INTRODUCTION

Kollam was a major port city of medieval Kerala. The geographical

location of Kollam was favourable for the facility of communication with other

countries, both by sea and land. Kollam had trade relations with the different parts

of the world such as Persia, China. The trading communities such as Arabs, Jews

and Christians were the foremost participants in the long distance trade of Kollam.

The medieval period had a special significance in the history of Kerala, as it was

in this period the Europeans came into this region and started trade relations with

its people. It brought about changes in the socio-political and economic fields of

Kerala.

Period of Study

The time frame of this study is from 825 AD to 1758 A.D. The year AD

825 corresponds to the founding of the city, Kollam. Several scholars worked hard

to connect the founding of the city with Sapor. As a trading centre, Kollam, had

established its significance long before 825. But it was after the coming of Mar

Sapor and Mar Prodh,1 Kollam had developed as a major maritime trading centre

which had international connections. The year 1758 marks a phase of transition in

which Kollam experienced following its annexation by Marthanda Varma.

Though it may appear to be a long span of time, the change over time with regard

to the maritime trading activity of Kollam can be well analyzed by taking this time

1
Mar Sapir and Mar Prodh – Persian Merchants who reached at Kollam in 9th century.
 2

span. Moreover it displays the changing features of trade during the early

medieval, medieval and later medieval periods in a successive and sequential way.

However, the development of the port city, Kollam, was intrinsically linked with

its participation in the international network of trade emanating from the western

Indian Ocean and terminating in the eastern Indian Ocean.

Theory and Method

The theory that followed in this study is World system; old world system

that existed prior to the modern world system. Long-distance trade has always

occupied a large and significant place in history. Prior to the rise of the West to

pre-eminence, a system of world trade was integrating a number of societies

stretching between the extremes of north Western Europe and China. A large

number of merchant communities involved in this long distance trade. The pattern

of trade in each region seems to have varied in accordance with the nature of

exchange and local circuits of trade.2

These people didn’t speak or write the same languages, nor were their local

currencies the same. But goods were transferred, prices set, exchange rates agreed upon,

contracts entered into, credit-on funds or on goods located elsewhere extended,

3
partnerships formed, records kept and agreements honored.

2
R. Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization, South India 300 BC to AD 1300, New

Delhi,1996, p.113.
3
Janet L.Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony- The World System A.D.1250-1350, New

York, 1989, p.8.

 3

According to Abu-Lughod, the East was dominanted up to the 13th

century.4 During the years, 1250 – 1350, an international trade economy

developed in the regions between north Western Europe and China. Europe was a

part of 13th century World System. That trade system stretched through the

Mediterranean into the Red sea and Persian Gulf and on into the Indian Ocean and

through the Strait of Malacca to reach China. It is true that Europe was a part of

the periphery at the mid 13th century. While the Middle East, India and China

were part of the Core.5 During that time Cairo and Baghdad played major roles in

the 13th century trade. Chinese and Arab’s trade mainly concentrated on the coast

of Kollam.6

The rise of Islam during the seventh century and its expansion to a mass

religion by the end of the eighth century had created a unity among different

trading communities. Indian Ocean trade was under the control of Arabs and

Indian fleets. Islamic ideas and culture spread into Persia, Afghanistan, India and

Western China, creating a new world economy that would serve as the nucleus for

an enlarged system, once Europe joined it.7

4
According to Abu-Lughod Europe remained as peripheral in this 13th century world system and

there was no inherent ‘historical necessity’ that shifted the system to favour the west rather than

the East, nor was there any inherent historical necessity that would have prevented cultures in the

eastern region from becoming the progenitors of a modern world system, Ibid., p. 12.
5
Ibid., pp.13-14.
6
R.Champakalakshmi, Op. cit, p.394.
7
Janet L.Abu-Lughod, Op. cit., p46.
 4

The Indian Ocean was an area of social and cultural diversity. The

commercial expansion of Muslim merchants and traders across the Indian Ocean

to South Asia and China is recorded from the eighth century. Arab achievements

made it possible to unite the two arteries of long distance trade between Indian

Ocean and Mediterranean.8

China played a key role in this trade. By the tenth century Chinese

merchants and junk-owners had become aware of the financial gains to be made

from a direct participation in the Indian Ocean trade.9 During the years between

8th and 13th centuries the demand for goods had been increased. Zaiton, a centre of

porcelain and silk manufacture, was crowded with ocean going shipping and its

commercial traffic exceeding that of Alexandria, Kollam and Kozhikode.

