Seismology Master2014

Seismology - Seismogram
Fornesic
Anatomy of Seismograms
Frequency of Earthquakes
Type Ml Observation Frequency
Micro <2.0 not felt > 8.000 /day

very weak 2.0-2.9 felt 1.000 /day
weak 3.0-3.9 felt but no damage 49.000 /year
small 4.0-4.9 only small damage 6.200 /year
moderate 5.0-5.9 damage at certain buildings 800 /year

strong 6.0-6.9 damage in a radius of 100 km 120 /year
significant 7.0-7.9 sig. damage within a large area 18 /year
large 8.0-8.9 sig. damage within several 100s km 1 /year
very large > 9.0 radius of damage > 1000km within 20 years
local EQ < 10 km
local EQ < 100 km
local EQ < 300 km
local EQ < 50 km
local EQ < 50 km
Explosion!!
regional EQ < 2000 km

teleseismic EQ > 12,000 km

Separation according to distance:
• local events: Δ < 600 km (150 km)


• regional events: 600 km < Δ < 12,000 km

• teleseismic events: Δ > 12,000 km


Criterion for classification


Criterion for classification

➪Duration!!
Aufbau der Seismogramme
Why are they looking so different?
• differences in propagation (direct, reflected,

refracted, diffracted)
• differences in propagation (direct, reflected,

refracted, diffracted)
• focal depth influences the overall shape of a

seismogram significantly (depth phases, surface
waves)
Local & regional events (Δ<10∘):
Kulhanek, 1990
Kulhanek, 1990
Kulhanek, 1990
phases (IASPEI):
• P: longitudinal wave (undae primae)
• K: longitudinal wave through outer core
• I: longitudinal wave through inner core
• S: transversal wave (undae secundae)
• T: wave partially propagating as acoustic wave in the ocean
• J: transversal wave trough inner core
• N: n-times reflected waves
• p/s (small): depth phases
• L: surface waves unspecified
• R: Rayleighwave
• Q: Lovewave
• G: (long period) global (mantel) Lovewave
Phasenkonvention (crust - IASPEI):
Phasenkonvention (crust - IASPEI):
Phasenkonvention (near source - IASPEI):
• Duration < 5 min

• seismogram complex (compared to 1 to 3 layers)
• dominant signal is Sg followed by waves with decreasing
amplitude (Coda). Explosions may generate large
Rayleighwaves
• order of arrival: Pg, Pb, Pn for ts-p < 20s
Pn, Pb, Pg für ts-p < 25s
• “rule of thumb”: ts-p[s] · 8 = ∆ in [km] if Pg and Sg first,
in in case of Pn and Sn first: ts-p[s] · 10 = ∆
teleseismic events (Δ>10∘):
Kulhanek, 1990
Kulhanek, 1990
• wave propagation mainly in mantel

• mantel less heterogenous than the crust
• large distances correspond with deeper penetration of waves
into mantel
• surface waves are dominating the seismogram depending on
focal depth
• ray parameter needs re-definition because of spherical
symmetry
Caustic?:
Caustic?:
Analysis of Seismograms
“... jede Zacke, jede Zunge zu erklären ...”

‘... to explain each wiggle ...’
Emil Wiechert
Tools - single station
• digital filtering will improve SNR

• phase identification➪using simple relations (tS-P) or better
travel time tables it is in principle possible to estimate the
distance and the depth
• polarization analysis ( 3C-seismometers) may lead to
azimuth
• nowadays only rarely done BUT: agencies are not able to
perform a detailed analysis!
1. Are you NEAR (D < 20°) or TELESEISMIC (D > 20°)?
Criteria:
• Frequencies on SP records f ≥ 1 Hz f ≤ 1 Hz
• Amplitudes on LP records not or weaker large, also for later phases
• Record duration < 20 min > 20 min
(for magnitudes < 5; may be longer for strong earthquakes; see Fig. 1.2)
2. Is your D < 100° or D > 100° ?

Criteria:
• Surface wave max.after P arrival < 45 ± 5 min or > 45 ± 5 min (Table 5 in DS 3.1)
• Record duration on LP records < 1.5 hours or > 1.5 hours
(may be larger for very strong earthquakes; see Fig. 1.2)
3. Are you SHALLOW or DEEP (> 70 km)?

