assembly line where
cytoplasm. Consist of two mRNA from the nucleus
subunits. is used to make proteins
 from amino acids.
Eukaryotic- 80S
Prokaryotic- 70S

Small tubes of Involved in cell division

microtubules. A pair can to make spindles which
be found next to the move chromosomes in
nucleus in animal cells. nuclear division.
Also in some protocytists.

Membrane bound sac Keep the plant

found in plants filled with supported, rigid and
cell sap. turgid. Also like a
garbage disposal for
plants.

Support, movement.
Network of protein fibres E.g. Chromosome
movement in mitosis.

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Thick layer, in plants. Gives the cell strength

Made of cellulose in and rigidity
eukaryotic cells and
murein in prokaryotic
cells.
It separates the cell
Thin, flexible layer around contents from external
all eukaryotic cells. Made environment and even
of phospholipids and controls movement of
proteins. substances in and out of
the membrane with
receptor cells.

Enclosed jelly like In eukaryotic cells it

substance within the cell contains organelles, in
membrane. prokaryotic cells it
contains enzymes
needed for metabolic
reactions.

Circular and loose. Genetic instructions

Unprotected, unlike in
eukaryotic cells.

Plasmid
Small circle of DNA Exchange DNA easily
and quickly between
eukaryotic cells. Used in
genetic engineering.

A thick polysaccharide Useful for sticking cells

layer outside of the cell together, and as a food
wall reserve. Protects
against phagocytosis
and chemicals.

Rigid tail that rotates. Propels the cell

“The motor is embedded
in the cell membrane and
is driven by a H+ gradient
across the membrane.
Clockwise rotation drives
the cell forwards, while

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anticlockwise rotation
causes a chaotic spin.
This is the only known
example of a rotating
motor in nature”

A tightly-folded area of Contains membrane

the cell membrane bound proteins needed
for respiration

6. Explain the importance of the cytoskeleton in providing mechanical strength to cells, aiding transport within cells and
enabling cell movement.
 Keep cells organelles in position with support
 Strengthen the cell to maintain it’s shape
 Transport material within the cell
 Help the cell to move, e.g. cilia and flagella by protein filaments.

7. Compare and contrast, with the aid of diagrams and electron micrographs, the structure of prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells are smaller (0.2-2.0  m) Eukaryotic cells are bigger 10-100  m
Don’t have a nucleus, DNA floats free in DNA is protected in nucleus and is linear
cytoplasm and is circular
Less organelles and no membranous ones Many organelles, plant & animal
70S Ribosomes 80S Ribosomes

8. Compare and contrast, with the aid of diagrams and electron micrographs, the structure and ultrastructure of plant cells
and animal cells.

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Cell Division, Diversity and Cellular Organisation

Explain the meaning of the term homologous pair of chromosomes

Humans have 46 chromosomes in total 23 pairs. One chromosome in each pair comes
from the mother, and then the other comes from the father. Same size, same genes
although they can have different versions of the genes (alleles).

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1. A bud forms at the cell

surface
2. The cell undergoes interphase
3. The cell undergoes mitosis
4. Nuclear division is complete
budding cell’s nucleus has an
identical copy of parent cell
dna
5. The bud separates off from
the parent cell with a
genetically identical yeast cell

Meiosis:

1. Gametes are found in all

sexually reproducing
organisms
2. Male & Female join at
fertilisation forming a zygote
dividing into a new organism
3. (Sperm and Egg)
4. (Pollen grains and ovules)
5. Normal body cells of plants
and animals have diploid (2n)
number of chromosomes,
each cell contains two of each
chromosome from each
parent
6. Gametes have the haploid
number of chromosomes (n)
there’s one copy of each
chromosome
7. At fertilisation the haploid
male gamete and female fuse
to make a cell with the diploid
number of chromosomes, half
from sperm half from egg.

Produces cells genetically different-

genetic variation, it creates variation.

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Define the term stem cell

Stem cells are cells that are not specialized and can differentiate into specialized cells
with mitosis and the correct stimulation.
Define the term differentiation, with reference to the production of erythrocytes (red blood cells) and neutrophils derived from stem
cells in bone marrow, and the production of xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes from cambium.

Bones are living organs containing nerves and blood vessels, and the main bones have
marrow in the middle, adult stem cells divide and differentiate to replace worn out
erythrocytes and neutrophils to fight infection.