In the 13th century, the Asian sea trade that traversed the Arabian Sea, the

Indian Ocean, and South China Sea was subdivided into three interlocking circuits
10
(see p.229, map.7) on the basis of geography. The westernmost circuit was

largely inhabited by Muslims, with ship owners and major merchants. They

conducted their business in the ports of Gujarat and Malabar (Quilon and Calicut).

The middle circuit connected the South Indian coast- both Malabar on the west

and Coromandel on the east-with the region of Malaya and Sumatra. The

8
K.N. Choudhuri, Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean, An Economic History from the

Rise of Islam to 1750, New Delhi, 1985, p.44.

9
Ibid., p.51.
10
Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Op.cit., p.251.
 5

easternmost circuit was Chinese space, the sea that joined the east coast of Indo-

China and northern shore of Java with the great ports of south China.11

The arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean resulted in the system of

peaceful oceanic navigation.12 The existing system was not challenged until the

sixteenth century. By the end of the fifteenth century the Portuguese had

discovered the sea route to India, sailing down the Atlantic coast of Africa and

then up the eastern coast to enter the gateway to the Indian Ocean. But gradually

the other European powers also came into scene.13 With the coming of the

Europeans the existing system and tolerance were challenged. India was the centre

for both the Euro-Asian as well as intra-Asian trading networks of the

Europeans.14 Holland and England eventually became the new cores of the

“modern world system”.

It is true that the Muslim merchants of Malabar formed an important

commercial group that operated within the orbit of a World System encompassing

the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. With the entry of the Portuguese into the

Indian Ocean, and with their commercial expansion in the east, there was an

attempt to incorporate this region into a New World System that had appeared in

11
Ibid., pp.251-283.
12
K.N. Choudhary, Op.cit.,p.63.
13
K.M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance, Mumbai,1999,p.13.
14
Rudrangshu Mukherjee and Laksmi Subramanian (eds.), Politics and Trade in the Indian Ocean

World, New Delhi, 2003, p.165.

 6

the Atlantic.15 This move eventually triggered to a clash between the Old World

System and the emerging New World System.16

The method used for this work is principally analytical and descriptive.

Aims and Objectives

Kollam was a major port of South India during the pre-Portuguese period.

Favourable conditions of Kollam attracted various trading groups to came and

settle here. These connections enabled Kollam to play a decisive role in the

emerging Indian Ocean World System, sustained by the movement of

commodities between the Indian Ocean and the eastern Mediterranean. The two

central powers, Abbasid Persia and T’ang China already developed their

international trading connections. On the one hand its trade extended to Abbassid

Persia, while on the other hand it extended to the consumer markets of China, the

networks of which carried pepper, ginger, cardamom etc., in bulk volumes. Spices

constituted a significant proportion of all items traded, but manufactured goods

like textiles and weapons were part of long distance trade.

The local rulers patronized this trade as it earned for them huge wealth as

customs, which they used for strengthening their emerging state. In pre-European

15
Pius Malekandathil, Maritime India, Delhi,2010, p.125.
16
The Muslim merchants responded to the commercial expansion of the Portuguese and clashes

occurred.It was the Muslims who ruled the Indian Ocean and they were the active feeders of the

Old World System .

 7

World System17 sustained by trade between the Indian Ocean and the eastern

Mediterranean, Kollam acted as an important resource mobilizing device initially

for the Cheras and later for the local chieftains.

However, with the coming of Europeans the destiny of Kollam was

changed; the most important aspect of the change was that Kollam was eventually

incorporated into the networks of the New World System18 centering on Atlantic.

Geographical discoveries paved the way for establishing European monopoly on

spice trade. How Kollam with its local merchant communities and indigenous

networks of trade responded to the European commercial expansion is a

challenging aspect of history yet to be explored.

This work principally looks into the diverse processes and mechanisms by

which Kollam emerged as an international trading centre and the ways by which it

managed to organize the maritime trade of South India even when it faced adverse

politico-economic conditions. The study also tries to see the principal merchant

communities with the help of which the maritime trade of Kollam was mobilized.

