TRANSDUCERS

Introduction

• Process of converting one form of energy into another is called

‘Transduction’, and the device that performs this function is
called a ‘Transducer’.

• Physical parameters to be measured are most of the time ‘non-

electrical’.

• Non-electrical quantities are converted into electrical quantities

for better measurements. This is because electrical methods of
measurement (sensing, signal conditioning, transmission,
indication) are much more advantageous than other methods
(e.g. mechanical and chemical).
• The devices which converts other form of energy into electrical
forms are called ‘Electrical Transducers’
• However, with reference to this course, when we say
‘transducer’, it refers to ‘electrical transducer’.

A nice definition:
‘A transducer is a device which, when actuated by energy in
one form, produces an electrical output energy ’
 Advantages of Electrical Transducers
The advantages of converting physical quantities into analogous
electrical quantities are:
1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily and with
static devices
2. The mass-inertia effects are minimized.
3. Effects of friction are minimized
4. Can be controlled with a very small power level
5. Output can be easily used, transmitted, stored and processed
6. Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated measurement systems.
The entire aerospace research and development is based upon
telemetry and remote control. Mechanical transmission would not
make this possible.
7. Miniaturization is possible by the use of ICs
 Classification of Transducers

Can be classified according to their applications, method of

energy conversion, nature of output signal and so on.

A classification can be done based on the electrical circuit

parameter that is meant to be changed due to the presence
of the physical parameter to be measured:

1. Resistance
2. Capacitance
3. Inductance
4. Voltage and Current
 Another Classification of Transducers

Primary transducers
Transducers that sense a physical phenomenon at the first stage of
detection; e.g. thermocouple

Secondary transducers
The physical phenomenon is first sensed by a non-electrical transducer.
It’s output is then converted into an electrical signal by an electrical
transducer. This second transducer is called secondary transducer.
For example: in one type of pressure meter, a mechanical tube (Bourdon
tube) first converts the pressure to be measured into an analogous
displacement. It is then sensed by an electrical transducer which is called
secondary transducer
 Resistive Transducers
Transducer that employs change in resistance of a sensing element is called
resistive transducer.
Resistive transducers are preferred over transducers employing other
principles.

The well-known equation of resistance of a resistor element:

R= ρL/A
Design basis: vary any combination of the 3 quantities
For example: temperature can change ρ; strain can change ρ, L
and A, altogether

Applications:
Temperature, strain, displacement, force, pressure etc.
 Strain Gauge
A Strain gauge is a transducer whose resistance varies with applied force; It
converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical
resistance which can then be measured.

If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, both L and A change,

so its R changes.
Also ρ changes when it is strained. This property is called
piezoresistive effect.
Resistance strain gauges are also known as piezoresistive gauges.

Theory of Strain Gauges:

Resistance of an unstrained wire, R= ρL/A

Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire. This causes a positive

longitudinal strain and negative lateral strain.
Let, ΔL= change in length, ΔA=change in area, ΔD=change in
diameter and ΔR= change in resistanc
ρ
Gauge factor (Gf) or strain factor of a strain gauge is the ratio of relative
change in electrical resistance R, to the mechanical strain ε. The measurement
of the sensitivity of a material to the strain is called the gauge factor (Gf)
 Applications
For example:
1. Structural stress analysis
- e.g., smart bridges. In order to keep bridges in good
conditions, people use strain gauge sensors on
bridges to monitor stresses on weak points of a
bridge.
- A bridge can have hundreds of sensors to supervise
its stress levels at hundreds of points of the bridge
2. Measurement of force, pressure, flow
- indirectly measures the force, pressure through the
material strains. Mechanics of materials provide the
necessary equation between strains and stresses.
- First measure differential pressure in a section of
pipe/tube/channel. Then Hydrodynamics gives the
necessary equation between differential pressure and
flow rate
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Or
Resistance Thermometer
Table: Metals used for RTD

Metal Resistance Temperature Melting point

Temperature range (°C) (°C)
Co-efficient
(/°C)
Platinum 0.39 (-260) - (110) 1773
Copper 0.39 (0) - (180) 1083
Nickel 0.62 (-220) - (300) 1435
Tungsten 0.45 (-200) - 3370
(1000)
Desirable characteristics of an RTD material:
Change in resistance per unit change in temperature should be as
large as possible
High resistivity, so that a minimum volume of material is used for
the construction of RTD
The R versus T curve should be continuous, stable and repeatable.

