Articles

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Introduction

There are three types of articles in English:

the zero article −

the indefinite article a/an

the definite article the

We use these articles with nouns.

I like drinking water.

I like a cup of tea before bed.

I like the taste of malt whisky.

When we talk about a group of nouns in general, we use the zero article (that is, no article
at all).

Cats like sleeping.

Here we are talking about all cats

When we talk about one example of a group we use the indefinite article.

There is a cat in the garden.

Here we are talking about one cat from many

When we talk about one specific example of the group, we use the definite article.

The cat with the gray and black coat is mine.

Here we are talking about one special cat

Note: The zero article means that we do not use anything; it is useful to help to explain
how we use the other articles.
Working with Plurals
When we want to talk about all the nouns in a group, we use the zero article (i.e. nothing):
 Dogs bark and cats purr.

In this example, we are making a general comment about all cats and all dogs.
When we talk about a sub-group of nouns, we use the definite article, the:

The men from Nagasaki chew tobacco.

Compare this with:

Men are often paid more than women for the same job.

In the first example above - the men - we're talking about a group of men; in the second
example - men - we're talking about all men.
We often use the when we have adjectives or other qualifications of the noun which
restrict it:

Flowers make a house brighter.

I prefer the red flowers.

I am impressed with the flowers in your garden.

We can also use the definite article with a singular noun to mean all nouns:

Bananas have a curious design.

The banana has a curious design.

Both of these mean the same thing.

When we use non-countable nouns, we treat them like plural nouns. This is because non-
countable nouns have the idea of a large amount:

Water is essent ial for healthy crops.

The water in this river is very polluted.

Sometimes we can choose whether to use an article or not. Both of these are possible:

People in my town always vote Conservative.

The people in my town always vote Conservative.

The article we use here depends on the point of view of the speaker.
More...
When we want to talk about a single example of a noun, we can use the definite or
indefinite article. When we talk about one noun in general, and it does not matter which
one, we use the indefinite article a or an:

Can you lend me a pen please?

I saw an elephant playing in the garden.

In the first example it makes no difference which pen is lent; the speaker does not mind if
it is red or blue or old or new, etc. In the second example, the important fact is that there
is an elephant in the garden; the speaker is not concerned whether the elephant is old or
young, a bull or a cow.
Note: We use a before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound. Be careful with
words like hour which are spelt with a consonant but start with a vowel sound - an hour.
Also take care with words like union which are spelt with a vowel but start with a
consonant sound - a union.
When we talk about a specific example of a group, we use the definite article, the:

Which pen do you want? - I want the red pen, please.

In this example, the speaker does not want any pen, but a special or
specific one.

When we are speaking, we often introduce a new subject with a... and then, when we talk
about it again, we use the...

Elephants are annoying! I saw an elephant climb into my garden this

morning and then the elephant ate all my tomatoes.

In this example, the speaker firstly talk s about elephants in general (zero article), then
about an example of the genre (indefinite article) and finally about the previously
mentioned example (definite article). We use the to talk about a noun we already know
about. This can be mentioned previously (as above) or be obvious from the context:

You look upset; what's the problem?

The meaning of a/an is one. We do not use one unless we want to specify exactly how
many we want.

Can you lend me one pound please, I don't need any more.

Did you see two cats in the garden? - No, I only saw one cat.

In general, we do not use one very much and mostly use a or an.
The zero article. When we use a noun with a preposition, we often do not use an article
(that is, we just use the noun on its own):

I went to school but left my books at home. Mother was in church and
father at sea; Grandfather came to dinner later by train and
Grandmother managed to escape from prison to join us.

When we talk about an institution, we use the zero article. When we talk about it as a
building, we use the:

He was taken to court to be tried; in the court he met an old friend.

Nouns in this group include: bed, church, class, college, court, home, hospital, market,
prison, school, sea, town, university, work.

years 1961, 1995, 2000

people Joe, Mrs Smith

seasons & months Winter, February

festivals Easter

continents Africa, Asia, America, Europe

days Monday, Tuesday

parts of day/night midnight, midday, noon, night

maga zines Cosmopolitan, Time

countries America, Britain, Arabia

cities & towns London, New York, Tokyo, Sydney, Cairo

streets Acacia Avenue, Pall Mall, Sunset Boulevard

buildings Buckingham Palace, number 10

airports Heathrow, Gatwick

mountains Everest, K2, Mont Blanc

 games football, tennis, bar billiards

Exceptions include: the Hague; the Matterhorn; the Mall; the White House, the United
States of America
The indefinite article. We use a or an when we talk about:

jobs He is an artist and his wife is a plumber.

beliefs He is a Buddhist and his wife is an atheist.

nationalities He is an American and she is a Swede.

We never use t he indefinite article with non-countable nouns:

* I swam in a clean water and ate a pasta.

