BULK ACTIVE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

NAME: SPARDHA MEHTA

SEM/SEC/YR: V/B/2021
SUB: STRUCTURAL SYSTEM AND DESIGN
 CONTENTS

1. Bulk active structures

2. Forces on beam and column structure
3. Beam
3.1 Bending in beam
3.2 Neutral axis
3.3 Internal moment of resistance
3.4 Purpose of beams
3.5 The standard size of beams
3.6 Purpose of stirrups in the beam
3.7 Load transfer mechanism in beams
3.8 Classification of beams
4. Frame
4.1 Anatomy of a typical portal frame
4.2 Frame dimensions
4.3 Clear span and height
4.4 Main frame
5. Slab
5.1 Load transfer mechanism
5.2 Classification of slabs
6. Column
6.1 Load transfer mechanism in column
6.2 Slenderness ratio
6.3 Classification of Columns
BULK ACTIVE STRUCTURES FORCES ON BEAM & COLUMN
Bulk Active or section active structures STRUCTURE
redirect external forces primarily through
the bulk and continuity of its material such
as beams and columns. They transmit
building loads to the ground mainly through
bending moments.
Structural elements which support load by
bending and their moment of resistance is
proportional to the size of their cross
section are bulk active structures.
These structural elements act mainly
through material bulk and continuity.
External loads produce bending in these
elements so these are also known as
“Structure Systems in Bending”
This system consists of linear and 2D
elements, having bending rigidity: most
common elements are beams, column,
slabs.
BEAM In it, the loads are acting transversely to the
longitudinal axis, which produces the shear
A beam on supports is a symbolic of the
forces and bending moment. The lateral
basic conflict of directions, that has to be
load acting on beams are the main cause
solved by structural design: vertical
bending of the beam. They are responsible
dynamics of loads against horizontal
to transfer a load from the slab to the
dynamics of usable space. The beam
column. The load distribution pattern is,
confronts this elementary clash of natural
law and human will, using bulk masses of Slab |> Beam |> Column |> Foundation
material.
That beam which is connected with the
With the bulk of its section, a beam can turn column and this connection is called direct
the direction of vertical weight forces or support while the beam connected with
load caused by gravity by 90 degrees and beam and this connection is called indirect
transfer then laterally along its axial length support.
to the end supports. Due to nonconcurrent
pattern of forces, the beam is subjected to
bending. This results in a combination of
compressive and tensile stresses, which are
greatest along the beam’s top and bottom
edges. In bending, a beam also becomes
subject to horizontal and vertical shear
forces. In most cases vertical shear force is
greater at supports.
A general rule, the strength of a beam will
increase according to the square of its
increase in depth, while its stiffness will
increase according to the cube of its
increase in depth. Similarly, if the beam’s
length is doubled, the bending stress will
double and it will be able to carry only half
of its original load, its deflection under
loading will also increase according to the
cube of its increase in length.
Cantilevering a beam beyond its end
supports can reduce its maximum internal
bending moment. Continuous spanning a
beam over three or more supports can also
reduce the design moment and make the
structure more rigid.
A beam is a horizontal structural
member in a building to resist the lateral
loads applied to the beam’s axis. The
structural member which resists the forces
laterally or transversely applied to the
(beam) axis is called beam.
BENDING IN BEAMS bottom fibres will become longer. The most
When a beam carries loads, complex extreme top fibre will be under the greatest
stresses build up in the material of the amount of compression while the most
beam. The bending that results from the extreme bottom fibre will be under the
loading causes some beam fibres to: greatest amount of tension.

• Carry tension – these are called

tensile forces
• Carry compression – these are
called compressive forces
• Take shear forces
These all occur simultaneously. Bending
theory is complex and relies on PURPOSE OF BEAMS
mathematical modelling for solutions. The It is a structural element that is capable of
theory includes the concept of bending withstanding load primarily by resisting its
moments and shear forces. bending forces. They are made of steel or
When a structural engineer designs a beam, reinforced concrete (RCC)or steel. We use
the key concerns are: it in structure to

