China, Sulu and Cebu Connection:

A Preliminary Study on the 16th Century Trade Relations

Munap Hairulla
Trizer Dale Mansueto
Michael Anthony Ngo
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology
Iligan City, Philippines

ABSTRACT

The earliest contact between China and the Philippines has not been definitely established, but
according to archaeological excavations, trading first occurred between the two countries
beginning in the 10th century AD. Based on records, trade relations began to flourish during the
Sung and Ming Dynasties between the 12th to the 16th centuries. Trading between China and the
Philippines became possible only when the Philippines was drawn into it due to the existence of
extensive trading in several entrepots found in the Malay-Indonesian archipelago. By browsing
documents, carefully checking on existing literatures and employing the archival method of
research, the main issue of this paper is an attempt to establish trade relations between China and
some parts of southern Philippines, giving emphasis on the roles of the Sulu Archipelago and the
island of Cebu in the 16th century. Furthermore, this paper seeks to 1) Identify the reasons that
drew Chinese traders to Sulu and Cebu; 2) Examine the commercial activities between Chinese
and the native traders; and 3) Discover what goods attracted the Chinese to visit the
abovementioned places.

Keywords: Trade relatins; Sulu-Cebu- China; entrepots;

Introduction

Different sources tell of different times when the Chinese first went into maritime trading.
Some peg it in the 3rd century BC but others reckon it to the 2nd and 3rd century AD, when Chinese
silk first reached the Roman Empire by way of the high seas. As a result, ports along the coasts of
China began to develop. The succeeding dynasties began to gradually expand the maritime trade
of China to other countries, crossing vast seas and oceans. However, it was during the Ming
Dynasty that the economic maritime trading and other developments in the empire were
unparalleled as compared to the previous dynasties. The Dynasty, which was described as dynamic
and outward-looking period in Chinese history, has seen the empire’s commercial revolution.
Overseas trade flourished in coastal ports around the Pacific and Indian Ocean, eastern coast of
Japan, Korea, Philippines, South Sea Islands and even west to the Arabian Peninsula. This
significant expansion policy was introduced under the leadership of Emperor Yung Lo (1402-
1424), who initiated and ordered the construction of a massive fleet composed of ships of
remarkable size1.

The initiative of the Chinese emperor regarding the expedition has opened more
opportunities for trading. It increased the distribution and coming of goods between South East
Asia and China. During this period, Malacca (Melaka) became one of the entrepots in the
flourishing maritime trade in the region. Goods from the empire were then distributed to the
Indonesian Archipelago and to the Islamic World, which includes the province of Sulu in the
southern parts of the Philippines. There have been records that several Arab ships used the route
along the trading port2. With such significance, the Chinese in the same area established a
permanent and official trading post in the port.

However, in the early period under the Ming Dynasty (around 1371 AD), a policy that
prohibits maritime trade with other countries was strictly implemented. This policy disrupted the
maritime links of China with other countries, since trading was only possible as part of the imperial
tribute system3. Only tributary missions from other countries were allowed and given permission
to enter the ports of China. This was the only way that South East Asian countries may acquire
goods from China. The scarcity that was created out of the policy on maritime trade stimulated
illegal activities such as smuggling and piracy in the region. Said activities were caused by their
defiance against the Ming Dynasty’s attempt of curtailing the livelihood of most merchants from
various parts of the South China4.

Methodology

In conducting the study, the researchers relied only on translated primary materials, as
well as secondary materials available at the University of San Carlos library, Cebu City; MSU-IIT
Main library in Iligan City, personal libraries and online journals.

1 Nie, Hongping Annie. The Selden Map of China. 2014. p. 6

2 Goddio, Franck. Lost at Sea: The Strange Route of the Lena Shoal. 2002. p. 4
3 Schottenhammer, Angela. The “China Seas” in World History. Journal of Marine and Island Cultures. 2012. p. 79
4 Bradley, Francis R. Piracy, Smuggling and Trade in the Rise of Patani, 1490-1600. Journal of Siam Society 2008 Vol 96. p.29
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

Early Chinese Maritime Trade in South East Asia

As early as the 3rd century B.C., Malay sailors were already known in China. Hall posits
that thereafter the Chinese first sailed to the Strait of Malacca. Sometime on the 2nd or 3rd century
A.D., Chinese traders had found their way to Funan where traders bought goods from Malay sailors
from different Southeast Asian ports passing by the Strait of Malacca. Malay sailors brought goods
to China themselves but in order to make their trip worth their while, they also brought back goods
from China to their respective ports. (Hall 1992:186-196). During the T’ang Empire (618-907
AD), records show that Chinese junks had already frequented the Moluccas5. Such states as Shu-
nai and Kamtang islands (located in the southeast which apparently corresponds to the Philippines)
begin to be mentioned in T’ang annals by 628-939 AD6.