Criteria:
• Surface waves on LP records strong weak or none
• Depth phases usually not clear well separated and often clear
• Waveforms usually more complex more impulsive
4. Is the first strong horizontal arrival S or SKS ?

Criteria:
• Time difference to P < 10 ± 0.5 min ≈ 10 ± 0.5 min
• Polarization large horiz. A in R and/or T in R only
Warning ! If the first strong horizontal arrival follows P after ≈ 10 ± 0.5 min it may be SKS. Check
polarization! (see Fig. 11.14). Misinterpreting SKS as S may yield D estimates up to 20° too short. Look
also for later multiple S arrivals (SP, SS, SSS) with better D control.
Network - Localization:
• Geiger method:
• Geiger method:
How much information is needed

• Geiger method:
How much information is needed
∆ = vc·(t - T0)
➪Estimation of origin time
Wadati-Diagram:
Estimation of origin time
and vp/vs
(vp/vs)-1
Epicenter
Epicenter
Epicenter
Epicenter
Epicenter
Epicenter
Epicenter
Epicenter
Depth
h
• non linear inversion:
Network - Magnitude:
Leading equation of all magnitudes:
M = log(Ad/T)max + σ(Δ, h) + Cr + CS.
with:
• Ad ground displacement measured at period T
• σ(Δ, h) calibration factor, which refers to the distance (geometrical
spreading) and absorption (intrinsic and scattering) dependent
damping of the amplitude. In most cases the calibration refers to a
reference amplitude of an earthquake with a fixed magnitude (e.g., 3
or 0): σ(Δ, h) = -log A0(Δ, h)
• directivity (regional) of the source (Cr) and station correction (Cs)
General steps:
Magnitudes can be determined on the basis of Eq. (1) by reading (A/T)max for any body wave (e.g., P, S, Sg, PP) or
surface waves (LQ or Lg, LR or Rg) for which calibration functions for either vertical (V) and/or horizontal (H)
component records are available. If the period being measured is from a seismogram recorded by an instrument whose
response is already proportional to velocity, then (Ad/T)max = Avmax/2π, i.e., the measurement can be directly determined
from the maximum trace amplitude of this wave or wave group with only a correction for the velocity magnification. In
contrast, with displacement records one may not know with certainty where (A/T)max is largest in the displacement
waveform. Sometimes smaller amplitudes associated with smaller periods may yield larger (A/T)max. In the following we
will always use A for Ad, if not otherwise explicitely specified.
• the trace amplitude B of a seismic signal on a record is defined as its largest peak (or trough) deflection from the base-
line of the record trace;
• for many phases, surface waves in particular, the recorded oscillations are more or less symmetrical about the zero line.
B should then be measured either by direct measurement from the base-line or - preferably - by halving the peak-to-
trough deflection (Figs. 3.9 a and c - e). For phases that are strongly asymmetrical (or clipped on one side) B should
be measured as the maximum deflection from the base-line (Fig. 3.9 b);
• the corresponding period T is measured in seconds between those two neighboring peaks (or troughs) - or from
(doubled!) trace crossings of the base-line - where the amplitude has been measured (Fig. 3.9);
• the trace amplitudes B measured on the record should be converted to ground displacement amplitudes A in
nanometers (nm) or some other stated SI unit, using the A-T response (magnification) curve Mag(T) of the given
seismograph (see Fig.3.11); i.e., A = B /Mag(T). (Note: In most computer programs for the analysis of digital
seismograms, the measurement of period and amplitude is done automatically after marking the position on the
record where A and T should be determined);
General steps:
• amplitude and period measurements from the vertical component (Z = V) are most important. If horizontal components
(N - north-south; E - east-west) are available, readings from both records should be made at the same time (and
2 2
noted or reported separately) so that the amplitudes can be combined vectorially, i.e., AH = √ (AN + AE ) ;
• when several instruments of different frequency response are available (or in the case of the analysis of digital
broadband records filtered with different standard responses), Amax and T measurements from each should be
reported separately and the type of instrument used should be stated clearly (short-, medium- or long-period,
broadband, Wood-Anderson, etc., or related abbreviations given for instrument classes with standardized response
characteristics; see Fig. 3.11 and Tab. 3.1). For this, the classification given in the old Manual of Seismological
Observatory Practice (Willmore 1979) may be used;
• broadband instruments are preferred for all measurements of amplitude and period;
• note that earthquakes are often complex multiple ruptures. Accordingly, the time, tmax , at which a given seismic body
wave phase has its maximum amplitude may be quite some time after its first onset. Accordingly, in the case of P and
S waves the measurement should normally be taken within the first 25 s and 40-60 s, respectively, but in the case of
very large earthquakes this interval may need to be extended to more than a minute. For subsequent earthquake
studies it is also essential to report the time tmax (see Fig. 3.9).
• for teleseismic (Δ > 20°) surface waves the procedures are basically the same as for body waves. However, (A/T)max in
the Airy phase of the dispersed surface wave train occurs much later and should normally be measured in the period
range between 16 and 24 s although both shorter and longer periods may be associated with the maximum surface
wave amplitudes (see 2.3).
General steps
• note that in displacement proportional records (A/T)max may not coincide in time with Bmax. Sometimes, in dispersed
surface wave records in particular, smaller amplitudes associated with significantly smaller periods may yield larger
(A/T)max. In such cases also Amax should be reported separately. In order to find (A/T)max on horizontal component
records it might be necessary to calculate A/T for several amplitudes on both record components and select the
largest vectorially combined value. In records proportional to ground velocity, the maximum trace amplitude is
always related to (A/T)max. Note, however, that as compared to the displacement amplitude Ad the velocity amplitude
is Av = Ad 2π/T.
• if mantle surface waves are observed, especially for large earthquakes (see 2.3), amplitudes and periods of the vertical
and horizontal components with the periods in the neighborhood of 200 s should also be measured;
• on some types of short-period instruments (in particular analog) with insufficient resolutions it is not possible to
measure the period of seismic waves recorded from nearby local events and thus to convert trace deflections properly
to ground motion. In such cases magnitude scales should be used which depend on measurements of maximum trace
amplitudes only;
• often local earthquakes will be clipped in (mostly analog) records of high-gain short-period seismographs with
insufficient dynamic range. This makes amplitude readings impossible. In this case magnitude scales based on record
duration (see 3.2.4.3) might be used instead, provided that they have been properly scaled with magnitudes based on
amplitude measurements.
Local-Magnitude (period @ 1 s; Δ < 600 km):
Ml = log Amax - log A0
Note: in this case the amplitude is NOT divided by the period of the signal.
The Ml is measured at the Lg waves of the seismogram.