• Bending • Resist loads

• Shear • Counter bending moment and shear
• Deflection forces.
• Connect the structure together.
NEUTRAL AXIS • Provide a uniform distribution of
From the top fibre of a beam to the central loads.
fibre, the fibres are in compression. The
In the beam, the different reinforcements
compression gradually decreases from a
were used having different purposes such as
maximum at the top of the beam until it is
zero at the centre. The centre is called the • Support bars – These bars are
neutral axis (N/A). From the neutral axis to located in the top portion of the
the bottom fibre, the fibres are in tension. beam and just function to hold the
The tension gradually increases from zero stirrups in place.
at the centre to a maximum at the bottom • Main bars– Provide to carry loads
fibre. (Moments).
• stirrups – To counter the shear
stresses (shear force).
They are generally characterized by their
profile (shape, cross-section, length,
material). This member of RCC structures
is placed horizontally to carry the load and
counter both bending and shear stresses.
INTERNAL MOMENT OF RESISTANCE THE STANDARD SIZE OF THE BEAMS
When a beam bends under load, the In a residential building is 9 ʺ × 12 ʺ or 225
horizontal fibres will change in length. The mm × 300 mm according to the (IS codes).
top fibres will become shorter and the
The minimum size of the RCC beam should CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS
not be less than the 9 ʺ× 9 ʺ or 225mm × Generally, beams are classified by the
225mm with the addition of slab thickness shape of their cross-section, by their length
which is 125mm. and by their equilibrium conditions.
PURPOSE OF STIRRUPS IN THE BEAM BASED ON SUPPORT CONDITIONS:
1. Simply supported beams
▪ Stirrups are used to counter the shear A simply supported beam is supported at
force. It is also called shear both ends. These beams are mostly used in
reinforcement in the beam. general construction.
▪ Shear force is maximum at the end
supports (simply supported beams) • Supported freely to rotate at the
and zero at the mid of the span that’s two ends on walls or columns.
why the spacing of stirrups or rings is
closed to each end supports as • Have no moment resistant at
compared to the mid. support.
▪ Stirrups are made in a rectangular
shape with reinforcement bars and
which is wrapped around the top and
bottom bars of the beam.
▪ Sometimes, stirrups are
placed diagonally and vertically to
avoid the shear failure in case of cracks
in beams. 2. Continuous supported beams
Beams are supported by three or more
LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM IN support points. They deflect less than
simple beams of the same span because the
BEAMS
positive and negative bending cancel each
other out. Generally, a continuous span is
They transfer loads imposed along their 20% more efficient than a simple span as it
length to their end points where the loads is able to span longer distances.
are transferred to columns or any other
supporting structural elements.

3. Cantilever beams
Cantilever beams overhang their supports.
The cantilever section of the beam cannot
support the same loads as the back span
which is the section of beam between the
supports. A typical allowance for the
amount of cantilever in a beam is 30% of
the back span therefore a 45m beam could
have a cantilever section 15m long.
 2. Steel beams
It is constructed from steels and used in
several applications.

4. Fixed beam
A beam which is fixed at both ends it is
called a fixed beam. Fixed beams are not
allowed the vertical movement or rotation
of the beam. In this beam, no bending 3. Timber beams
moment will produce. Fixed beams are only
This type of beam is constructed from
under the shear force and are generally used
timber and used in the past, but its
in the trusses and like other structure. Both
application is significantly declined now.
ends of the beam rigidly fixed with
supports.

5. Overhanging beam 4. Composite beams

A beam which is supported by two points Composite beams are constructed from two
but on the third point is hanging or not or more different types of materials such as
support it is called overhanging beam. It is steel and concrete, and various valid cross
a combination of the cantilever and the sections have been utilized as shown
simply supported beam.

▪ Its ends extend beyond the columns or

walls.
▪ The overhanging portion
in unsupported or may locate both
sides of the beam.

BASED ON CROSS-SECTION SHAPES

Several cross-sectional shapes of beams are
available and used in different parts of
structures. These beams can be constructed
BASED ON CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS from reinforced concrete, steel, or
1. Reinforced concrete beams
composite materials
It is constructed from concrete and
reinforcement as shown 1. Rectangular beam
This type of beam is widely used in the
construction of reinforced concrete
buildings and other structures.
 Square, rectangular, circular, I-shaped, T-
shaped, H-shaped-shaped, and tubular are
examples of beam cross sectional shapes
constructed from steel.