Nature of responses given by the port of Kollam and its trading

communities to the challenges raised by the European trading expansion is also

analyzed. The socio-cultural influence of the trading communities of Kollam also

17
The commercial expansion of Muslim merchants across the Indian Ocean is recorded from 8th

century. The Indian Ocean world system was challenged with the coming of the Portuguese.,

K.N. Choudhury, Op.cit., p.44.

18
The old Indian Ocean World System was challenged by the Atlantic era after the coming of the

Portuguese.
 8

came under the study and attempted to examine the agrarian relations, cultural

bondage and commercial connections of Kollam. The study tried to find out the

developments in the maritime trade of South India by analyzing the elements of

continuity, against the background of the socio-economic and political changes in

Kollam. The present study passes through the various stages of the development

of the city of Kollam. The revival of the port city must bring back the lost glory of

Kollam.

Sources

The reconstruction of past is possible only with the help of authentic

historical sources scattered in different places in different forms. The

reconstruction of medieval Kerala history needs the strong support of

archaeological, numismatic and archival sources. Literary sources are available in

the form of travelogues, caritas and sandesakavyas. Inscriptional evidences

deserve special attention in the reconstruction of medieval Kerala history.

Indigenous sources are really the mines of historical and geographical

informations. Most of the indigenous sources like Sandesakavyas give clear

depiction of medieval Kerala trade. It is worth noting that they also narrate the

trade routes of Kerala and the items which were sold in market. Main temples on

the trade routes were also mapped in these Sandesakavyas. Unnunili Sandesam,

one of the sandesakavyas is a very significant work that helps to understand the

reconstruction of medieval Kerala trade. The work clearly depicts the trade routes

of Travancore area and mentions about the importance of Kollam as a prosperous

trading centre. The work also dealt with the Chinese trade relation with Kollam
 9

and says about the items of commodities and coinage. Unniyaccicaritam is

another literary source that throws light on trade relations of Kollam. These

documentary evidences are supported with the evidences from the field study.

Inscriptions are very important and authentic sources for the study of

medieval Kerala History. The book entitled Travancore Archaeological Series by

T. A. Gopinatha Rao is a major source for the reconstruction of medieval Kerala

history. The book includes the translations of major inscriptions regarding the

history of Kerala. The work gives a clear account of Tharisppally Copper Plates

and merchant guilds like Anjuvannam and Manigramam. Although the

Tharisappally Copper Plates have been known to scholars since the early 19th

century, they are so complex to read that they had never been studied as a single

document. Recent studies of the scholars like Raghava Varier and Rajan Gurukkal

considered it as a single document.

It also provides details about the different castes of medieval Kerala

society such as Ezhava and Vannan, and it also throws lights on their profession.

The land grant system and the patronage of the local rulers to the merchant

community etc. are brought under the study. The work says about the transfer of

certain families to Tharisapally. Similarly Kollam Rameswaram inscription

throws light on the dynastic history of Kollam and Mampally pattayam reveals the

social conditions of medieval Kerala.

Archival materials like neettus and curunas contain details of trade

administration and revenue matters. Neettus give details about the dynastic history

of Kollam, Venadu and Travancore regions. The commercial matters and revenue
 10

from the land like Thekkumkur and Vadakkumkur19 etc. recorded in neettus.

Besides this they throw light on the Travancore-Dutch problems, import items

and tariff on import items20 and the details of the remuneration of the porters etc.21

It is interesting that Mathilakam Curunas contain details regarding the

history of Travancore. The records were actually aimed for the execution of

temple related matters. Mathilakam records throw light upon the social and

religious life of the people. These records give details about the godana22

(doanation of cows) and repairing of the temple. Curunas dealt with the matters of

Sri. Padmanabha Swami temple and the royal patronage of the local rulers of

Travancore to the temple. The Sri Padmanabha Swami temple was destroyed by a

fire, in 168623 and the repairing of temple was done by the Anizham Tirunal

Marthanda Varma.

Another source, the Kerala Society Papers rigorously discuss about the glory

of Kollam as a maritime trading centre. Diverse trading communities settled there

with the purpose of trading and become a part of the port city. Kerala Society

Papers provides records of Travancore dynasty and the succession of rulers.

Epigraphia Indica,Vol.III 1894-95, includes the details of Jewish tradition in

relation with the port cities of Kerala.