Trading between the empire and the regions around South East Asia, also known as the
“Nanhai7Trade”, became an important commercial trade route8. The significance of Nanhai to the
commercial activity of China prompted the emperor (around 960-1279 AD) to take such drastic
measures to control the area9, which includes the Champa coast (Vietnam), Srivijaya (Palembang)
and the Strait of Malacca (Melaka). The opening of additional shipyards in the provinces of
Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang contributes to the increasing numbers of Chinese junks during
the Song Dynasty.

5 Goddio, p. 1
6 Craig, Austin. Particulars of the Philippines’ Pre-Spanish Past. 1916. p.6
7 The Chinese name of South China Sea
8 Goodio, p.2
9 Scott, William Henry. Filipinos in China Before 1500. Asian Studies Journal Number 21. 1983. p. 1
Map 1. The Chinese trading to the North Moluccas. (The black line shows the direct “eastern” route; this route appears to
have been used during the Yuan period. The dotted line shows the route via the Chinese overseas settlements in Northern
Java; this route was probably used by private Chinese merchants during the Ming Period) Taken from Roderich Ptak’s
The Northern Trade Route to Spice Island (1992) p.30

The entrepot of Malacca (Melaka), was perhaps, one of the significant factors why the
region became an active maritime trade route. This brought other South East Asian entrepots
together via commercial trading. Melaka served the region as a transshipment point of supplies, a
pit-stop which offered provisions for long-distance voyages, and a drop-off point of various goods
from other regions. Moreover, the place provides convenience to maritime traders who were
waiting for the trade winds to change10. According to the Song Shi annals, Chinese junks sailed in
the region for the purpose of purchasing cloves in exchange for porcelain and silk. These cloves
were then re-exported to China by merchant-ambassadors from places such as Champa, Java,
Srivijaya and Butuan (an ancient kingdom in Mindanao, Philippines). With linkages to these
places, China made a gradual expansion of her maritime trade into the Sulu-Celebes-Moluccas
areas in the late Song or early Yuan Dynasty11.

In the early period of the Ming Dynasty, the maritime trade was curtailed and ship-building
was state-controlled12. The policy of “maritime trade proscription”, which was introduced by the
emperor, halted China’s maritime trade with other countries. As stated earlier, the policy did not
only allow trade with other countries if these were not part of the tributary countries. It was also
in this time that private merchants began to establish their own shipbuilding industry. Famous
ships during the Ming Dynasty were the Fujian “Fu” ship, Guangdong “Guang” ship and the
Zhenjiang “Sand” ship,13 to name a few. Despite enabling China to monopolize the Sino-foreign
trade, it also contributed to the increase of Chinese private mercantile power in the region and the
gradual expansion of trade networks by India and South East Asia-based Muslim traders14. This
also resulted to the migration of more and more Chinese to overseas countries, most especially in
the South East Asian region, where private trade networks were conducted.

The prohibition on maritime trade had severely affected the development of one of China’s
important port-city, Quanzhou. It was described that this port-city was the starting point for what
is known as the “Maritime Silk Road”. The imperial’s policy against private trade forced some
Chinese merchants to migrate to nearby ports that were not that strictly monitored by the
government, such as the Moon Port of Zhangzhou. China returned to the center of maritime trade
under the reign of Chinese emperor Yung Lo (1402-1424), who changed the policies that were
introduced by his predecessor. It was also in this period when overseas expeditions were sent under
the leadership of the Muslim eunuch Zheng He (1371-1433)15. Private Chinese maritime traders,
who were deprived of commercial trading during the early part of the Ming, have increasingly
established trade partnerships with Muslim merchants in the South East Asian region. This resulted
to the link between the empire and the central and southern parts of the Philippines.

10 Hussin, Nordin. Trade and Society in the Straits of Melaka. 2006. p. 2

11 Ptak, Roderich. The Northern Trade Route to the Spice Island. Archipel, Volume 43. 1992. p. 3
12 Nie, p.25
13 Ibid,p.26
14 Schottenhammer, p.79, 83
15 Ibid, p. 80
Trade relations between China and the Philippines in the 16th century