Distance corrections:
Problem: saturation of the magnitudes
Better: estimation of the seismic moment
Definition:
M0 = µD A
Estimated via:
3
M0 = 4π ∆ ρ v p,s u0/Rp,sθ,ϕ
with:
• u0 spectrale amplitude of ground displacement at frequency 0 (spectral
plateau)
• vp,s P- or S-wave speed
• ∆ hypo-central distance
• Rp,sθ,ϕ radiation pattern and free surface correction
• ρ density of the medium
Note: only valid in homogenous half space
Definition Moment-Magnitude:
Mw = 2/3 (log M0 9.1)

Network - Source Mechanism:
Types of sources
Network - Focal Mechanism:
Network - Moment Tensor:
Seismogram might be written as:
un(x,t) = Mpq(ξ,τ)∗Gnp;q(ξ,x,t);
with: Mpq(ξ,τ) ≜ moment-tensor (incl. “source time function”)

Gnp;q(ξ,x,t) ≜ Greenʼs function of elementary source (couples)
Der moment tensor might be written as:

M = Misotrop + Mdeviatoric
with
Mdeviatoric = MDC + MCVLD
Streuung und Quell-Mechanismus
LongPeriod/
Explosion
LongPeriod/
Explosion
LongPeriod/
Explosion
LongPeriod/
Explosion
Felt Earthquakes in Bavaria (1300 - present)
Netzwerk Design
Goal:
state wide monitoring of
EQ Ml>2.0
Netzwerk Design
Goal:
state wide monitoring of
641 478
EQ Ml>2.0
Seismicity in Bavarian Alps
69
Seismicity in Bavarian Alps
69
Hochstaufen
1982: -30km 2004: -5km

