Art & Culture

UPSC CSE
(Prelims + Mains)
Module 1
Architecture & Sculptures
Indo Islamic Architecture
-Arti Chhawari

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 Architecture in Medieval India
Indo-Islamic Style
Indo-Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles from various backgrounds
that helped shape the architecture of the Indian subcontinent from the advent of Islam in
the Indian subcontinent around the 7th century. It has left influences on modern Indian,
Pakistani and Bangladeshi architecture. Both secular and religious buildings are
influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture which exhibit Indian, Persian, Arab and the
Turkish. The Islamic rule in India saw the introduction of many new elements in the
building style also. This was very much distinct from the already prevailing building style
adopted in the construction of temples and other secular architecture. The main elements
in the Islamic architecture is the introduction of arches and beams, and it is the arcuate
style of construction while the traditional Indian building style is trabeate, using pillars
and beams and lintels.

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The early buildings of the Slave dynasty did not employ true Islamic building styles and
consisted of false domes and false arches. Later, the introduction of true arches and true
domes start to appear, the earliest example is the Alai Darwaza by the side of Qutb Minar.
The different religious beliefs are also reflected in the mode of construction and
architectural styles. The Islamic style also incorporated many elements from the
traditional Indian style and a compound style emanated. The introduction of decorative
brackets, balconies, pendentive decorations, etc in the architecture is an example in this
regard. The other distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture are the utilisation
of kiosks (chhatris), tall towers (minars) and half-domed double portals. As human
worship and its representation are not allowed in Islam, the buildings and other edifices
are generally decorated richly in geometrical and arabesque designs.

Arabesque Method:It is
a method of
decoration. Arabesque
means geometricized
vegetal ornament. It is
characterized by
continuous stem which
splits regularly
producing a series of
counter poised, leafy
secondary stems which
can intern split again or
return to be
reintegrated into the
main stem.

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These designs were carved on stone in low relief, cut on plaster, painted or inlaid. The use
of lime as mortar was also a major element distinct from the traditional building style.
The tomb architecture is also another feature of the Islamic architecture as the practice of
the burial of the dead is adopted. The general pattern of the tomb architecture is
consisted of a domed chamber (hujra), a cenotaph in its centre with a mihrab on the
western wall and the real grave in the underground chamber. To this general tomb
architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducing gardens all around the
tomb. The Mughal tombs are generally placed at the centre of a huge garden complex, the
latter being sub-divided into square compartments, the style is known as char-bagh. The
Mughals also built large gardens in various levels and terraces on the char-bagh pattern.
Scholars trace the evolution of the char-bagh pattern of gardening to the original land of
the Mughals, the Kabul Valley, where depending upon the landscape and terrain, gardens
and residential complexes were laid out. The Mughals inherited this garden type and
superbly transformed it according to the new terrains in India. Thus, evolved a
transformed style of char-bagh pattern of gardening. The Mughals are also credited to
have introduced the double dome system of dome architecture and the pietra-dura style
of inlay decorations.

Char Bagh

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 Pietra dura

Muslim Dynasties

Slave dynasty (1206-1290)

It is also called as Ilbari dynasty, as all the ruler’s belonged to

Ilbari tribe except Qutubuddin Aibak. The Style developed by
them is called as Mamluk Style. They started converting
existing structures into the Mosque’s. The Quwwat-ul-Islam
Mosque was constructed by Qutub-ud-din Aibak around 1197
A.D. and as is very clear from inscriptions he demolished 27 Hindu
and Jain temples within the Rajput citadel of Lalkot as well as the
Quila-Rai Pithora and that their carved columns, lintels, ceiling slabs,
all showing Hindu gods and goddesses, Purnaghatas and temple bells
handing by chains, were utilised to construct the mosque known as
the Might of Islam".The Qutub Minar of Mehrauli was built around
1199 by Qutub-ud-din and finally completed by his son-in-law and
successor IItutmish (1210-35). Another early mosque, is the well
known Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpra at Ajmer which was also constructed
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from the material obtained after demolishing Hindu temples.