Based on records, China has already established trade contacts with the natives in the
Philippines as early as the 10th century, as indicated in the Song Shi annals and Chau Ju-Kua’s
Chu Fan Chi16. The latter mentioned of the trade between the Chinese and the natives of Ma-I17,
where the exchange of goods such as silk, cotton, lead, medicinal betel-nut, porcelain, beads and
iron ware, tortoise shells, pearls and yellow wax took place18. Records from the Song Shi annals
also stated that in 1001 AD, the first tribute mission to China from the Philippines appears to have
come from Butuan. The local chieftain of Butuan, named Kiling, sent missions every year since
then.19

Between the 14th and 15th century, trade relation between the two countries began to
experience expansion as both countries also sent ambassadors to each other. In 1372 AD, Emperor
Hong Wu welcomed the tributes brought by the Filipino tribute envoys to his court, who, in
exchange were given valuable gifts by the emperor such as porcelain vases and colored threads20.
In the 15th century, tribute envoys from Sulu, headed by the ruler himself, undertook the journey
to the Court of Nanking 21. In the year 1417, the emperor sent High Commissioner Chang Ch’ien
to the Philippines after the interment of Paduka Batara. The Commissioner accompanied a
military escort brought back to Sulu its young chief and also to bring Kumalalang22 into the sphere
of influence23. By the second half of the 15th century, Chinese merchants had made visits and
trading with the coastal communities in the Philippines. The focal places where trading was
conducted were in the communities of Manila, Cebu and Sulu24.

For the purpose of this paper, we will only tackle Cebu and Sulu as participants in the
international maritime trade with China.

Cebu trades with China

Based on recovered artifacts by archaeologists, the Chinese would have traded with the
natives of the island of Cebu sometime in the 10th century due to the recovery of T’ang ang Sung
porcelain ware in Cebu City. The island’s location together with its sheltered port was what made
it attractive to commercial and cultural contacts with China and other countries in Southeast Asia.
The discovery of early Ming blue and white ceramics, however, suggests that Cebu was an
important trading center for Chinese merchants at least a century before Spanish arrival. 25 The
quantity of ceramics brought to Cebu was considerable. The archaeologist H. Otley Beyer

16 The first detailed account of the Philippines as mentioned and described by Chau Ju-Kua during the Sung Dynasty
17 Refers to the island of Mindoro in the Philippines
18 Hirth and Rockhill. Chau Ju-Kua: His works on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the 12th and 13th centuries. 1911. p. 160
19 Scott, p. 3
20 Fox, Robert. The Archaeological Record of Chinese Influence in the Philippines. Philippine Studies Vol 15 No 1. 1967. p. 57
21 Ptak, p.35
22 A community at the head of the Manguilas Bay between Pagadian and Malangas in the province of Zamboanga del Sur
23 Scott, p.11
24
Fox, p.58
25
Hutterer, Karl. An archaeological picture of a pre-Spanish Cebuano Community. Cebu City: University of San
Carlos. 1975, p 56
mentioned, “Cebu Island is truly a mine of ancient porcelain and other artifacts of pre-Spanish
times.”26

Trade pottery was very important to the social and religious life of the Cebuanos so that
you find them almost all over the island. Antonio de Pigafetta, the scribe of the Magellan
expedition, in fact, mentioned in his diary that the ruler of ancient Cebu ate turtle eggs in porcelain
dishes and that early Cebuanos served the first explorers with meat on Chinese porcelain platters.27
Therefore, it is not a wonder if Chinese porcelain wares are found in present-day Argao, Naga,
Carcar, Talisay and Oslob on the eastern part of the island and in Ginatilan, Badian and Malabuyoc
in the Western part of the island.28 Other than porcelain ware, the Chinese also brought musical
instruments like large gongs and plausibly embroidered cloth and even silk clothes worn by
prominent Cebuanos.29

In the 16th century, the port of Cebu was probably the largest entrepot in the Visayas. Based
on Spanish accounts, there was no other one in the Visayas as a major regional trade center. While
in Limasawa island, the crew of the Magellan expedition asked a native ruler where they could
buy provisions. The ruler answered that there were three locations but added that “Zubu was the
largest and the one with most trade.”30

Cebu was indeed the most significant entrepot in the Visayas in the 16th century and
Chinese merchants visited for what it could offer. The Spaniards themselves give us a clue why
the Chinese came. Many years after the Magellan expedition, the Loaysa expedition (1525-1526)
while in the island of Mindanao heard from the natives that Cebu had “gold, for which the Chinese
come to trade each year.”31 A member of the Saavedra expedition (1527-1528) reported that the
place “has gold (and) they say that people from China come hither and that they trade…” 32 A
member of the Villalobos expedition (1545-1546), on the other hand, also reported later that the
“Chinese were wont to go thither (Cebu) to buy gold and certain precious stones.” 33 The gold
found in Cebu at that time were not only produced on the island but some of it came from other
places from other parts of the Philippines such as Catanduanes, Masbate, Bohol and Butuan and
were only brought to the island being an entrepot.34