The definite article. We use the when we talk about:

oceans, seas the Pacific, the Black Sea

inventions the wheel, the internal combustion engine

titles the Queen, the President, the chairperson

rivers & canals the Thames, the Nile, the Suez.

public buildings the Sheraton, the Red Lion, the Natural History Museum

newspapers The Independent, The Daily Mirror

superlatives the best, the worst.

families the Smiths

countries of union the United States, the West Indies

mountain chains the Alps, the Highlands

instruments the piano, the bag pipes

ships the Bismarck, the Lusitania

A or An?
The general rule is that we use a before a consonant and an before a vowel:

a bowl

a car

a dog

but...

an ant

an elephant

an insect

an orange

an urn

But, what is important here is not the way a word is written, but the way it sounds. We
choose a or an depending on the sound at the beginning of the word and whether it is a
vowel sound or a consonant sound.
For example, take the word uniform. Although it begins with a vowel - u - when we write
it, when we say it the first sound is [y] which is a consonant.

uniform is pronounced [yoo-ni-form] so we say a uniform

One word which is often confused is hotel. Some people pronounce this word as [ho-tel]
so they would write:

a hotel

But other people pronounce this word as [o-tel] and so they would write:

an hotel

Determiners

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times.
Determiners are words we put in front of a noun or noun phrase. They tell us about the
number of items we are talking about; they often restrict the use of the noun. For
example:

determiner noun ...

cats sleep a lot

a cat sleeps a lot

the cat sleeps a lot

my cat sleeps a lot

most cats sleep a lot

some cats sleep a lot

Determiners usually come before the noun, at the beginning of the noun phrase, and we
can generally only use one determiner for a noun phrase.

These are the classes of determiners:

example see

a - an - the articles

my - your - his ... possessives

whose - which - what question words

some - any some - any

enough enough

this - that - these - those demonstrative adjectives

every - each each - every

either - neither either - neither

all - both - half

double - twice - three times... numbers

one-quarter - two-thirds...
first - second - third...
 one - two - three...

few - fewer - fewest few - little - many - much - a lot of - lots of

little - less - least
many - more - most
much
a lot of
lots of

several

Question Tags

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We use question tags at the end of sentences when we want check something, when
want someone to do something or when we show surprise:

You're English, aren't you?

You've got five minutes to spare, haven't you?

You're not going to leave, are you?

For positive statements we use the negative particle not:

{statement} + {auxiliary/modal} + [not] + {subject}

If there is no auxiliary or modal, we use do:

{statement} + {do} + [not] + {subject}

She was not here, was she?

It cannot be verified, can it?

We will win, won't we?

She likes me, doesn't she?

 They didn't stay, did they?

We use question tags in three ways:

1. To verify information; when we are fairly certain of a fact and want merely to check it,
we can use a question tag:

You're a Sagittarius, aren't you?

She isn't French, is she?

2. To ask someone to do something; often this is used when we want someone to agree
with what we say:

He's ugly, isn't he?

You're clever, aren't you? Can you help me with my homework?

3. To show surprise in a negative way when we cannot really believe something is true -
we use this only in negative sentences:
Yo u're not marrying her, are you?
She isn't still talking, is she?
After let's... and offers & suggestions we use shall:

Let's go, shall we?

After imperatives we use will/would/can/could:

Leave us for a moment, would you?

Sentences

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In every sentence there is a subject. The subject is the theme of the sentence; it is what
we are talking about.

Life is beautiful.

Arsenal lost the match.

Along with the subject, we also have the predicate. This is what we want to say about the
subject.

Life is beautiful.

Arsenal lost the match.

In a statement, these two parts usually follow this pattern:

{subject} + {predicate}

Life + is beautiful.

Arsenal + lost the match.

A sentence always starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, a question mark
or an exclamation mark (see punctuation).
Gerunds

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times.

Sometimes we need to use a verb as the subject or object of a sentence. In this case we
can use the gerund.

We make the gerund by adding -ing to the base form of the verb. The gerund has exactly
the same form as the present participle of the verb:

Walking keeps me fit.

I like fishing.

In different grammars gerunds are also known as verbal nouns or -ing forms. For all
intents and purposes, these have the same meaning.
Past Continuous #1

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Usage

We use the past continuous (also called past progressive) to say that something
began before a certain time in the past, and was still in progress when another
action took place. The point in time can be a specific hour: 10.30pm, 1 o'clock,
3am, or an event: dinner, the football game, his speech, etc.

I was eating my lunch when somebody knocked at the door.

Here the point in time is my lunch. Eating is the action that had started, and was
still in progress, when the second action somebody knocking at the door took
place. Because of the type of actions that the past continuous tense and the past
simple tense describe, these two tenses are often used together.

• The past continuous is used to "set the scene", or provide background

information.
• The past simple is used to speak about shorter actions that happened in

the middle of a longer action, or that interrupted it.

I was eating my lunch when somebody knocked at the door.