1981: -20km
2003: -23km
2008: -10km
2008: -30km
1997: 2007: -10km
70
Hochstaufen (2002-2011)
1713 earhtquakes
in 10 years !!
71
earthquakes (Ml ≥ 0.3) - rain (2002-2008)
72
Rate - State & Diffusion
Setting at active plate boundaries
Intraplate setting
14. Januar 2014

73
Rate - State & Diffusion & ????
14. Januar 2014

74
Deformation of the Molasse
10˚ 12˚ 14˚
50˚ 50˚
!"#ï"$%&'()*+,-(
48˚ 48˚
10˚ 12˚ 14˚

Kommission für Erdmessung und Glaziologie - BADW bay. Landesamt für Vermessung und Geoinformation
14. Januar 2014

75
induced earthquakes
1982: -30km 2004: -5km

1981: -20km
2003: -23km
2008: -10km
2008: -30km
1997: 2007: -10km
76
Sparse Network
DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014

77
Geothermie Unterhaching
felt earthquakes > 400 induced EQs
78
Location Using Sparse Networks
DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014 79

Location Using Sparse Networks

Improving Locations - HypoDD
drkij = (t ki − t kj )obs − (t ki − t kj )cal

Requires: slowness sik = sjk
If not, the local slowness has

to be taken into account:
∂t i  i ∂t j  j
drk =  Δm −  Δm
ij k k
∂m ∂m
To be solved iteratively!
Different weights applied

Waldhauser and Ellsworth (2000)
during different inversion
steps
The Use of HypoDD

Improving Onsets - Waveform Similarities
Deichmann and Garcia-Fernandez (1992)

Master-Event Technique



MAGS - ʻMaster-Slaveʼ Re-Location

MAGS - ʻMaster-Slaveʼ Re-Location
~ 25°
~ 45°
~ 70°
Coherence attributes (Lüschen et al. 2011)

Seismology Master2014

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Seismology Master2014

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Seismology Master2014

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Seismology - Seismogram

Micro <2.0 not felt > 8.000 /day

small 4.0-4.9 only small damage 6.200 /year

moderate 5.0-5.9 damage at certain buildings 800 /year

significant 7.0-7.9 sig. damage within a large area 18 /year

large 8.0-8.9 sig. damage within several 100s km 1 /year

regional EQ < 2000 km

teleseismic EQ > 12,000 km

• local events: Δ < 600 km (150 km)

• local events: Δ < 600 km (150 km)

• local events: Δ < 600 km (150 km)

• teleseismic events: Δ > 12,000 km

• local events: Δ < 600 km (150 km)

• teleseismic events: Δ > 12,000 km

Criterion for classification

• local events: Δ < 600 km (150 km)

• teleseismic events: Δ > 12,000 km

Criterion for classification

• differences in propagation (direct, reflected,

• differences in propagation (direct, reflected,

• focal depth influences the overall shape of a

• Duration < 5 min

• wave propagation mainly in mantel

“... jede Zacke, jede Zunge zu erklären ...”

• digital filtering will improve SNR

2. Is your D < 100° or D > 100° ?

3. Are you SHALLOW or DEEP (> 70 km)?

4. Is the first strong horizontal arrival S or SKS ?

How much information is needed

How much information is needed

M = log(Ad/T)max + σ(Δ, h) + Cr + CS.

Local-Magnitude (period @ 1 s; Δ < 600 km):

Ml = log Amax - log A0

The Ml is measured at the Lg waves of the seismogram.

Mw = 2/3 (log M0 9.1)

Seismogram might be written as:

with: Mpq(ξ,τ) ≜ moment-tensor (incl. “source time function”)

Der moment tensor might be written as:

1982: -30km 2004: -5km

1997: 2007: -10km

Setting at active plate boundaries

14. Januar 2014

14. Januar 2014

10˚ 12˚ 14˚

14. Januar 2014

1982: -30km 2004: -5km

1997: 2007: -10km

DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014

felt earthquakes > 400 induced EQs

DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014 79

DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014 79

drkij = (t ki − t kj )obs − (t ki − t kj )cal

If not, the local slowness has

Different weights applied

DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014 81

Deichmann and Garcia-Fernandez (1992)

DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014 82

DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014 83

DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014 83

DGG/EAGE 14. March 2014 83