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

The Style developed by them is called as Seljuk style.

The Alai-Darwaza was, built by Allaudin Khilji by
enlarging the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque's enclosures of
colonnades and providing them two gateways. In this
and other buildings constructed by the Khiljis, the true
arch in the form of a pointed horseshoe, broad dome,
recessed arches under the squinch, perforated
windows, inscriptional bands and use of red sandstone
relieved by marble are features characteristic of Khilji
architecture.

Tughlaq dynasty( 1320-1413)

Arch of this period is heavy, massive, rugged and

simple. They used grey sandstone and employed
minimum decoration. This period was called as ‘crisis
period of architecture’ because focus was on strength
rather than beauty. Hence, they introduced the concept
of slopping walls known as “Battar”, combining the
principles of arch and the lintel. To a certain extent the
Hindu trabeated construction is still used; there are
false arches and the dome is a typical importation from
Syria and Byzantine.

Sayyid Period (1413-1451)

The Sayyid period was too short to evolve elaborate

buildings, but the octagonal tombs of the time posses a
distinct architectural character. The decorative features
of these tombs consists of the use of blue enameled tiles
enhancing the color effect. The Lotus motif crowning the
tomb and free use of Guldasta’s considerably influenced
the style of subsequent period.

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Lodi Dynasty( 1451- 1526)

In the Lodi period there is indication of a certain amount of imagination and a bold
diversity of design. Enamel tile decoration
tended to be richer and more lavish. The tomb
architecture of this period is of two types,
though both have grey granite walls. One is
octagonal in design having a verandah, the
other is squre in plan, having no verandah. A
spacious somewhat ornamental walled garden
encloses the tombs, which gives the whole
ensemble an elegance. (Sikander Lodhi
established the city of Agra and made it as his
capital. He also repaired QutubMinar.)

Mughal Period( 1526- 1858)

With advent of the Mughals, Indo-Muslim architecture got a blood transfusion as it were,
architectural activity having declined significantly during the role of the Lodis. The
Mughals were quick to realise that they could not hope to establish a lasting empire in
India unless they took within their fold, mixed and mingled with the local population,
especially the Rajput princess of Rajasthan. From being merely satisfied with establishing
and somehow safeguarding their Sultanates as in the case of the Delhi Sultans, thinking
themselves to be the conquerors, keeping aloof from their subjects and thus creating a
wide gulf between themselves and the people of the country that they had the good
fortune to rule, the Mughals turned deliberately towards conciliation and pacification of
the Hindus. Akbar, did everything possible to live in peace and amity with his Hindu
subjects. His policy of conciliation, his open admiration of Hindu culture and his
unorthodox ways as the creator of a new eclectic religion, the Din-i-illahi, are reflected in
architecture. Jahangir was half Hindu by blood, his mother, Jodhabai, being a Rajput
princess. Shahjahan too continued this policy of tolerance and respect for the Hindus. The
Mughal empire, as well as Mughal architecture, flourished and rose to great heights under
their benign rule, but all this ended abruptly under the last of the great Mughals,
Aurangzeb, a puritanic Muslim, who tried to put the clock back and in this process
stopped it and broke it by trying to reverse the entire conciliatory policy of his ancestors.
He looked upon art, music, dance, painting and even architecture as an evil born of
worldly desire and therefore there was an abrupt decline and eventual downfall in
aesthetic appreciation and architectural enterprise.

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Babar, the founder of the Mughal empire, was a man of culture and exceptional aesthetic
taste. For 4 years he ruled in India most of his time was spent in war. However, he was
fond of formal gardens and a couple of gardens are ascribed to him. No architecture
worthy of note was made during his times except perhaps a couple of mosques.

After Babar's death, his son, Humayun, succeeded him but he was driven out of India by
Sher Shah Suri and after taking asylum in Iran, he eventually returned and overthrew
Sikander Shah Sur, and regained his throne.