Here eating is the longer action during which the shorter action the knocking at
the door took place.
Formation
We make the past continuous by using was / were and the -ing form of the verb:

{subject} + {was/were} + {present participle}

I was working when you called.

You were working when I called.

Note: stative verbs are not usually used in the continuous form.

Past Perfect Simple #1

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The past perfect simple is used to talk about a past time before another time in the past.

We did not all pass the exam though we had studied hard.

The Queen died of a broken heart after the King had left her.

We make the past perfect simple by using had and the -ed form of the verb (the past
participle):

{subject} + {had} + {past participle}

I had worked hard for a long time before I completed the work.

She had attended many interviews before she found the right job.
Phrasal Verbs

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In modern English there are many words which have a Latin origin. A lot of these are
verbs, for example. For many Latin based verbs, there are also English phrasal verbs.
These are verbs + prepositions:

English Latin English Phrasal verb

maintain manu tenere keep up

tolerate tolerare put up with

succeed succedere come off

There are many phrasal verbs. They are used in everyday speech and informal writing.
Latin based verbs are more scientific and formal.

Phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by a preposition or adverb:

{verb} + {preposition/adverb}

run into

look after

pull off
The meaning of a phrasal verb is very different from the meaning of the two words taken
together:

go = leave

off = from

but

go off = become bad, moldy

The same phrasal verb can also have several very different meanings:

t ake off = remove

take off = imitate

take off = leave the ground

Some phrasal verbs can stand alone or be followed by a directobject:

{phrasal verb} + [direct object]

She took off her coat.

The plane took off.

When a phrasal verb takes a direct object, the two parts of the verb can usually be
separated; the adverb or preposition can be put before or after the object:

She took her coat off.

She took off her coat.

But if the object is a pronoun, it must break the phrasal verb in two:

She took it off.

* She took off it.

Some phrasal verbs consist of three parts:

{verb} + {adverb} + {preposition}

She did away with her husband.

You must not go back on your promise.

Three part phrasal verbs are not split.

American English British English

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BrE sometimes uses the present perfect while AmE use the past simple:

BrE: Have you eaten all those biscuits?

AmE: Did you eat all those cookies?

 Â

BrE: Have you ever seen the film, Casablanca?

AmE: Did you ever see the movie, Casablanca?

BrE uses have got while AmE tends to use have:

BrE: Have you got new training shoes?

AmE: Do you have new sneakers?

BrE: I've got some Wellington boots you can borrow.

AmE: I have some rubbers you can borrow .

BrE: I have n't got time for a holiday this year.

AmE: I don't have time for a vacation this year.

There are some differences inirregular verbs between AmE and BrE. Two major differences
are:

BrE: dive - dived - dived She dived into the pool.

AmE: dive - dove - dived She dove into the pool.

  Â

BrE: get - got - got The baby has got a lot bigger.

AmE: get - got -gotten The baby has gotten a lot bigger.

BrE uses from...to/till/until while AmE uses from...through:

BrE: The optician is open from eight till four.

AmE: The optometrist is open from eight through four.

There are also a number of other differences in BrE and AmE prepositions, e.g. different
to/than, at/on the weekend, ten past/after midnight.

BrE can use shall for offers and suggestions while AmE uses should:

BrE: Shall I call a taxi?

AmE: Should I call cab?

BrE uses a lot ofquestion tags. AmE does not; instead it uses words like right and ok:

BrE: I'll park on the verge, shall I?

AmE: I'll park on the shoulder, right?

BrE can use a singular or plural verb for collective nouns while AmE uses only a singular
verb:

BrE: The team are playing badly.

AmE: The team is playing badly.

In informal speech, AmE sometimes useadverbs without the -ly ending:

BrE: Autumn was really cold this year.

AmE: Fall was real cold this year.

With double imperatives beginning with go, AmE sometimes drops the joining and:

BrE: Go and open the door.

AmE: Go open the door.

Pronouns

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Pronouns can be used in place of nouns in a sentence.

William took the ball and then William kicked the ball.

We replace nouns that are repeated with pronouns:

 William took the ball and then he kicked it.

The type of pronoun we use depends on the type of noun we replace. When we replace
proper nouns, we use personal pronouns:

Alice looked at Alice's reflection in the mirror before washing Alice.

Alice looked at her reflection in the mirror before washing herself.

Nouns

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When we want to talk about something, we use a noun.

There are many different types of nouns, including the proper noun, the common noun,
the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun, the non-countable
noun, and the collective noun.

Common nouns are the names of the things we can see, touch, smell, taste and hear.

book, telephone, airplane, teacher, wave, are all examples of common nouns.

Abstract nouns are words used to name ideas, feelings or qualities. An abstract noun is a
noun which names anything which we cannot perceive through our five physical senses.

love, hate, kindness, fear, anger, imagination, are all examples of abstract nouns.