2. T-section beam
This type of beam is mostly constructed
monolithically with reinforced concrete
slab. Sometimes, Isolated T-beam are
constructed to increase the compression BASED ON GEOMETRY
strength of concrete. 1. Straight beam
Beam with straight profile and majority of
Added to that, inverted T-beam can also be beams in structures are straight beams.
constructed according to the requirements
of loading imposed.

2. Curved beam
Beam with curved profile, such as in the
case of circular buildings.
3. L-section beam
This type of beam is constructed
monolithically with reinforced concrete
slab at the perimeter of the structure, as
illustrated in Fig. 10.

Steel cross sectional shapes include:

There are various steel beam cross sectional
shapes. Each cross-sectional shape offers
superior advantages in a given conditions
compare with other shapes.
 3. Tapered beam 2. Precast concrete beam
Beam with tapered cross section. This type of beam is manufactured in
factories. So, the construction condition is
more controllable compare with on-site
construction. Consequently, the quality of
concrete of the beam will be greater.
Various cross-sectional shapes can be
manufactures such as T- beam, Double T-
BASED ON EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION beam, Inverted T-beam and many more.
1. Statically determinate beam
For a statically determinate beam,
equilibrium conditions alone can be used to
solve reactions, i.e., the number of
unknown reactions are equal to the number
of equations.

3. Prestressed concrete beam

This type of beam constructed by stressing
strands prior to applying loads on the beam.
Pre-tensioned Concrete beam and post-
2. Statically indeterminate beam tensioned Concrete Beam are variations of
For a statically indeterminate beam, pre-stressed concrete beam.
equilibrium conditions are not enough to
solve reactions. So, the analysis of this type
of beam is more complicated than that of
statically determinate beams.

BASED ON METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

1. Cast in-situ concrete beam
This type of beam is constructed on project FRAME
site. so, forms are initially fixed then fresh When a beam is supported by two columns,
concrete is poured and allowed to be the assembly defines an invisible plane and
hardened. Then, loads will be imposed. qualifies the space around it. The typical
column-and-beam assembly is not capable
of resisting lateral forces unless it is braced.
If the joints between the columns and beam
are made rigid or fixed, then the assembly
is called a frame. A rigid frame has a greater
measure of lateral stability in the direction
of its plane and both frame’s legs (they are
not form-active columns anymore) and
horizontal part of frame (the previously
named beam) are subject to bending.

ANATOMY OF A TYPICAL PORTAL

FRAME
A portal frame building comprises a series
of transverse frames braced longitudinally.
The primary steelwork consists of columns
and rafters, which form portal frames, and CLEAR SPAN AND HEIGHT
bracing. The end frame (gable frame) can The clear span and height required by the
be either a portal frame or a braced client are key to determining the
arrangement of columns and rafters. dimensions to be used in the design, and
should be established early in the design
The light gauge secondary steelwork process. The client requirement is likely to
consists of side rails for walls and purlins be the clear distance between the flanges of
for the roof. The secondary steelwork the two columns – the span will therefore
supports the building envelope, but also be larger, by the section depth. Any
plays an important role in restraining the requirement for brickwork or blockwork
primary steelwork. around the columns should be established
The roof and wall cladding separate the as this may affect the design span. Where a
enclosed space from the external clear internal height is specified, this will
environment as well as providing thermal usually be measured from the finished floor
and acoustic insulation. The structural role level to the underside of the haunch or
of the cladding is to transfer loads to suspended ceiling if present.
secondary steelwork and also to restrain the MAIN FRAME
flange of the purlin or rail to which it is
The main (portal) frames are generally
attached.
fabricated from UB sections with a
substantial eave’s haunch section, which
may be cut from a rolled section or
fabricated from plate. A typical frame is
characterized by:
• A span between 15 and 50 m
• A clear height (from the top of the
floor to the underside of the haunch)
FRAME DIMENSIONS
between 5 and 12 m
Dimensions used for analysis and clear
• A roof pitch between 5° and 10° (6°
internal dimensions
is commonly adopted)
A critical decision at the conceptual design • A frame spacing between 6 and 8 m
stage is the overall height and width of the • Haunches in the rafters at the eaves
frame, to give adequate clear internal and apex
dimensions and adequate clearance for the
internal functions of the building.
• A stiffness ratio between the One-way slabs on beams are most suitable
column and rafter section of for spans of 3-6m, and a live load of 3 to
approximately 1.5 5KN/m2. They can also be used for larger
• Light gauge purlins and side rails spans with relatively higher cost and higher
• Light gauge diagonal ties from slab deflection. Additional formwork for
some purlins and side rails to the beams is however needed.
restrain the inside flange of the
frame at certain locations.