To the Surs is ascribed, the tombs at Sasaram, in Bihar including Sher Shah's own tomb,
which was made by moderating the Lodi octagonal pattern with a verandah around it,
each side pierced by arches and the halls surmounted by a large and wide dome. The Surs
made use of red and dark grey stone latticed screens, decorative turrets, painted ceilings
and coloured tiles.

The Purana Qila and the Quila Kohna Masjid inside, are also ascribed to Sher Shah Suri.
The walls of the Purana Quila are made of enormous half fashioned stones, with strong
and thick walls, ornamentation and decoration are minimal.

The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture inspired by Persian architecture,
is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum. This tomb is
important for a proper study of the development of later Mughal architecture and has
provided the prototype, followed by architects who designed the Mausoleum of Jahangir
at Shahdara, Lahore, as well as the celebrated Taj Mahal, at Agra.

Although Sikander Lodi's tomb as the first garden tomb built in India, it is Humayun's
tomb which strikes a new note. It is a memorial erected by a devoted wife for her imperial
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husband and is magnificent, grand and impressive. Raised on a vast platform, the tomb
proper stands in the centre of a square garden, divided into 4 main parts by causeways
(Charbagh) in the centre of which ran shallow water-channels. The square, red,
sandstone, double storeyed structure of the mausoleum rises over a high square terrace,
raised over a series of cells which are like a musical composition. The octagonal form of
the central chamber containing the cenotaph, is inspired by Syrian and earlier Islamic
models. It is for the first time that pink sandstone and white are used with admirable
effect, the white is used cleverly to emphasise, surround and underline doors and
windows, strengthening the design.

There is a certain rhythmic quality in the whole structure in its symmetrical design and
the repetition of the large dome in the similar pavillions with small but similar domes.
The mausoleum is a synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions, in the arched
alcoves, corridors and a high double dome as well as the kiosks (chhatris) which give it a
pyramidal shape from a distance. The tomb stands as a loving creation of a devoted wife
for a great emperor, an intrepid warrior and a strong man and is in character, solid and
massive.

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Akbar was keenly interested in art and
architecture and his architecture is a happy blend
of the Hindu and Islamic modes of construction
ornamentation. Akbar's seat of Government was
Agra, it is there on the banks of the river Yamuna,
that he started the construction of his famous Fort,
made of red sand-stone, which was begun in 1565
and completed in 1574. This was the first time that
depressed stone was used, also in the ramparts.
With its high walls of neat sandstone facing the gateways, flanked by bastions, large halls,
palaces, mosques,bazars, baths, gardens and houses for courtiers and noblemen, the fort
at Agra laid a pattern in the construction of royal citadels that became a model for later
ones. The Akbari Mahal and the buildings, along with the great and original city of
Fatehpur Sikri, are made of red sandstone with trabeated construction and restricted
ornamentation. The jambs, brackets, corbels and lintels of the doorways of the Jahangiri
Mahal together with a Chajja above the doorways are profusely sculptured.

Fatehpur Sikri was a town planned as an

administrative unit consisting of public buildings as
well as private residence in close proximity. The
city of Fatehpur Sikri was founded as a token of
gratitude to Sheikh Salim Chisti who had foretold
that Akbar would have three sons who would
survive after the sad demise of many children in
infancy.

The city was begun in 1569 and completed in 1574,

the same year in which the fort at Agra was completed. The city is a modest and compact
township, consisting of halls, palaces, offices, gardens, pleasure-resorts, baths, mosques,
tombs, all of them little gems of architecture, making a town of great nobility. Almost all
the structures are based on trabeate construction.

The most typical and the most well known building

is Panch Mahal, the highest and the most
impressive structure, called the palace of five
storeys. It is based on the Hindu system of trabeate
structure, consisting of pillar, architrave, and
brackets, with the only exception of the topmost
domed pavilion, purposefully thrown out of the
centre that crowns the entire building. The tower
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was perhaps used for recreation by the emperor and members of the royal household.
The idea behind this impressive structure of diminishing storeys, one on top of the other,
consisting of open, terraces in front of the covered areas, was comfort, shade and airy
open pillared verandahs provided by perforated railings, constructed with an eye to
providing shade and fresh air, to the inhabitants seated on the cool floors.