19
Neettu, 962-11-1, Vol.3, Page. 164.
20
Neettu, 1009-1-19, Vol.26, Page. 34-38.
21
Neettu, 977-3-21, Vol.4, Page. 200.
22
Mathilakam Granthavari 1, Ola No:290-295.
23
Mathilakam Granthavary 1, Ola -222, 861-6-16.
 11

It is worth noting that the translation of Chau-Ju-Kua’s work Chu-Fan-Chi

by Frederic Hirth and W.W. Rockhill supplies first hand information regarding the

Chinese trade with Kollam. Chau Ju- kua in the course of his official duties would

have had the opportunity and the incentive to acquire a direct knowledge of the

different branches of Indian Ocean trade of the merchants and commodities that

arrived in China from different ports. It authentically narrates the silk trade of

China. The work mentions about Ho-chi silk, porcelain, camphor, cloves sandal

wood, cardamom and gharuwood and pepper. These were the main items of

Chinese trade.

Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol.II,24 gives first hand information about

the major maritime trading centers of medieval Kerala. Along with Kollam, there

are references about the major trading centers like Calicut, Bengal and Surat. The

Work includes a collection of notices of medieval travellers which gives valuable

information on social set up of Malabar. It also dealt with the spice trade, Chinese

porcelain trade, types of Chinese ships like junks and kakams etc. Archaeological

remains such as Chinese celedon wares from Kollam give strong support for the

literary evidences.

The translation of Ying Yai Sheng Lan25 of Ma Huan by J.V.G. Mills offers

the particulars of Kollam -China relation. He records the maritime trade relations

24
Henry Yule & Henry Cordier (Trans. & ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol.II, New

Delhi,1998, p.25.
25
Ma Huan ,Ying Yai Sheng-Lan (1453), Translated and edited by J.V.G.Mills, Cambridge, 1970,

p.132.
 12

and products of Kollam, which had great demand in China. Ma Huan’s account

Ying-yai Sheng-lan (1433) describes the country of the little Ko-lan, (Quilon), Ko-

chin(Cochin), Kuli(Calicut) etc., and presents many curious information, which

included several ethnographic details. The inventory to commodities traded

between China and Quilon is available for 14th and early 15th centuries.

European Travellers in India by E.F.Oaten extensively comments on the

maritime trade of Kollam and Calicut. It also dealt with the 16th century social

conditions of Kerala in general. Marriage customs and law of inheritance etc. are

brought under discussion.26 We get extensive account of medieval Malabar from

the records left by Ludovico Di Varthema. According to him Kollam was a

wonderful port of medieval period.27 In his documentation he elaborately

mentions about the St. Thomas Christians at Kayamkulam who were known as

producers of pepper. He was impressed with the abundance of pepper at Kollam.

Calicut also was a flourishing town of medieval Kerala.28 It was a busy centre of

diverse merchant groups from the different parts of the world.

The Voyages of John Huygen Van Linschoten is another work which

deserves special attention. He records about the social divisions of Malabar and

26
E.F.Oaten, European Travellers in India, New Delhi, 1991, pp.30-37.
27
John Winter Jones (trans), Itinerary of Ludovico Di Varthema of Bologna, From 1502 To 1508,

1997, p.71.
28
Ibid., p.61.
 13

the pathetic conditions of the polios (Pulayas-low caste)29. He vigorously

documents the coir manufacturing and the use of coir in the construction of ships.

Similarly The Book of Duarte Barbosa also provides valuable informations

about the sixteenth century Malabar. The book offers a clear structure of the

society and touched the manners and customs of the society. He records certain

marriage ceremonies prevailed in medieval Kerala and reports about the

matrilineal system of inheritance. Barbosa records the presence of Moors,

Heathens and Christians at Kollam.30 They are great traders and owned many

ships which are engaged in trading activities.

Tuhfat-Ul Mujahideen of Sheik Zeinudheen deals with the development of

Muslims as a trading community of medieval Kerala. He talks about the region of

Calicut and its powerful rulers, the Zamorins. He also depicts the atrocities of

Portuguese on the Muslims; women and children also were harassed by the

Portuguese.31 They found the Muslims as their rival groups in Kerala.