In plant cells stem cells

are in the cambium. In the
root and stem the stem
cells of the vascular
cambium divide to
differentiate into the xylem
and phloem, the vascular
cambium then forms a ring
inside the root and shoots.
These cells divide and
grow from the ring
differentiating and moving away from the cambium.
Describe and explain, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, how cells of multicellular organisms are specialised for particular
functions, with reference to erythrocytes (red blood cells), neutrophils, epithelial cells, sperm cells, palisade cells, root hair cells and
guard cells.

Neutrophills protect the body against illness, they are flexible so they can engulf
pathogens and they have lots of lysosomes with digestive enzymes that can break
down the pathogens.

Erythrocytes carry oxygen in the blood and they have a

biconcave disc shape to give a large surface area to
volume ratio for gaseous exchange, they don’t have a
nucleus so they have more room for haemoglobin.

Epithelial cells cover organ surfaces and cilia can beat to

move particles, and other like microvilli can fold in the cell
membrane to increase surface area to volume ratio

Sperm cells have a flagellum that enables them to swim

to the egg and they have lots of mitochondria to provide
energy to swim, the acrosome contains digestive
enzymes so the sperm can penetrate the egg surface.

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Explain the meaning of the terms tissue, organ and organ system.

A tissue is a group of similar cells that are specialized to work together to carry out a
particular function.

E.g. Ciliated epithelium, xylem tissue, squamous epithelium tissue, phloem tissue

Organs are groups of different tissues that work together to form a function.

E.g. Lungs squamous epithelium, ciliated epithelium, elastic connective tissue and
vascular tissue.

Organ systems are different organs working together for a different function, e.g. the
respiratory system is made of all of the organs, tissues and cells involved in breathing
like the lungs, trachea, larynx, nose, the diaphragm and mouth.
Discuss the importance of cooperation between cells, tissues, organs and organ systems.

Mulitcellular organisms work efficiently as they have different cells that are specialized
for various functions

It is beneficial because every different cell can carry out a specialized function in a more
efficient way than unspecialized cells could.

Each cell depends on the other cells for the functions it cannot carry out

So cells, tissues and organs in multicellular organisms cooperate to keep the organism
alive and working well.

E.g. Muscle cells can move well but to do so they need oxygen, so they need
erythrocytes to carry oxygen to them from lungs.

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Transport in plants
Explain the need for transport systems in multicellular plants in terms of size and surface area to volume ratio.

Plants need water, CO2 minerals like nitrates and potassium, and sugars to live and
they need to get rid of waste substances. They are multicellular and have a small
surface area to volume ratio so need transport systems to move substances to and from
cells quickly as diffusion alone is too slow.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the distribution of xylem and phloem tissue in roots, stems and leaves of
dicotyledonous plants.

Leaf Cross Section

In a root the xylem and phloem are

in the centre to give support to the
root as it pushes through the soil.

In stems the xylem and phloem are

near the outside to provide stability
Root Cross Section
that reduces bending.

In a leaf the xylem and phloem make

up a vein network to support the
Xylem vessels are long thintube
leaves.
structures formed from vessel
elements joined end to end. There
aren’t end walls so they are not
interrupted tubes, and allow water
to pass through the middle with
ease. The cells are dead and don’t
Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the structure and function of xylem vessels, sieve tube elements and
companion cells. have cytoplasm, the walls are
thickened with lignin- a woody
substance that supports xylem
vessels and stops them collapsing,
the lignin quantity increases with
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age. Water and ions (K+ etc.) move
in/out of vessels through pits in
walls without lignin.
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Phloem tissue transports solutes like sucrose around plants, it is only a transport tissue.

Sieve tube elements are living cells that form the tube for transportation of solutes
around the plant, they are joined end-end to make sieve tubes. The sieves are end
walls with holes in them for solutes to pass through, although they have no nucleus, a
thin layer of cytoplasm and few organelles. The cytoplasm of nearby cells is joined
through holes in sieve plates.

Companion cells are there for each sieve tube element to carry out metabolic processes
for the sieve tube elements that cannot survive on their own as they have no nucleus,
etc., and itself- e.g. they provide energy for active transport of solutes

Define the term transpiration.

The loss of water from the plant’s surface

Explain why transpiration is a consequence of gaseous exchange.

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A plant must open it’s stomata for absorption of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis,
which as a consequence allows water to escape because there is a higher water
potential inside the leaf than outside. So water moves out of the leaf by osmosis down
the water potential gradient.
Describe, with the aid of diagrams, how a potometer is used to estimate transpiration rates.

Really it measures the water uptake

by the plant, but we assume that
water uptake is directly related to
water loss by leaves.