There are only two forms of nouns: singular and plural. Book is a singular noun, this
means it refers only to one book. If we want to talk about more than one book, we must
use a plural noun:

books, telephones, airplanes, teachers, waves

To make a plural noun, we usually add -s to the end of the singular noun.

Adjective Order

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Using Adjectives in a Phrase

When we use more than one adjective in a phrase, they usually follow this order:

age color origin material purpose

a new red Swiss plastic army knife

We can have other types of adjectives which we put before the age. These are general
adjectives about the size, the shape and our opinion of the noun. Often we can change the
order of these adjectives but we usually put the most important first. Here we are
concerned with taste:

opinion size

a tasty big sandwich

But if we think the most important thing about the sandwich is its size, we can say:

size opinion

a big tasty sandwichWhen you write, it is best not to use too many
adjectives. Certainly, never more than two or, at most, three in a
phrase:

the sharp, Swiss army knife

a big, thick sandwich

Search the Grammar Guide

Further Reading

Adjectives

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Introduction
Adjectives are words we use to describe a noun. They usually come before it:

a big, red, boring book

The noun in this phrase is book and the adjectives tell us what size it is (big), what color it
is (red) and what we think of it (boring).
Adjectives never change their form; they are always the same:

the ugly woman and the ugly man

the ugly football team and the ugly goalkeeper

the ugly dog and the ugly scenery

Common types of adjectves are:

Possessive Adjectives:
The possessive adjectives are my, your, his, her, its, our, their and they modify nouns by
showing possession or ownership.

my dog, their party, your house

Demonstrative Adjectives:
this, these, that, those

These apples are wonderful.

Indefinite Adjectives:

Several pedestrians witnessed the event.

Interrogative Adjectives:
what, which, and whose

Which trapeze artist fell?

Cardinal Adjectives:
These are adjectives that modify a noun by numbering i t (stating how many there are).

five books
two fish

Ordinal Adjectives:
An ordinal adjective indicates the position of a noun in a series.
 the first date
the fourth day

Adverbs

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We use adverbs to give us more information about an adjective:

The only red bike.

a verb:
She swam beautifully.
or the sentence as a whole:

Unfortunately it is raining so I cannot visit the zoo.

However, we also use adverbs in many other ways; many people see adverbs as the group
of words in English which do not fit into any other category (such asnoun, verb, etc.).
We can use adverbs to answerquestions about how:
He wrote crookedly in the diary.
how often:
I regularly go to the gym.
when:
I've been ill lately.
or where something happens:
Go away!
Adverbs can also make a description stronger or weaker:
She is totally insane.
I hardly knew him.
Many, but not all, adverbs end in -ly; we make adverbs from adjectives by adding -ly to
the end:
He is a bad driver; he drove badl y.
It is a clear day; she can see clearly.

Adverbs

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We use adverbs of degree to tell us how much something happened:

Is there enough wine?

She can hardly sing.

We usually put them before the adjective or adverb they describe:

too high

extremely quickly

Many of these adverbs end in -ly.

Adverbs Adverbs of Frequency

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We use adverbs of degree to tell us how often something happened.

I rarely eat meat.

 I often go to the cinema.

We usually put them before the main verb:

She seldom speaks.

They occasionally go out.

Many of theseadverbs do not have any special form. A typical list from always to never:

always
often
frequently
usually
normally
sometimes
occasionally
seldom
rarely
never

Adverbs Adverb Groups

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Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens:

They fought bitterly.

We sang happily.

Adverbs of degree tell us how much something happens, i.e. to what extent. They usually
go with otheradjectives, adverbs andverbs:

She is totally insane.

I am completely bewildered.

Adverbs of frequency tell us how often something happens:

He never phones.

They often argue.

Adverbs of time tell us when things happen:

He has just arrived.

They came recently.

Adverbs of place tell us where things happen:

He came here.

I went there last June.

Intensifyingadverbs make things stronger or weaker

I am really tired.

She plays the violin very well.

Adjectives as Nouns

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We can use an adjective as a noun by using this pattern:

{the} + {adjective}

We use this to talk about a group of people:

The rich get richer while the poor get poorer.

We can also use it to talk about an abstract idea:

the new, the old, the infinite

We can also put two nouns together. When we do this, the first noun acts like an adjective
and gives us more information about the second noun:

[determiner] + {noun} + {noun}

computer programs

some record players

Adjectives Adjective Position #2

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Some adjectives can only come before a noun. These are called attributive adjectives:

{attributive adjective} + {noun}

Other adjectives can only come after a verb. These are called predicative adjectives:

{verb} + {predicative adjective}

For example, alone is a predicative adjective; it can only follow:

I feel alone.

* He is an alone man.

In the second example, we can use instead an attributive adjective and say:

He is a lonely man.