The Travels of Abbe Carre in India and the Near East, 1672 to 1674 Vol. III
32
which is a translated work of Fawcett records that the aim of Dutchman at

29
Arthur Coke Burnell and P.S. Tiele, (trans. & ed.), John Huyghen Van Linschoten, The Voyage

of John Huyghen Van Linschoten to the East Indies, Vol.I. 1885, London, p.73.
30
M.L. Dames, (trans.), The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Vol.II, Reprint, Liechtenstein, 1967, p.97.
31
S.M.H. Nainar (trans.), Tuhfat-Ul-Mujahideen, Calicut, 2006, p.42.
32
Fawcett, The Travels of Abbe Carre in India and Near East, 1672-1674, Vol.III, New Delhi,

1990, p.691.
 14

Kollam was the procurement of spices. Travels in India33 by Jean Baptiste

Tavernier Vol. II edited by William Crooke traces the problems with the

Portuguese and the Dutch in spice trade.

The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea34, translated by Wilfred H Schoff dealt

with the glory of Kodungallur as a major maritime trading centre of ancient

Kerala. It is a precious work for the reconstruction of ancient Kerala history and

its trade relations with the different part of the world.

Field trips to the sites have enabled me to familiarize with the area and to

corroborate the written sources with physical verification. The city-plans, maps

and other pictorial sources provided by the Portuguese writers were used to locate

the urban settlement pattern of Kollam as well as the core area of exchange

activity in the city.

Review of Literature

The present study titled “Society and Economy of South Kerala with

Special Reference to Kollam 825-1758.” is a humble attempt for understanding the

socio- economic and political conditions of Kollam during the medieval period.

The study also tries to understand the maritime trade relations of Kollam. It is

pertinent here to review some of the works that have already appeared on the

subject under study. Though there are many general works on the history of

Kerala, only a very few deal with Kollam and its socio-political life.

33
William Crook (trans. & ed.), Travels in India by Jean Baptiste Tavernier, New Delhi, 1977,

p15.
34
W.H. Schoff, (trans.), The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, New Delhi, 1974, p.44.
 15

Meera Abraham’s Two Medieval Merchant Guilds of South Kerala is a

valuable work that helps for the reconstruction of the socio- politico and economic

history of Kollam. Merchant guilds like Anjuvannam and Manigramam played a

vital role in the development of Kollam as a medieval port city. Numerous

inscriptions were utilized by the author for the reconstruction of the history of the

merchant guilds. From the inscriptional evidences it is clear that Kollam was a

flourishing trading centre till the 13th century.

Agrarian India Problems and Perspective’s an edited work by E.K.G.

Nambiar, discusses the problems and perspectives of medieval Kerala society,

especially the work dealt with the agrarian relations of Kerala. The work analyses

the land grant system, transfer of lands agriculture, agricultural implements

irrigation system etc. It will helps to get a clear picture of caste based society; the

temple oriented activities and developments and method of tax collection from

this work.

Before European Hegemony, The World System A.D.1250-1350 by Janet L.

Abu-Lughod describes how and to what extent the world was linked into a

common commercial network of production and exchange.35

Ibn Battuta36 presents valuable information about the long-distance trade

of Kollam, which to whom was one of the finest towns in the Mulaybar lands and

the nearest of the Mulaybar towns to China. He describes the Chinese junks,

35
Janet Lippman Abu-Lughod, Op.cit.,pp.8-19.
36
Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa-1325-1354, Translated and Selected by H.A.R., Gibb,

Reprint, New Delhi, 2001, p.238.

 16

dhows and kakams (different types of ships) anchoring at the port city of Kollam,

which he compares with Alexandria and Aden as far as the long distance trade,

was concerned. However these works do not offer the aspects of the trade such as

the organization of trade, commercial intermediaries involved in trade etc.

Interestingly The Travels of Marco Polo37, translated by Aldo Ricci from

L.F. Benedetto delivers first hand information about the Coilum which is

identified as Kollam and gives a detailed record about the spices like pepper and

ginger. However it does not look into the dynamics of its maritime trade.
38
Travancore Archaeological Series give first hand information about the

content of the Tharisappally Copper Plates and throws light into the diverse

privileges given to the first trading settlers of Kollam, besides highlighting the

role of the trading bodies of Anjuvannam and Manigramam in mobilizing the

trade of Kollam. India in the Fifteenth Century,39 a collection of narratives of

voyages to India, translated by R.H. Major includes the travel accounts of Abd-Er-

Razzak, Nikitin, Nicolo Conti, who also refer to Kollam. But the details of the

trading activities of Kollam do not come under its purview.