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1. Cut a shoot under water to stop air from going into the xylem at a slant to
increase surface area to volume ratio for water uptake
2. Check that the apparatus has no air bubbles and is full with water
3. Put the shoot into the apparatus underwater to prevent air entering
4. Remove the photometer from the water and make it air and water tight
5. Dry the leaves, let the shoot acclimatize and shut the tap
6. Keep conditions constant throughout the experiment
7. Record the starting position of the air bubble
8. Start a stopwatch and record the distance moved by the bubble per unit time
Explain, in terms of water potential, the movement of water between plant cells, and between plant cells and their environment.

Light Lighter= faster rate of transpiration as the

stomata open for photosynthesis
Temperature Higher= faster rate as water molecules have
higher kinetic energy so they evaporate from
cells quicker, increasing the water potential
gradient between inside and outside of leaf
making water diffuse out quicker.
Humidity Lower= faster, if the air around the plant is dry
the water potential gradient between the leaf
and air is steeper
Wind Higher= faster, air movement blows the water
molecules from the stomata, steepening the
water potential gradient

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, how the leaves of some xerophytes are adapted to reduce water loss by
transpiration.

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Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the pathway by which water is transported from the root cortex to the air surrounding the leaves,
with reference to the Casparian strip, apoplast pathway, symplast pathway, xylem and the stomata.

Water travels through the roots via the root cortex into the xylem by two ways

The Symplast Pathway The Apoplast Pathway

Goes through living parts of the cells, the Goes through non living parts of the cells, the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm of nearby cells cell walls, the walls are absorbent and water
connect through plasmodestmata, which are can diffuse by osmosis through them and pass
small spaces in cell walls. through spaces between them.

When water is in the Apoplast pathway it goes to the endodermis cells in the root, but the path
is blocked by the Casparian strip- which is just a waxy strip. The water then must take the
Symplast pathway.

This is not a hindrance because the water than has to go through the cell membrane which
controls substances entering/leaving.

If the water goes past the barrier it moves into the Xylem.

The main pathway used is the Apoplast pathway as it provides the least resistance.
Explain the mechanism by which water is transported from the root cortex to the air surrounding the leaves, with reference to
adhesion, cohesion and the transpiration stream.

Cohesion and tension move water up from roots to the leaves against gravity, water
evaporates from the leaves at the top of the xylem via transpiration

This creates suction/tension which pulls more water into the leaf

Water molecules are cohesive, meaning they stick together, so if one is pulled into the
leaf so are more. The whole column of water in the xylem moves upwards, and it enters
the stem through the roots.

Adhesion is the water molecules being attracted to the walls of the xylem vessels,
helping water rise up.

Explain translocation as an energy-requiring process transporting assimilates, especially sucrose,

between sources (e.g. leaves) and sinks (e.g. roots, meristem).

Translocation is the movement of dissolved substances like sucrose

and amino acids when they are needed in a plant- called assimilates.
This requires energy and happens in the phloem.

Translocation moves substances from sources (where it is produced-

higher concentration) to sinks (where it is used- lower concentration)

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E.g. The source for sucrose is the leaves and the sinks are mainly food storage organs and the
meristems (growth areas) in the roots, stems and leaves.

Enzymes maintain the concentration from the source to the sink by changing the dissolved
substances at the sink, like by breaking them down or changing them into something else, to
make sure there is a lower concentration at the sink than the source to keep a steep
concentration gradient.
Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the mechanism of transport in phloem involving active loading at the source and removal at the
sink, and the evidence for and against this mechanism.

 At the source active transport is said to actively load the dissolved solutes into sieve
tubes of the phloem.
 Lowering the water potential inside sieve tubes and water enters them via osmosis.
 Creating a high pressure inside the sieve tubes at the source end of the phloem.

 At the sink the solutes are removed from the phloem to be used
 Increasing water potential inside the sieve tubes so water leaves by osmosis
 Lowering pressure inside the sieve tubes

 Creating a pressure gradient from the source to the sink

 This gradient is responsible for pushing solutes along the sieve tubes to where they are
required in the plant.

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For Against
Removing a ring of bark from a tree taking Sugar travels to many sinks not one with
the phloem not the xylem from a woody the highest water potential, as the model
stem a bulge will form above the ring. On indicates
analysis of the fluid in the bulge, there will
be a higher sugar concentration above the
ring than below- so there must be a
downward sugar flow.
Aphids pierce the phloem with their Sieve plates would make a barrier to mass
mouthparts and sap flows into them, the flow, a lot of pressure would be needed for
sap flows out quicker nearer the leaves solutes to pass at a reasonably quick rate
than further down the stem, so there must
be a pressure gradient.
A metabolic inhibitor stopping ATP
production in the phloem stops
translocation, proving it is active transport.
There are experimental mass flow models

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