SLAB
A planar structural element, such as
concrete slab, can span horizontally and
transfer its load horizontally to its supports
by bending. A one-way slab acts as a wide,
flat beam spanning between two supports.
A two-way slab, supported along four sides, 2. One-way joist slab (ribbed slab)
is more versatile since it provides more It consists of a floor slab, usually 50 to
paths, along which stresses may travel to 100mm thick, supported by reinforced
the supporting elements. concrete ribs (or joists). The ribs are usually
LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM IN SLABS tapered and are uniformly spaced at
The forces transfer from slab to beams distances that do not exceed 750mm. The
occur either in one way or in two ways. The ribs are supported on girders that rest on
total system completely counts on the columns.
geometrical dimensions of the slab. A one-way joist concrete slab is suitable for
spans of 6-9m and live loads of 4-6KN/m2.
Slabs may be supported by columns only, Because of the deep ribs, the concrete and
in this case two-way action will prevail. If steel quantities are relatively low, but
the ratio long side / short side < 2 it is expensive formwork is needed.
considered as 2-way slab, and if longer side
to shorter side greater than 2 then it is
considered as 1-way slab.

1. One-way slabs on beams 3. Waffle Slab (Grid slab)

Cast in situ method is used to construct one- It is a type of reinforced concrete slab that
way slabs on beams which involves fixing contains square grids with deep sides.
of forms followed with the installation of Waffle slab construction process includes
reinforcements, and finally the pouring of fixing forms, placement of pods on
fresh concrete. shuttering, installation of reinforcement
between pods, installation of steel mesh on of beams. This type of slab is generally easy
top of pods, and pouring of concrete. to construct and requires little formwork.
The loads are directly transferred to the
Grid slabs are suitable for spans of 9-15m columns. Flat slabs are most suitable for
and live loads of 4-7KN/m2. Formwork, spans of 6 to 9m, and for live loads of 4-
including the use of pans, is quite 7KN/m2. They need more formwork than
expensive. flat plates, especially for column capitals.
In most cases, only drop panels without
column capitals are used. It can be
constructed as post-tensioned flat slabs.

4. Flat plates
6. Two-way slabs on beams
Flat plates can be constructed as one-way or
The construct of this type of slab is similar
two-way slabs and it is directly supported
to that of one-way slab on beams, but it may
by columns or walls. It is easy to construct
need more formworks since two-way slabs
and requires simple formworks. Flat plates
are supported on all sides. Slabs on beams
are most suitable for spans of 6 to 8m, and
are suitable for spans between 6
live loads between 3 and 5KN/m2. Added
and 9m, and live loads of 3-6KN/m2. The
to that, the range of spans for prestressed
beams increase the stiffness of the slabs,
flat plates is between 8-12m, and it can also
producing relatively low deflection.
be constructed as post-tensioned slabs. The
Additional formwork for the beams is
advantages of adopting flat plates include
needed.
low-cost formwork, exposed flat ceilings,
and faster construction. Flat plates have low
shear capacity and relatively low stiffness,
which may cause noticeable deflection.

7. Hollow core slab

It is a type of precast slab through which
cores are run. Not only do these cores
5. Flat slabs decline slab self-weight and increase
This is typically a reinforced slab supported structural efficiency but also act as service
directly by columns or caps, without the use
ducts. It is suitable for cases where fast
constructions are desired.

There is no restriction on the span of the

hollow core slab units, and their standard
width is 120mm and depth ranges from
110mm to 400mm. The slab units are
commonly installed between beams using
cranes and the gaps between units are filled
with screeds. It has been observed that,
hollow core slab can support 2.5
9. Bubble deck slab
ken/m2 over a 16m span. It is suitable for
It is constructed by placing plastic bubbles
offices, retail or car park
which are prefabricated and the
developments.
reinforcement is then placed between and
over plastic bubbles and finally, fresh
concrete is poured. The plastic bubbles
replace the ineffective concrete at the
centre of the slab. Bubble Deck slabs
reduce weight, increase strength, larger
spans can be provided, fewer columns
needed, no beams or ribs under the ceiling
are required. Consequently, not only does it
8. Hardy slab decline the total cost of construction but is
It is constructed using hardy bricks which also environmentally friendly since it
significantly decline the amount of concrete reduces amount of concrete.
and eventually the slab’s self-weight. The
thickness of hardy slab is commonly
greater than conventional slab and around
270mm. It is economical for spans of length
up to 5m, and it reduces the quantity of
concrete below neutral axis, and moderate
live loads shall be imposed. It is constructed
at locations where the temperatures are very
high. The application of this type of slab
can be seen in Dubai and China.