Apparently, it was not only gold which attracted the Chinese to come to Cebu. Before
Spanish colonization, Cebu also served as a market place for slaves. A survivor of the Loaysa
expedition deposed that eight members of the Magellan expedition who had been abandoned in
Cebu in 1521 were later sold as slaves to the Chinese.35 This statement was further bolstered by

26
Otley Beyer. “An Outline review of Philippine archaeology by islands and provinces.” The Philippine Journal of
Science. LXXXVII. Nos. 3-4 (July-August 1947), p. 282
27
Pigafetta, Antonio. Blair and Robertson. XXXIII, p. 149
28
Fenner, Bruce. Cebu under the Spanish Flag. Cebu City: University of San Carlos, 1985, p. 16
29
Fenner, p. 17
30
Pigafetta, BR XXXIII, p. 129
31
“Expedition of Garcia de Loaisa” BR II, p. 35
32
“Voyage of Alvaro de Saavedra” BR II, p. 42

33
“Expedition of Ruy Lopez de Villalobos” BR II, p. 72
34
Fenner, p. 17
35
“Voyage of Alvaro de Saavedra” BR II, p. 42
the fact that some days before the Magellan expedition arrived, a merchant from Siam went to the
place in order to load gold and slaves.36

Besides gold and slaves, the Chinese probably made a stop over in Cebu in order to stock
on provisions which could have consisted on hogs, according to a member of the Loaysa
expedition.37 Fenner posits that the Chinese could have also loaded rice, millet, sugar cane, palm
wine and various fruits which “may have formed part of the trade.”38 Moreover, it could also be
that Chinese traders also obtained cotton articles in Cebu.39

Sulu- Chinese Trade link

Sulu archipelago is strategically known for maritime trade and commerce, precisely
because of its geographical location. Sulu occupies nearly the central position of the triangular
insular Southeast Asian trade routes. Sulu lies between Mindanao on the east and Borneo on the
west, and separates the Sulu Sea from the Celebes Sea. To the north lie the Visayas and Cebu,
Palawan, Luzon, Formosa, China, and Japan; to the South, the Moluccas, Celebes and Java; to the
east, Mindanao and Basilan; and to the west, Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula.40
Historically, Sulu had been an open frontier of maritime trade since pre-colonial era. For
centuries before the advent of Western colonizers in the Philippines, dynamic trade had already
existed in Sulu. It did not only have commercial relations with Indonesia and Malaysia, but also
with the Dutch, the British, but especially with China41 ). The maritime trade contact between
Sulu and China is believed to have started even before the coming of Islam. However, there is no
available written material on this thus far.
In 971 AD, during the Sung Dynasty, Majul mentions that Canton (Khanfu) was reopened
to foreign trade. Later, in 977 AD, Majul adds that a Chinese ship owned by a Muslim from Canton
named Abu Rashid appeared in Borneo or Brunei to initiate trade. Subsequently, in the same
period, Brunei sent an embassy to China. Due to this, the Sulu- Brunei- Palawan- Luzon- Canton
trade route had emerged during the Sung period (Majul, 1999: 3-4). Moreover, Canton became
one of the famous and progressive ports of foreign goods and strange treasures from foreign lands.
Perhaps among those foreign goods were from Sulu.
Bruno also says that the Tausugs, owing to their love for the sea and for adventure, had
extended trade to the ports of neighboring Indonesia and Malaysia, and possibly to China, which

