1, what are the advantage and disadvantage of resistance thermometers?

What are the application of thermistors?

Advantages of Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
 The accuracy of RTD is good.
 Temperature compensation is not necessary.
 The RTD available in wide range.
 The stability maintained over long period of time.
 It can be used to measure differential temperature.
 It is suitable for remote indication.
 It can be easily installed and replaced.
 it is used in various industrial applications
 the platinum resistance detector is stable and resistant to corrosion and
oxidation
 new thin film RTDs are very effective for surface temperature measurement
in hostile environments, such as on a turbine blade or in a wind tunnel

Disadvantages of Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

 It has a large bulb size.
 The cost of RTD is high.
 Low sensitivity occurs in RTD.
 Affected by shock and vibration.
 Possibility of self-heating.
 The bridge circuit is needed with power supply.
 not suitable for very high temperature (operating range usually 0.5K - 1000K)
 RTDs do not allow point measurement of temperature because of the dimension of
the sensing element.
 source of measurement error due to a parasitic resistance introduced by the
connecting wires. (The 2-3 wire connection should be avoided.)

Applications of RTD
 RTD sensor is used in automotive to measure the engine temperature, an oil
level sensor, intake air temperature sensors. In communication and
instrumentation for sensing the over the temperature of amplifiers, transistor
gain stabilizers, etc…
 RTD is used in power electronics, computer, consumer electronics, food
handling and processing, industrial electronics, medical electronics, military,
and aerospace.
2, explain LVDT, wire the application LVDT, the merit and the demerit
LVDT?
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an Electromechanical type
Inductive Transducer that converts rectilinear displacement into the AC Electrical
Signal. Since LVDT is a secondary transducer, hence physical quantities such as Force,
Weight, Tension, Pressure, etc are first converted into displacement by a primary
transducer and then LVDT is used to measure it in terms of the corresponding Electrical
signal.
Since LVDT is an AC-controlled device, so there is no electronics component inside it. It
is the most widely used Inductive Sensor due to its high accuracy level. Its electrical
output is obtained because of the difference of secondary voltages, hence it is called
Differential Transformer.
Advantages of LVDT
1. Smooth and Wide Range of Operation: - LVDT has a very wide range of
measurement of displacement. It can measure displacement ranging from
1.25mm to 250 mm.
2.  High Sensitivity: - LVDT gives high output value so that there is no need
for any Amplifier circuit for the amplification process. Typically, the
sensitivity of LVDT is recorded as 40V/mm.
3. Low Hysteresis Losses: - LVDT gives low hysteresis losses hence
repeatability is excellent under all the conditions.
4. Low Friction Losses: - As the core moves in a hollow Former, so there is no
concept of friction losses. Hence it gives an accurate output value.
5. Rugged Operation: - It can tolerate a high degree of shock and variation,
especially when the core is loaded with spring.
6. Low Power consumption: - LVDT consumes very low power of approx. 1W
during its operation.
7. Direct conversion to Electrical Signal: - They convert linear displacement
directly to the corresponding electrical voltage signal which are easy to
process further.
8. Fast dynamic Response: - Due to the absence of Friction, Its dynamic
response becomes very fast to change in a core position.
Disadvantages of LVDT
1. Since LVDT is Inductive Transducer, so it is sensitive to Stray Magnetic Field.
Hence an extra setup is required to protect it from Stray Magnetic Field.
 2. Since it is an electromagnetic device, so it also gets affected by the vibrations and
temperature variation.
Applications of LVDT
1. LVDT is used to measure the physical quantities such as Force, Tension, Pressure,
Weight, etc. These quantities are first converted into displacement by the use of
primary transducers and then it is used to convert the displacement to the
corresponding Electrical voltage signal.
2. It is mostly used in industries as well as a servomechanism.
3. It is also used in Industrial Automation, Aircraft Turbine, Satellite, hydraulics,
Necular reactors etc.
3, mention three principles of inductive transducer?
Three principles of inductive transducer are
 Self-Inductance Change
 Mutual Inductance Change
 Eddy Current Production
4, mention three principles of inductive transducer?
The inductive transducer uses three principles which include the following.