37
Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, Translated by Aldo Ricci from L.F. Benedetto, ,

Reprint, New Delhi 1994, p.326.

38
T.A.Gopinathan Rao (ed.), Travancore Archaeological Series, Vol-II, Part -I, Reprint,

Trivandrum,1992, pp.64-65.
39
R.H. Major, India in the Fifteenth Century, Reprint, New Delhi, 1992, p.xxv.
 17

A History of Kerala by K.P.Padmanabha Menon40 talks about the

establishment of the city of Kollam, while Pius Malekandathil’s work, The

Germans, The Portuguese and India41, highlights the trading activities of Kollam

with Abbasid Persia and T’ang China. Haraprasad Ray,42 invariably dwells upon

the different strands of trade carried out between Kollam and China in the pre-

modern period and looks into the maritime trade of Kollam with China during

T’ang, Yuan and Ming periods.

A History of Kerala written by K.M. Panikkar43 portrays the importance

of merchant guilds in Medieval Kerala trade. St.Thomas Christians and Jews acted

as the agents for the procurement of pepper and other spices and they grew as

leading powers of Kollam. The coming of European powers and the changes

occurred in society, polity and economy also discussed elaborately in this work.

India and the Indian Ocean world –Trade and Politics by Ashin Das Gupta

discusses the coming of Europeans and how the Dutch dream of a revived

monopoly on pepper trade had to be given up. The work also probes into the

political expansion of Travancore after the battle of Colachel.

40
K.P. Padmanabha Menon, History of Kerala, Vol.II , Reprint, Delhi,1982, p.15.
41
Pius Malekandathil, The Germans, The Portuguese and India, Munster, 1999, p.4.
42
Haraprasad Ray, “Historical contacts between Quilon and China”in Pius Malekandathil & T.

Jamal Mohammed (ed.), The Portuguese Indian ocean and European Bridgeheads, Tellicherry,

2001, p. 377.
43
K.M. Panikkar, A History of Kerala, Annamalainagar,1960, p.87.
 18

The Colas of K.A Nilakanta Sastri discusses the development of

international trade relations. From 9th Century onwards Kollam began to develop

as a major maritime trading centre. Kollam had trade relations with T’ang China

and Baghdad. T’ang Empire in China and Abbasid Khalifate in Baghdad helped

enormously for the development of Kollam as a maritime trading centre.

Jewish Travellers (801-1775), edited by Elkan Nathan Adler, is a

collection of narratives of voyages of Jewish travellers like Benjamin Tudela. The

travel accounts of Benjamin of Tudela talks about the Jews who were dispersed

throughout the different countries of the world. Jewish Travellers (801-1775)44

provides ample information about the Genizza papers and the role of Jews in the

conduct of commerce through their international trade network. However, this

work does not dwell upon other merchant communities.

M.G.S.Narayanan’s Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala45 gives a great amount

of information on the Tharisappally Copper Plates and the socio-economic

formation in Kollam during the early medieval period. It also deals with the

migration of different trading communities like Jews and Christians and their

influence in Kollam’s trade.

G.R Crone’s The Discovery of the East, is an important work that dealt with

the imports and exports of Kollam. It also discussed the participation of Jews and

Christians in the trading activities of Kollam. The work gives details of Chinese

junks, items of trade and taxes levied on imported items. P.M Jussay in his work
44
Elkan Nathan Adler,Jewish Travellers (801-1775), Reprint, New Delhi, 1995, p.372.
45
M.G.S.Narayanan, Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala, Trivandrum, 1972, p.32.
 19

The Jews of Kerala, discusses the role of the Jews in medieval maritime trade of

Kerala. He also probes in to the documents of Cairo Genizza.

The merchant guild Anjuvannam had an important role in the history of

Kollam’s maritime trade. It was known as the guild of Jews and the Jews played a

major role in connecting Kollam with the international trading centers of the

world. The earliest Jewish settlements in Kerala were in the port cities of

Kozhikode, Kodungallur and Kollam. The Jewish Copper Plates indicate the

importance of the Jews in medieval Kerala and it shows the patronage given by

the rulers to them (Joseph Rabban).