Platinum (Pt) is specially suited for use in RTD (Known as

PRTD).
Withstand high temperatures while maintaining excellent stability
As a noble metal, it shows limited susceptibility to contamination
Gold, Silver: rarely used, as they have low resistivity

Tungsten: relatively high resistivity, but reserved for high

temperature applications as it is extremely brittle and difficult to
work with.

Cu: low resistivity forces the element to be longer than the Pt

element; linearity and low cost make it an economical alternative.

The most common RTDs are made of either Pt, Nickel or Nickel
alloys.

For measurement integrity (precision and accuracy), Pt is the

best choice
 Applications

RTD is one of the most ACCURATE and PRECISE temperature

sensors.
Most industrial applications require very high temperatures for their
processes, and they do not need that much accurate temperature
measurements, e.g. for a 250 °C temperature process, it may not matter
whether it is 248 °C or 252 °C.
RTD Applications:
Bio-reactor: here biological cells are grown in a controlled manner.
A deviation of temperature from the set value can cause the cell to
die or grow defectively. So, precise and accurate temperature
measurement is highly required for exact control of bioreactor
temperature.
Low temperature process: where small change of temperature
needs to be measured with repeated accuracy
Inductive transducer
• This transformer consists of a primary and two
secondary and a moveable softiron core.
• Differential output voltage
Eo=Es1-Es2
• When the core is in Null position Eo = 0
• When core is moved left or right, Eo isno more
zero.
 LVDT

N.B. Read text book for details description. “A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurement and
Instrumentation”-A.K Sawhney ; Chapter: 25
Advantages Disadvantages
• High range • Relatively large
• Friction and Electric displacement is required
Isolation • They are sensitive to
stray magnetic fields
• Immunity from external • Performance is affected
effects by vibration
• High output and high • Operates only in AC
sensitivity • Dynamic response is
limited
• Tolerate high degree of
• Sensitive to temperature.
shock and vibration
• Low power consumption
• Rotary Variable
Differential Transformer
(RVDT) is used to measure
angular position.
• Its operating principle is
similar to the LVDT except
the core can rotate about a
shaft.
• The output
voltage is
EH=KHIB/t
• Here,
• KH-Hall
coefficient
t- Thickness of the
strip
I=current
B=magnetic flux
density
Working principle with neat and clean figure

Self-Study:Application of hall effect transducer

 PDF-3

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 Variable Capacitance Transducers

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3 basic methods:
1. By varying d
2. By varying A, and
3. By varying ε

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Variable Area Displacement Sensors:
Alternatively, the displacement may be sensed by varying the overlapping area of the
electrodes of the parallel plate capacitor.

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 Variable Dielectric Displacement Sensors

Displacement may be sensed by the relative movement of the dielectric material

between the plates
1 A 1wl
Initial capacitance (at x=0): C x 0  
d d
Let the dielectric be moved through a distance of x in the direction indicated
1  A  A  2 A 1 wl  wx   2 wx 
Cx    
d d d d
1wl
 
w
 2  1 x  Cx0  C
d d 8
 Differential Arrangement: Capacitive Sensors

Differential arrangement obtained by changing: (a) area of overlap, (b) distance

between plates, and (c) dielectric between plates

Note that all the arrangements have 2 capacitors, which is a necessity for differential
output.

10
 Differential arrangement: Change of distance between plates

Fixed plate P1
C1, E1

Movable plate, M
E C2, E2
Fixed plate P2

An alternating voltage is applied across the plates, P1 and P2.

When the M is midway between the two fixed plates:

A
C1  C2 
d
E
So, the differential output is: (C1  C1 ) 2

1 1 2

11
 Fixed plate
P1 C1, E1
x
Movable plate, M
E C2, E2
Fixed plate P2

Let M be moved up due to displacement x.

Now, A A
C1  , C2 
dx dx
A
C2 E dx dx
 E1   E E
C1  C2 A A 2 d

dx dx
and ,
A
C1 E dx dx
E2   E E
C1  C2 A A 2 d

dx dx
Ex
 The differential output,E  E2  E1  12
d
Mathematical problem on
Transducers
Book: A.K. Shawhny
chapter:25
Example 25.7
Example 25.8
Example 25.11
Find the approximate resistance between 300 𝑎𝑛𝑑 600
using resistance-temperature curve given in figure.

1 𝑅𝜃2 − 𝑅𝜃1
𝛼𝜃 0 =
𝑅𝜃0 𝜃2 − 𝜃1

Find Resistance at 𝜃 = 52𝑜