The Diwan-i-Khas or Hall of Private Audience, is of a unique design. It is a square chamber

with three openings on each side and a richly carved column in the centre supporting a
magnificent flower shaped capital. Thorough ventilation is provided by placing on all
sides perforated windows opposite each other on every wall. The charming balcony
supported by a circular top capital, runs round the halls whole length of the 4 sides on the
first floor level, supported by brackets. It is believed that the central place was occupied
by the Emperor's throne while his Ministers sat at the corners or on the peripheral
passage.

The Turkish Sultana's house consists of a small chamber surrounded by a verandah. It is

beautifully carved both on the outside and inside; particularly remarkable being the wide
dado carved with panels, portraying jungle scenes with animals, birds and trees. It is the
most ornamented building in a "gigantic jewel casket" says Fergusson.

Besides constructing a number of elegant,

lavishly decorated buildings, such as Khas
Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid, as well as
the Jama Masjid in Delhi, Shahjahan erected
the most romantic and fabulous building, the
Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved wife,
AIjumand Bano Begum entitled Mumtaz
Mahal. It is a dream in marble and is the
logical culmination of the conception of a
garden tomb, starting with Humayun's tomb
at Delhi. The Taj is a square tomb built on a raised terrace, with graceful tall minarets at
its four comers. As in Humayun's tomb, the tomb chamber is octagonal, with subsidiary
chambers at the angles and the tomb is surmounted by a graceful double dome. The
doorway is narrower and loftier, the dome is much more soaring. The dome has acquired
a lotus pattern below with the finial. The Taj is noted for its ethereal and dreamlike
lightness, graceful proportions and a harmonious balance between architecture and
ornamentation. There is profuse carving and beautiful inlay work with precious
multicolour stones in its floral and arabesque pattern, fme borders, inscriptions in black
marble, delicate traceries and trellis work executed against the background of white
marble. In its dreamlike airy lightness as well as in its precious inlay work, the feminine
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character is apparent, like the lovely lady in whose memory it was built, gentle, sweet and
yielding. Like Humayun's tomb it was laid in a charbagh, or gardens with water channels
and full of flowers.

In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi and laid the foundation of
Shahjanabad, the Seventh City of Delhi, containing his famous citadel, the Red-Fort, which
was begun in 1639 and completed after 9 years. The Red Fort is an irregular octagon, well
planned, with its walls, gates, and a few other structures constructed in red sandstone,
and marble used for the palaces. It consists of a Diwan-i-Am, containing the marble
canopy ornamented with beautiful panels of pietra dura work showing a few paintings.
Diwan-i-Khas is a high ornamented pillared hall, with a flat ceiling supported on engraved
arches. Its pillars contain pietra dura ornamentation and the upper portion was originally
gilded and painted. It is also said that its marble dais once supported the famous Peacock
Throne. The exquisite marble screen containing a representation of the scales of justice
and on the walls of this marble palace are Persian couplets, detailing the dates of the
construction of the fort, the cost of construction and also the famous couplet claiming that
"If there be a paradise on earth it is this, it is this, it is this".

The luxury and love of constructing magnificent buildings, patronised by Jahangir and
Shahjahan came to an end rather abruptly with the last of the great Mughals, Emperor
Aurangzeb.

Not many palaces of early Hindu rulers of medieval time have survived. Certain feature
which characterise the Islamic construction were not coromed merely to Muslim forts,
palaces, mosques and tombs, but were also incorporated by the Hindus, who made use of
some of the indigenous features, and planned their building to suit their customs and
ways of living.

Rajasthan is rich in such palaces. The palaces built during the Mughal time may be
different from each other in plan, but they have certain common architectural features,
such as balconies supported on carved brackets, pillared kiosks crowned by domes,
arcades of sunk arches, foliated arches, latticed screens, curved Bengal roofs and flat
domes rising from a rectangular base. Situated as these palaces often are on rocky
heights, they look very impressive such as those at Amber: Jaipur, Bikaner, Jodhpur,
Udaipur, Jaisalmer, etc.

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