When we use a noun as an adjective, it is usually attributive only:

{noun as attributive adjective} + {noun}

a table leg

football hooligans

Common attributive-only adjectives include:

attributive only predicative

elder older

live alive

sheer -

mere -

sure -

plain -

Notes
a) live is attributive only when it means not dead; it can be predicative when it has other
meanings.
b) Intensifying adjectives such as sheer and sure are usually attributive only.
Common predicative-only adjectives include:

attributive predicative only

floating afloat

frightened afraid

- alight

similar alike
 live - living alive

lonely alone

sleeping asleep

- awake

- lit

elder - older older

- present

Notes

a) Many words in this list begin with a-

b) present is attributive only when it means in this or that place

http://free-esl.com/channels/gg/article.asp?fIndex=1
http://www.phatterism.com/
http://www.austinshaw.com/
http://www.worqx.com/color/
http://www.photoshopsupport.com/tutorials.html
http://beautycenter.ro/coafuri/view_coafuri.aspx?catg=C:2-
5&p=2&sortfield=ID&sortorder=DESC
facem o analiza: muntele olimp
alhrisca: 1. lacasul zeilor
alhrisca: 1.a. mister, zeitate, fiinta suprema
alhrisca: 1.b. locatie: Grecia, accent pe frumos, proportii perfecte
alhrisca: poti sa faci un studiu de caz asupra muntelui olimp, a zeitatilor
alhrisca: si sa incerci sa extragi anumite elemente definitorii
alhrisca: muntele olimp pt un salon de frumusete....
alhrisca: poti folosi muntele
alhrisca: dar mai asociaza-l cu ceva
maslinul e ceva caracteristic greciei
trebuie sa cunosti bine firma sau destinatia logoului pentru a extrage acele elemente
definitorii ca mai apoi sa te joci cu ele prin culori si stilizare
incearca sa patrunzi in detalii si sa gasesti o forma placuta de reprezentare a logoului
alhrisca: nu trebuie sa fie incarcat
alhrisca: doar sugestiv
muntele poate fi reprezentat intr-o gramada de feluri
alhrisca: te poti apropia chiar de conturul fetei umane
dar nu cu multe linii curbe....ca altfel e prea evident
alhrisca: spor la lucru
Color Theory: Overview
Why study color theory? If you are involved in the creation or
design of visual documents, an understanding of color will help
when incorporating it into your own designs. Choices regarding color
often seem rather mystical, as many seem to base decisions on
nothing other than "it looks right." Although often told I had an eye
for color, the reason why some colors worked together while others
did not always intrigued me and I found the study of color theory
fascinating.
While attending the University of Minnesota I enrolled in almost
every course I could from different departments: graphic design,
interior design, and fine arts. During my studies, I learned that there
were 2 main reasons why scholars investigated color—the first
involved the communication of colors; the other involved the
application of color.

Communicating Color

What is red? Candy apple red, blood red, catsup red, rose red... to
try and communicate a specific hue is difficult without some sort of
coding system. Early in the 1900's, Albert Munsell, a professor at an
art school in Boston developed a color system which offered a
means to name colors. With a published system, people could be
specific about which red they were referring. Munsell's system has
been reworked for today's use with the Pantone color system,
TRUEMATCH, CIE systems and others.
HTML Red
Pantone® Red
Pantone® Warm Red
TRUEMATCH® 6-a

Color Application

With respect to the arts, color was part of the realistic, visual
representation of form, but one group of painters abandoned the
traditional practices regarding color in painting. This group of artists
were influenced by Cezanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin. Led by Henri
Matisse, they were known as the Fauves, or "the wild beasts." Their
exuberant use of brilliant hues seem to disregard imitative color1.
Whereas other artists had used color as the description of an object,
the Fauves let color become the subject of their painting. A painting
in the "Fauvist Manner" was one that related color shapes; rather
than unifying a design with line, compositions sought an
expressiveness within the relationships of the whole. This turn from
tradition brought an integrity to color in that color was regarded on
its own merit.
The next several pages of this site offer a tutorial regarding color
theory. After reviewing the information, I hope you will see that the
successful use of color is not at all mystical, and that by
understanding a few things about color, it is possible to incorporate
into your designs with a confidence based on tested concepts and
methods.

Color Basics
Color is the perceptual characteristic of light described by a color
name. Specifically, color is light, and light is composed of many
colors—those we see are the colors of the visual spectrum: red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Objects absorb certain
wavelengths and reflect others back to the viewer. We perceive
these wavelengths as color.
A color is described in three ways: by its name, how pure or
desaturated it is, and its value or lightness. Although pink, crimson,
and brick are all variations of the color red, each hue is distinct and
differentiated by its chroma, saturation, intensity, and value.
Chroma, intensity, saturation and luminance/value are inter-
related terms and have to do with the description of a color.
 Chroma: How pure a hue is in relation to gray
Saturation: The degree of purity of a hue.
Intensity: The brightness or dullness of a hue. One may lower the
intensity by adding white or black.
Luminance / Value: A measure of the amount of light reflected
from a hue. Those hues with a high content of white have a higher
luminance or value.
Shade and tint are terms that refer to a variation of a hue.