10. Composite slab

Commonly, it is constructed
from reinforced concrete cast on top of
profiled steel decking. The decking acts
as formwork and working area during
the construction phase, and it also acts as
external reinforcement during service life a) Slab on ground
of the slab. For a steel decking of thickness It is the simplest type of slab on grade
between 50-60mm, the span of the slab can which is a composite of stiffening beams
reach up to 3m. However, if the steel constructed from concrete around perimeter
decking thickness is increased up to 80mm, of the slab, and has a slab thickness of
slabs with span of 4.5m can be constructed. 100mm. It is suitable for stable ground
which is mostly composed of sand and rock
and not influenced by moisture, and soils
that undergo slight movement due to
moisture.

b) Stiffened raft slab

It is similar to slab on ground apart from
11. Precast slab stiffening beams which are set in channels
Precast concrete slabs are casted and cured through the middle of the slab.
in manufacturing plants, and then delivered Consequently, it creates a kind of
to the construction site to be erected. The supporting grid of concrete on the base of
most outstanding advantage of the the slab. Soil with moderate, high amount,
preparation of slabs in manufacturing plants and severe movement due to moisture.
is the increase in efficiency and higher
quality control which may not be achieved
on site. The tongue-and-groove panel could
vary in size based on the design c) Waffle raft slab
requirement. When they are placed, the It is constructed entirely above the ground
tongue of one panel is placed inside the by pouring concrete over a grid of
groove of adjacent panel. With regard to the polystyrene blocks known as ‘void forms.
cost of precast slabs, it is reported that Waffle raft slabs are generally suitable for
precast concrete slabs are cheaper than cast sites with less reactive soil, use about 30%
in situ concrete slab by approximately 24%. less concrete and 20% less steel than a
stiffened raft slab, and are generally
cheaper and easier to install than other
types. These types of slabs are suitable only
for very flat ground.

12. Slab on grade

The slab which is casted on the surface of
the earth is called a Ground slab. Generally, COLUMN
slab on grade is classified into three types: Column is a vertical member which takes
complete load of the beam, slabs and the
entire structure and the floor and other area
of the building is adjusted as per the imposed. Lastly It will transfer moment and
requirement of the client or owner. shear also to the footing.
The size of the columns, quantity of cement
sand and aggregate to be mixed, the number
of steel bars to be placed, spacing between
the stirrups is all mentioned in the structural
drawing which is designed by structural
designer as per the actual load on the
column and considering the factor of safety.
A column is a vertical member which
effectively takes load by compression.
Basically, column is a compression
member as load acts along its longitudinal
axis. Bending moment may occur due to
wind earthquake or accidental loads.
SLENDERNESS RATIO
Column transfers the load of the structure
The slenderness ratio is the effective length
of slabs beams above to below, and finally of a column in relation to the least radius of
load is transferred to the soil. Position of the gyration of its cross-section. If this ratio is
columns should be so that there are no not sufficient then buckling can occur.
tensile stresses developed at the cross
section of the columns. Column’s location
Column slenderness can be classified as:
should be such that it hides in the walls
partially or fully.
1. Long or slender: The length of
Columns are typically constructed from the column is greater than the
materials such as stone, brick, block, critical buckling length.
concrete, timber, steel, and so on, which Mechanical failure would typically
have good compressive strength. occur due to buckling. The behaviour
of long columns is dominated by the
A colonnade is a row of columns spaced at modulus of elasticity,
regular intervals that can be used to support which measures a column's resistanc
a horizontal entablature, an arcade or e to being deformed elastically (i.e.
covered walkway, or as part of a porch or non-permanently) when a force is
portico. applied. If the ratio effective length
LOADS TRANSFER MECHANISM IN of the column to the least lateral
COLUMN dimension exceeds 12, it is called as
long column. A long column fails by
Since the columns are supported by
bending or buckling.
foundation; the load relocated from the all
components to the columns.
Then, it will be transferred from the column
through the column necks adjacent to the
footing in the form of axial force.
Moreover, Columns transfer lateral loads to
foundations as well when such loads
 2. Short: The length of the column is around the column. This spiral provides
less than the support in the transverse direction.
critical buckling length.
Mechanical failure would Tied columns have closed lateral ties
typically occur due to spaced approximately uniformly across the
shearing. If the ratio column. The spacing of the ties is limited in
effective length of the that they must be close enough to prevent
column to the least lateral failure between them, and far enough apart
dimension is less than 12, that they do not interfere with the setting of
the column is called as the the concrete.
short column. A short
column fails by crushing (pure STONE COLUMN
compression failure) Stone columns (or vibrio stone columns)
3. Intermediate: In between the long are formed by granular aggregate that is
and short columns, and its behaviour inserted into column shaped excavations
is dominated by the strength limit of and then compacted to improve the load
the material. bearing capacity of soil and fill material.