36
Pigafetta, BR XXXIII, p. 139
37
“Voyage of Alvaro de Saavedra” BR II, p. 42

38
Fenner, p. 18
39
Echevarria, Ramon. Rediscovery in southern Cebu. (Cebu City: Historical Conservation Society. 1974, p. 5-6
40
Saleeby, Najeeb M. The History of Sulu. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild,, Inc., 1963, p.20
41
Majul, Cesar A. Muslim in the Philippines. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1973, pp. 249-250
trade, even centuries ago, was profitable enterprise.42 By the 13th century, a commercial relation
between the Chinese and the inhabitants of Sulu was already brisk.
Religion, in this case, could be one of the critical factors that inspired both Arab and
Chinese traders to actively engage in trade with the local inhabitants of Sulu during the Yuan
Dynasty. According to Patanne, it was not only trade goods from China that the junks brought in
but also the religion of Islam.43 It was brought in by Chinese-Muslims called locally as “Lannang
Hoy-Hoy” ( Hue-Hue, the Chinese term for Chinese Muslim), accompanied by Arab missionaries.
There is a prevailing belief in Sulu that Karim-ul-Makdum, a trader and Arab missionary, came to
Sulu on a Chinese vessel in the 13th century. Patanne quoting Majul explains that the famous
missionary Sayyid An-Nikab, commonly known as Mahadum Amin-Allah in Sulu, was a Chinese
Muslim who was buried in Bud Agad, Jolo, by the Tausugs. It is indeed in accordance with the
teaching of Islam that trade and religion is equally important obligation for every Muslim. This
harkens back the words of the Prophet Mohammad which states that “trade and commerce is nine
out of every ten parts of our nourishment’.
Undoubtedly, Sulu has distinct products that had attracted neighboring Asian regions to
trade with Sulu. Patanne mentions that the Chinese were drawn to Sulu for laka-woods of average
quality, yellow-wax, soft tortoise shells and pearls.44 Majul, on the other hand, mentions such
products as bird’s nest, coral and other forest products.45 Of these, the archipelago’s blue-white in
color and round in shape pearls were the most sought-after. Sulu pearls command high and the
Chinese used them for ornaments. Their color never fades and the biggest of these is almost one
inch in diameter. A big pearl, for instance, costs more than 700 or 800 ting of trade-silver; a
medium one, 200 or 300 ting and a small one 10 or 20 ting. The Chinese, on the other hand, barter
these with gold, trade-silver, cloth, green beads, Chowchow porcelains, and iron bar and so on.
During the second half of the 14th century, the Hung-wu emperor, T’ai-tsu (1368-1398),
restored state trading through a tributary system, stipulating that only tributary countries could
bring their goods to China. Because of this royal edict, according to Patanne, Sulu became well-
known in the annals of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), being among the first country in the Nanhai
or southeast Asian region to send an envoy to China first in 1370, and continued to send tribute
missions to China in 1417, 1420, 1421, 1423 and 1424. In return, Sulu was visited by Zheng He’s
expedition in 1405 and in 1407.46
But what was the most impressive and extensively recorded detail, based on this account,
was the visit by the three rulers of Sulu to the Ming court in 1417.Patanne tells us the interesting
detail of this visit:47

42
Bruno, Juanito A. The Social World of the Tausug: A Study in the Philippines Culture and Education. Manila:
Centro Escolar University Research and Development Center, 1973, p. 35
43
Patanne , E.P. The Philippines in the 6th to 16th Century. Manila: LSA Press Inc., 1996, p. 152
44
Ibid., p. 153
45
Chinese Relation with the Sultanate of Sulu”, in The Chinese in the Philippines, Vol. 1Alfonso Felix Jr.ed. (Manila:
Solidaridad Publishing House, 1996, p.145
46
Patanne, Op.Cit., 154
47
Ibid., p. 155
 “In the year 1417, the Eastern King of this country, Sulu, Paduka Phala (Batara), the
western king Ma-ha-la-ch’ih (Maharaja) and the King of the Mountan Ka-la-ba-ting called
Paduka Prabu, brought their families and their chiefs, altogether more than 340 persons, and
came over the sea to the court in order to carry tribute. They presented a letter of gold, with
characters engraved on it, and offered pearls, precious stones tortoise shell and other articles.
They were treated as those of Malacca, and after sometime they were each appointed king of their
country and presented with a seal, a commission, a complete court dress, a cap, a girdle, a horse
with trappings, insignia to their rank. The three kings remained twenty-seven days and when they
were about to return, each of them got silk with patterns, three-hundred pieces of plain silk, ten
thousand taels in paper money, two thousand strings of each, one robe embroidered with golden
snakes, one with dragons and one with kilins.
The Eastern King died in the government hotel at Te-chou (in Shantung province); the
Emperor sent an officer to perform sacrifices and ordered the authorities to provide the funeral
and to arrange the tomb. He got a posthumous title and his wife and concubines remained with
eighteen followers to take care of the grave; when they had finished the three years mourning, they
were sent back to their country…”

Conclusion
Different authors peg different dates when China first engaged in maritime trading.
Nevertheless, going back to the earlier discussion on the Sulu- Palawan- Luzon- China trade route
including that of Malacca- Moluccas counterpart during the Yuan and Ming Dynasty, Sulu
positioned itself strategically at the center. Hence, the Cebu- Sulu trade link could be logically
established. The presence of Yuan porcelain in Cebu uncovered through archeological research
and the similarity of the Tausug language to Cebuhano tongue could be meant one thing- that there
may be a strong trade link and contact between Sulu and Cebu as trade became actively observed
among the Asian neighboring regions, particularly Sulu- Malacca- China trade.

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