Shade: A hue produced by the addition of black.

Tint: A hue produced by the addition of white.

Color Systems
Available color systems are dependent on the medium with which a
designer is working. When painting, an artist has a variety of paints
to choose from, and mixed colors are achieved through the
subtractive color method. When a designer is utilizing the computer
to generate digital media, colors are achieved with the additive
color method.
Subtractive Color. When we mix colors using paint, or through the
printing process, we are using the subtractive color method.
Subtractive color mixing means that one begins with white and ends
with black; as one adds color, the result gets darker and tends to
black.

The CMYK color system is the color system used for

printing. Those colors used in painting—an example

of the subtractive color method.
Additive Color. If we are working on a computer, the colors we see
on the screen are created with light using the additive color method.
Additive color mixing begins with black and ends with white; as
more color is added, the result is lighter and tends to white.

The RGB colors are light primaries and colors are

created with light. Percentages of red, green, &

blue light are used to generate color on a computer screen.

Working With Systems

The Visible spectrum consists of billions

of colors, a monitor can display millions, a high quality printer is
only capable of producing thousands, and older computer systems
may be limited to 216 cross-platform colors.
Reproducing color can be problematic with regard to printed, digital
media, because what we see is not what is possible to get. Although
a monitor may be able to display 'true color' (16,000,000 colors),
millions of these colors are outside of the spectrum available to
printers. Since digital designs are generated using the RGB color
system, colors used in those designs must be part of the CMYK
spectrum or they will not be reproduced with proper color rendering.
Working within the CMYK color system, or choosing colors from
Pantone© palettes insures proper color rendering.

Color Wheel
 A color wheel (also referred to as a color circle) is
a visual representation of colors arranged according to their
chromatic relationship. Begin a color wheel by positioning primary
hues equidistant from one another, then create a bridge between
primaries using secondary and tertiary colors.
These terms refer to color groups or types:

Primary Colors: Colors at their basic essence;

those colors that cannot be created by mixing others.

Secondary Colors: Those colors achieved by a

mixture of two primaries.

Tertiary Colors: Those colors achieved by a

mixture of primary and secondary hues.

Complementary Colors: Those colors located

opposite each other on a color wheel.
 Analogous Colors: Those colors located close
together on a color wheel.
The color wheel can be divided into ranges that are visually active
or passive. Active colors will appear to advance when placed against
passive hues. Passive colors appear to recede when positioned
against active hues.

• Advancing hues are most often thought to have less visual weight than the
receding hues.
• Most often warm, saturated, light value hues are "active" and visually
advance.
• Cool, low saturated, dark value hues are "passive" and visually recede.
• Tints or hues with a low saturation appear lighter than shades or highly
saturated colors.
• Some colors remain visually neutral or indifferent.

Color relationships may be displayed as a color wheel or a color

triangle.

The Painter's color triangle consists of colors

we would often use in art class—those colors we learn about as
children. The primary hues are red, blue and yellow.
 The Printers' color triangle is the set of colors
used in the printing process. The primaries are magenta, cyan, and
yellow.

Nine-part harmonic triangle of Goethe

begins with the printer's primaries; the secondaries formed are the
painter's primaries; and the resulting tertiaries formed are dark
neutrals.

Complementary Colors
We look at a color wheel to understand the relationships between
colors. Analogous colors are positioned in such a way as to mimic
the process that occurs when blending hues. The colors that are
positioned opposite one another are complementary colors.

To call those hues in direct opposition to each other "complements

of each other" is appropriate. Complementary colors bring out the
best in each other. When fully saturated complements are brought
together, interesting effects are noticeable. This may be a desirable
illusion, or a problem if creating visuals that are to be read.
Note that Vibrating Boundaries may occur when opposing
colors are brought together.
(Notice the illusion of highlighted edges and raised text.)
Perceptual Opposites. We learn from the relationships displayed
by a color wheel that every color has an opposite. Every color has
both a color wheel opposite as well as a perceptual opposite.
Without a color wheel, it is still possible to find the opposite of a
color and this is due to a phenomenon of our eyes. Due to the
physiological differences between individuals, everyone's
perceptions do vary—the complements shown below are my own
perceived opposites:
source >> result