STEEL COLUMN TIED COLUMN

Steel columns have good compressive This type of column is commonly
strength, but have a tendency to buckle or construction from reinforced concrete.
bend under extreme loading. This can be Longitudinal reinforcement is confined
due to their: within closely spaced tie reinforcement. It
is estimated that 95% of all columns in
• Length buildings are tied.
• Cross-sectional area.
• Method of fixing.
• Shape of the section
The cross-sectional area and the section
shape are incorporated into a geometric
property of section, known as the radius of
gyration. This refers to the distribution of
an object's components around an axis. It
can be calculated: SPIRAL COLUMN
r = √I/A Spiral column is also construction from
reinforced concrete. In this type of column,
I = 2nd moment of area longitudinal bars are confined within
A = cross-sectional area closely spaced and continuously wound
spiral reinforcement. Spiral reinforcement
REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS provide lateral restrains (Poisson’s effect)
Reinforced concrete columns have an and delays axial load failure (ductile).
embedded steel mesh (known as rebar) to
provide reinforcement.
The design of reinforcement can be either
spiral or tied. Spiral columns are cylindrical
with a continuous helical bar wrapped
 COLUMN WITH UNIAXIAL ECCENTRIC
LOADING
When vertical loads do not coincide with
centre of gravity of column cross section,
but rather act eccentrically either on X or Y
axis of the column cross section, then it is
called uniaxially eccentric loading column.
Column with uniaxial loading are generally
COMPOSITE COLUMN encountered in the case of columns rigidly
When the longitudinal reinforcement is in connected beam from one side only such as
the form of structural steel section or pipe edge columns.
with or without longitudinal bars, it is
called as a composite column. This type of
column has high strength with fairly small
cross section, in addition to exhibit good
fire performance.

AXIALLY LOADED COLUMN

If vertical axial loads act on the centre of
gravity of the cross-section of the column,
then it is termed as axially loaded column. COLUMN WITH BIAXIAL ECCENTRIC
Axially loaded column is rare in LOADING
construction since coinciding vertical loads When vertical on the column is not coincide
on the centre of gravity of column cross with centre of gravity of column cross
section is not practical. Interior column of section and does not act on either axis (X
multi-storey buildings with symmetrical and Y axis), then the column is called
loads from floor slabs from all sides is an biaxially eccentric loaded column.
example of this type of column. Columns with biaxial loading is common in
corner columns with beams rigidly
connected at right angles at the top of
columns.
BASED ON SHAPE 4. T-shape column
1. Square or rectangular column It is utilized based on design requirements
They are generally used in the construction of a structure. T-Shaped column is widely
used in the construction of bridges.
of buildings. It is much easier to construct
and cast rectangular or square columns than
circular ones because of ease of
shuttering and to support it from collapsing
due to pressure while the concrete is still in
flowable form.

5. Shape of steel column

There are different standard and built-up
shape of steel columns which are Common
shapes of steel columns include I, channel,
equal angle, and T-shape.

2. Circular column
They are specially designed columns,
which are mostly used in piling and
elevation of the buildings.

3. L-shape column
Commonly, L-shaped column is utilized
in the corners of the boundary wall and has
similar characteristics of a rectangular or
square column.