Malabar in Asian Trade, 1740 -1800 depicts Kollam as a centre of brisk

trade. The work engages with the international trade relations of Kollam. The

author discusses the development of Chinese-Kollam maritime trade relations. At

the same time the coming of the Europeans and its results in society and economy

also discussed. The Portuguese and Dutch trade with Kollam was thoroughly

problematised. The work clearly narrates how the Portuguese elaborated their

strong holds in Kollam.

The Dutch in Malabar by Galletti gives a detailed description of the Dutch in

Kollam. The work gives details about the items of import and export. The work

also mentions the volume of export; especially pepper, and its rates in different

regions. The Dutch period came to an end with the annexation of pepper

producing regions like Elayedathu swarupam by Marthanda Varma.

 20

Hypothesis

Kollam occupied an important place in the long-distance trade of India.

Spices constituted a significant proportion of all items traded, but manufactured

goods like textiles etc. were part of long distance trade. Different trading

communities such as Arabs, Jews and Christians etc. were participants of this

long-distance trade.

The waters of Indian Ocean formed an important medium for the Chinese

to enter India. The Muslim traders and indigenous Christian merchants of Kollam

sent commercial mission to the court of Kublai Khan, the great Chinese ruler.

Kollam maintained its prosperity till 13th century, but gradually began to fade its

glory as a major maritime trading centre. By the coming of the Europeans Kollam

was pushed back into a secondary level.

Chapterisation

Present study is divided into 5 chapters, except with an introduction and

conclusion. The introductory part is an attempt to state the problem. It also states

the central purpose of the study. The theory and method which is followed in the

present study also dealt in this part. Apart from this the work includes a review of

literature. The sources which are consulted also include in this part of the work.

Chapter one deals with the geo-historical settings of Kollam. Present

Kollam is the head quarters of the district of Kollam. It is a place of commercial

importance. The place is known for its industries like cashew and coir. It is also a

main tourist centre of Kerala. During the medieval time Kollam known for its
 21

commercial importance. Most of the Arab and European travellers records Kollam

as the fine port city of medieval Kerala.

Because of its geographical features trading communities from different

parts of the world attracted to this region and settled here. Moreover the

abundance of spices of Kollam attracted the foreigners to this port city. Arabs,

Jews, Christians etc. came and settled here and became a part of the city. Chinese,

Portuguese and Dutch came here for trade and still remained in the cultural realm

of Kollam.

Kodungallur was an international trading centre of ancient Kerala. After

the flood of 1341 the importance of Kodungallur became to decrease.

Kodungallur has trade relations with the European countries like Rome.46 It was

after the 8th Century A.D that Kollam came into prominence. Cochin and Calicut

were the other two important maritime trading centers of medieval Kerala.

Chapter two is an attempt to analyze the socio-economic conditions of

Kollam. It also tried to examine the development of Kollam as a major maritime

trading centre of medieval Kerala. The town was the capital of Venadu and the

rulers of Vendadu encouraged the trading activities of Kollam. During this time

Mar Sapor and Mar Prodh (merchants from Persia) came to Kollam carrying along

with them a long chain of commercial networks that had been developed by the

old Sassanid traders. Mar Sapor and Mar Prodh, Who are said to have erected the

46
Report on the Administration of the Archaeological Department of the Cochin State for the Year

1102 ME (1926-27 A.D), Ernakulam, 1928, p.9.

 22

Tharisappally were given certain commercial privilages from the ruler

Ayyanadikal Thiruvatikal.

During this period, agriculture began to develop in Kerala. Cultivation

developed along the major river basins and the cultivators were brought to

subjection by the authority of the temple Uralars. Cultivation was conducted by

the tenant settlers (kudiyas) and the bonded classes (adiyars).

References speak that slavery was existed at that time. Tharissapally

Copper Plates mention about the transfer of certain families (Ezhava, Vannan

Thaccan etc.) to the church (Tharisappally) along with the grants of 849.

Tharisapally played a major role in the socio-economic role of Kollam.

The merchant guilds like Anjuvannam and Manigramam played a

significant role in the development of Kollam. The merchant guilds brought the

trading activities of Kollam into an organized form. They had their branches in

the different parts of South India. The local rulers utilized the broad connections

of these guilds. Their aim was to fill the coffers and strengthen the state.