After Images
Color is light and colored objects absorb and reflect different
wavelengths. Light & color are seen by the human eye because of
the two types of photoreceptor cells - rods and cones - located in
the retina of the eye. Rods are sensitive to light and dark; cones are
sensitive to red, green & blue light and responsible for color vision.
These photoreceptors convey the color of light to our brain. (Learn
more about rods and cones, at BiologyMad.com)
When our eyes are exposed to a hue for a prolonged period, the
rods & cones become fatigued. You might notice this if you are
reading something on colored paper, and then look away—you often
see the inverse, or complement, of the image. This occurrence can
be advantageous if you are seeking the opposite, or contrast, of a
color. This may be dismaying to a viewer if presented with
prolonged exposure to colored screens or reading materials.
Every color has an opposite, and although individual's perceptions
do vary, the range of after images seen is consistent.
Take the After Image Test
Stare at this image for at least 20 seconds. When finished, click on
the image or the link below to proceed to the next page.
Color Combinations
Color combinations may pass unnoticed when pleasing, yet offend
dramatically when compositions seem to clash. One outcome we
seek in the final form or composition, is a successful use of color.
We determine whether or not we are successful by critically
assessing the visual balance and harmony of the final composition—
balance and harmony are achieved by the visual contrast that exists
between color combinations. Planning a successful color
combination begins with the investigation, and understanding, of
color relationships.
Using a color wheel and a template, the relationships between
colors are easy to identify.

Monochromatic Relationship Colors that are shade or tint

variations of the same hue.

Complementary Relationship Those colors across from each
other on a color wheel.
Split-Complementary Relationship One hue plus two others

equally spaced from its complement.

Double-Complementary Relationship Two complementary color
sets; the distance between selected complementary pairs will effect
the overall contrast of the final composition.

Analogous Relationship Those colors located adjacent to each

other on a color wheel.

Triad Relationship Three hues equally positioned on a color wheel.

Color & Contrast

Every visual presentation involves figure-ground
relationships. This relationship between a subject (or figure) and
its surrounding field (ground) will evidence a level of contrast; the
more an object contrasts with its surrounds, the more visible it
becomes.
When we create visuals that are intended to be read, offering the
viewer enough contrast between the background (paper or screen)
and the text is important. Text presentations ideally offer at least an
80% contrast between figure and ground. (Black text on a white
background is ideal.) If there is not enough contrast between figure
and ground, a viewer will squint to view the text, causing eye
fatigue.
Yellow text on a white background or blue text on a black
background, are difficult to read due to the low level of contrast
between figure and ground.
An occurrence known as 'simultaneous contrast' (or
chromostereopsis,) may happen when opposing colors are placed in
close proximity to each other. Text may appear to vibrate, or cast a
shadow. Eye strain and fatigue will result if a viewer focuses on a
document displaying similar properties for an extended time period.
Some color combinations, such as red text on a blue
background, cause illusions when positioned together.
Sensitivity to Colorblind Deficiencies. The Design of visual
documents or signage without thought to the overall contrast level
between figure and ground can be problematic for people with sight
deficiencies. My first-hand experience with this occurred years ago
when visiting a hospital with a friend who was colorblind. The
hospital had creatively marked the floor with "road maps" to various
areas like the lab, lobby, etc. Unfortunately, they used red and
green lines and my friend could not distinguish between the colors.
If a visual document uses color to relate important information,
insure that no information is lost, or potentially misunderstood,
when the color is not available.
When choosing complementary colors, fully saturated colors
will offer the highest level of contrast. Choosing from tints or shades
within the hue family reduces the overall contrast of the
composition.

Continue tutorial, view: Itten's Contrasts

Itten's Color Contrasts

Johannes Itten was one of the first people to define and identify
strategies for successful color combinations. Through his research
he devised seven methodologies for coordinating colors utilizing the
hue's contrasting properties. These contrasts add other variations
with respect to the intensity of the respective hues; i.e. contrasts
may be obtained due to light, moderate, or dark value.
The contrast of saturation

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light

and dark values and their relative saturation.

The contrast of light and dark

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light

and dark values. This could be a monochromatic composition.

The contrast of extension

Also known as the Contrast of Proportion. The

contrast is formed by assigning proportional field sizes in relation to
the visual weight of a color.

The contrast of complements

 The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of color
wheel or perceptual opposites.

Simultaneous contrast

The contrast is formed when the boundaries

between colors perceptually vibrate. Some interesting illusions are
accomplished with this contrast.

The contrast of hue

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of

different hues. The greater the distance between hues on a color
wheel, the greater the contrast.

The contrast of warm and cool

 The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of hues
considered 'warm' or 'cool.'
Continue tutorial, view: Proportion & Intensity

Proportion & Intensity

When colors are juxtaposed, our eyes perceive a visual mix. This
mix will differ depending on the proportions of allocated areas.

• The color with the largest proportional area is the dominant color (the ground).
• Smaller areas are subdominant colors.
• Accent colors are those with a small relative area, but offer a contrast because
of a variation in hue, intensity, or saturation (the figure).
• Placing small areas of light color on a dark background, or a small area of dark
on a light background will create an accent.
• If large areas of a light hue are used, the whole area will appear light;
conversely, if large areas of dark values are used, the whole area appears dark.
• Alternating color by intensity rather than proportion will also change the
perceived visual mix of color.