 Self-Inductance Change
 Mutual Inductance Change
 Eddy Current Production

Self-Inductance Change
We know that the coil’s self-inductance can be derived by

L = N2/R

Where ‘N’ is the number of twists of coil

‘R’ is the magnetic circuit’s reluctance

The reluctance ‘R’ can be derived by the following equation

R = l/µA
Thus, inductance equation can become like the following

L = N2 µA/l
Where

A = It is the Coil’s cross-sectional area

l = Coil’s length

µ = Permeability

We know that geometric form factor G = A/l, then the inductance equation will become
like the following.

L = N2 µG
The self-inductance is changed by a change in the number of twists, geometric form
factor ‘G’ and permeability ‘µ’.
For instance, if some displacement is capable to alter the above factors, then it can be
calculated directly in terms of inductance.

Mutual Inductance Change

Here transducers work on the principle of change in mutual inductance. It uses several
coils for the purpose of knowing. These coils include their self-inductance which are
indicated by L1 & L2. The common inductance among these two twists can be derived by
the following equation.

M = √ L1. L2
Therefore, common inductance is altered by unstable self-inductance otherwise through
the unstable coupling of coefficient ‘K’. Here, the coupling coefficient mainly depends
on the direction & distance among the two coils. As a result, the displacement can be
measured by fixing one coil & make secondary coil movable. This coil can move by the
power source whose displacement is to be calculated. The change in mutual inductance
can be caused by the change in displacement coefficient coupling distance. This mutual
inductance change is adjusted by measurement and displacement.

Eddy Current Production

Whenever a conducting shield is located close to a coil carrying AC

(alternating current), then the current flow can be induced within the shield
which is known as “EDDY CURRENT”. This kind of principle is used in
inductive transducers. When a conducting plate is arranged near to a coil
carrying AC then eddy currents will be generated within the plate. The plate
which carries eddy current will generates their own magnetic field which
works against plate magnetic field. So the magnetic flux will be reduced.
As a coil is located near to coil carrying AC, a flowing current can be
induced within it which in turn generates its own flux to decrease the flux of
the current-carrying coil & therefore coil’s inductance will be changed. Here,
the coil is arranged nearer to the plate then high eddy current will be
generated as well as a high drop within coil inductance. Thus, by changing
the distance among the coil and plate, the inductance of the coil will change.
The principle like changing the distance of coil or plate with the help of
measurand can be used within measurements of displacement.

Resistance Thermometer
Definition – The resistance thermometer or resistance temperature detector
(RTD) uses the resistance of electrical conductor for measuring
the temperature. The resistance of the conductor varies with the time. This
property of the conductor is used for measuring the temperature. The main
function of the RTD is to give a positive change in resistance with temperature.

The metal has a high-temperature coefficient that means their temperature

increases with the increase in temperature. The carbon and germanium have low-
temperature coefficient which shows that their resistance is inversely proportional
to temperature.
Material used in Resistive Thermometer

The resistance thermometer uses a sensitive element made of extremely pure

metals like platinum, copper or nickel. The resistance of the metal is directly
proportional to the temperature. Mostly, platinum is used in resistance
thermometer. The platinum has high stability, and it can withstand high
temperature.

Gold and silver are not used for RTD because they have low resistivity. Tungsten
has high resistivity, but it is extremely brittles. The copper is used for making the
RTD element. The copper has low resistivity and also it is less expensive. The only
disadvantage of the copper is that it has low linearity. The maximum temperature
of the copper is about 120ºC.

The RTD material is made of platinum, nickel or alloys of nickel. The nickel wires
are used for a limited temperature range, but they are quite nonlinear.

The following are the requirements of the conductor used in the RTDs.

1. The resistivity of the material is high so that the minimum volume of

conductor is used for construction.
2. The change in resistance of the material concerning temperature should
be as high as possible.
3. The resistance of the material depends on the temperature.
The resistance versus temperature curve is shown in the figure below. The curves
are nearly linear, and for small temperature range, it is very evident.

Construction of Resistive Thermometer

The resistance thermometer is placed inside the protective tube for providing the
protection against damage. The resistive element is formed by placing the platinum
wire on the ceramic bobbin. This resistance element is placed inside the tube which
is made up of stainless steel or copper steel.
The lead wire is used for connecting the resistance element with the external lead.
The lead wire is covered by the insulated tube which protects it from short circuit.
The ceramic material is used as an insulator for high-temperature material and for
low-temperature fibre or glass is used