The third chapter titled Maritime Trade Relations of Kollam with China

focuses on the maritime trade relations of Kollam with China under different

rulers. It also discusses the socio-cultural influence of Chinese contact. Kollam

was the chief settlement of Chinese; the maritime contact of China with Kollam

was attested by Sulayman. The evidences of Arab geographers’ accounts,

travelogues and indigenous literatures are corroborated by archaeological remains

from Kollam.
 23

The Chinese had advanced knowledge of ship-building and navigation.

Kollam exported Brazil wood, indigo, ginger and pepper to China. Genizza papers

record indigo as one of the items of trade from India westward to Egypt handled

by the business house of Ibn Awkal in the period from 980 to 1030.47 Gujarat was

a centre for the export of indigo.Chinese tributary trading system was another

feature of medieval period. In this system the rulers were presented valuable

items like precious stones, pearls, ivory etc. Chinese ceramics and silks were in

great demand in Kollam.

The fourth chapter compacts with the coming of the Portuguese and their

socio-economic activities at Kollam. Their trading activities and its influences on

the society and economy are also problematized in this chapter. European powers

were attracted to the coast primarily for the procurement of spices, especially

pepper. The Portuguese established commercial relationship with Kollam from

the sixteenth century onwards.

They built their own fortress and factories and they issued cartazes (passes)

for the safe conduct of trade. But later the passes became compulsory for the

overseas trade. The ships that did not buy cartazes were confiscated along with

their cargo. The Portuguese tried to capture the monopoly of trade in pepper from

the Muslims or Arab merchants. They made large amount of profit from the spice

trade with Kollam. During their time they started educational institutions and

47
Himanshu Prabha Ray, A Historical Survey of Seafaring and Maritime Networks of Peninsular

India, New Delhi, 2006, p.9.

 24

hospitals at Kollam. The Portuguese chronicler Gouvea recorded the social

conditios of Kerala.48

The fifth chapter elaborately discusses the Dutch spice trade with Kollam.

The socio- cultural and economic influences of the Dutch also were analyzed in

this chapter. This part of the work deals with the coming of the Dutch and their

trading activities at Kollam. After the capture of Cochin from the Portuguese in

1663, the Dutch became a powerful force in Kerala. It is true that the monopoly

of pepper procurement was the major aim of the Dutch in Kollam. They built

warehouses at Kollam. However the Dutch always tried to procure pepper at a

cheaper rate.

During the reign of Marthanda Varma, the founder of modern Travancore,

the Dutch had to face many problems. After their failure in the battle of Colachel

they had to change their policy of interference and engaged in peace treaties with

Marthanda Varma. In the later period the army of Travancore trained in European

model by the war captive, D’ Lannoy, of Colechel. D, Lannoy played a vital role

in the military history of Travancore after he became an employee (in army) of

Marthanda Varma.

The next part of the work is conclusion. This part is an attempt to sums up

the findings of research. This part of the work discusses the socio- economic and

cultural impact of maritime trade relations of Kollam. The Christians played a

major role in the development of Kollam as a maritime trading centre. The society

of Kollam influenced by the Christians who came from West Asia. There was a

48
Archaeological Department-Administration Report 1105 ME, 1929-30, p.13.
 25

reciprocity between the rulers of Kollam and the Christians. Because it was the

Christians that controlled the trade around the Tharisappally. The rulers of

Kollam, like Sthanu Ravi, actually realized about the profit from the maritime

trade.

The trade relations with China much contributed to the society and

economy of Kollam. Chinese net and celedon wares were used by them and

artisans group began to ensure their position in the society. The Indian Ocean

trade was dominated by the Chinese. But with the coming of the Europeans like

the Portuguese and the Dutch, Kollam began to enter into New World System.

The spice trade was controlled by the Europeans.

The Portuguese and the Dutch brought about changes in the society and

introduced new social and educational policies. But during this period , as a port

city, Kollam pushed back or lost its dominant position. There are many reasons

for the decay of the city of Kollam. The commercial policies of the Europeans,

especially the Portuguese was one of the reasons for the destruction of the port

city of Kollam. Their policy of economic exploitation resulted in the fade out of

the economic prosperity of Kollam. The conclusion is followed by a bibliography

and appendices.