Dominant color
Sub-dominant colors
Accent

Dominant color
Sub-dominant colors
Accent

Dominant color
Sub-dominant colors
 Accent

Dominant color
Sub-dominant colors
Accent

Continue tutorial, view: Contrast & Dominance

Contrast & Dominance

When creating a composition—either something freeform, or a more
text based layout, a determination for the final impact of the whole
presentation needs to be identified. Is your intent to craft a vibrant,
attention grabbing ad, or a presentation with a low, or more
moderate level of contrast? These decisions concern what is known
as the dominant elements of the design.
The dominant element may be classified as either "contrast
dominant" or "value dominant." Designs that evidence contrast
dominance or value dominance are then sub-divided into low,
moderate, and high contrast, or light, medium, and dark value
categories. The choice of colors will enhance or minimize the overall
impact.
It is easiest to understand the difference between dominant
elements in the following compositions from a distance, or by
squinting your eyes a bit. If the proximity between the neighboring
hues is less apparent when you squint, the overall composition a
displays lower contrast level; if the overall composition appears
light, it has a light value. Conversely, if distinctions between hues
are very apparent, the contrast is high, and if the overall
composition appears dark, the value level is dark. Understanding
how the relationships between the colors of a chosen palette will
affect the final outcome of an overall composition is integral to
mastering the use of color.

Examples of Contrast Dominance

In the examples below, the overall contrast level of a composition
changes with the range of luminosity between chosen hues.
Low contrast
Low contrast compositions use colors within a narrow range of

luminosity or brightness levels.

Moderate contrast
moderate contrast compositions use colors within a moderate range

of luminosity or brightness levels.

High contrast
High contrast compositions colors range from very light (high-
luminosity) to very dark (low luminosity).

Examples of Value Dominance

In the examples below, the overall value of each composition
changes with the incorporated hues' relative saturation.
Light value
A composition made up of tints, displays an overall light value.

Medium value
A medium value composition is made up of a balance between tints,

saturated hues, and shades.

Dark value
A dark value composition displays mostly shades.
Continue tutorial, view: Shades & Tints

Color Shade and Tints

 Using a color wheel divided into various
shades and tints is one method of identifying possible options for
color schemes. The split complementary relationship shown in this
example presents many possible combinations. By varying the
saturation and experimenting with shades and tints within the hue
relationship, you can achieve quite a variety of palette options. (Click
on the wheel at the left to view a larger image.)

Moderately-high contrast, medium value,

composition using fully saturated hues. High

contrast, medium value, composition using shades, tints & various
saturation levels.
 Moderately-low contrast, medium-light value, using

tints & various saturation levels. Moderate contrast,

medium value, using shades, tints & various saturation levels.

Moderately-low contrast, medium-dark value, using

shades & various saturation levels. Low contrast,

medium value, using shades, tints & various saturation levels.
 Moderately-high contrast, medium value, using

shades, tints & various saturation levels. High

contrast, light value, using shades, tints & various saturation levels.
Continue tutorial, view: Color Studies

Color Studies
Colors of a complementary relationship.

Colors of a complementary relationship assigned

equal proportion. Colors reassigned with proportions

allocated to dominant and subdominant areas.
 Color intensity and proportion modified. Using tints
and shades of the original colors results in a moderate level of

contrast and medium value. Colors applied to

composition.

Color intensity and proportion modified - the whole

area displays a moderately-high contrast and medium value.

Colors applied to composition.

Colors of a triad relationship.

 Colors of a triad relationship assigned equal

proportion. Colors reassigned with proportions

allocated to dominant, subdominant, and accent areas.

Color intensity and saturation modified - the whole

area displays a moderately-high contrast level.

Colors applied to composition.
 Color intensity and saturation modified - the whole

area displays a moderately low contrast level. Colors

applied to composition.

Color intensity and saturation modified - the whole

area displays a medium/dark value. Colors applied to

composition.
 Color intensity and saturation modified - the whole

area displays a light value, Colors applied to

composition.
Continue tutorial, view: Palette Picker

Peter Piper's Palette Picker

1. Instructions:
2. 1. Click into one of the input boxes below, then pick your color choice from
the color palette on the left, or enter a Hexadecimal (Hex) value of your own.
3. 2. To change one of your color choices, click on the area within your
composition that you'd like to change (or the related input box,) and select a
new color from the color palette on the left.
FYI: Want to modify one of the hues selected from above? Hexadecimal values are
[basically] RGB values. Increasing or decreasing the individual digits of the hue's
hexadecimal number will provide a variation in your selected color. The first two
digits designate the red value, the next two the green, and the last are blue values.
"The lowest value that can be given to one of the light sources is 0 (hex #00). The
highest value is 255 (hex #FF)."
Lowest to highest: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Copy & paste these values into the input areas to view variations of red: #330000,
#660000, #AA0000, #DD0000, #FF0000, #FF7777, & #FF3333.
For more information, see: http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_colorsfull.asp

** A bug has been found—a hex value beginning with 'b' results in an incorrect entry.
Use a capital 'B' and it works. (Anyone have a solution?)