UOR 002 00020 Final Report

Confidential
Review of Field Implementations of In-Situ

Combustion and Air Injection Projects
Final Report
Submitted December 2009 to
Petroleum Technology Research Centre
Incubation Project
Koorosh Asghari, PhD

University of Regina
PTRC No. Incubation Project
PTRC 6 Research Drive Regina Saskatchewan Canada S4S 7J7

Tel: 306-787-8290 Fax: 306-787-8811 www.ptrc.ca
Confidential
Review of Field Implementations of In-Situ

Combustion and Air Injection Projects
Final Report
Submitted December 2009 to
Petroleum Technology Research Centre
Incubation Project
Koorosh Asghari, PhD

University of Regina, Faculty of
Tel: 306-(585-4612)
Engineering, Regina, SK S4S 0A2
Email: Koorosh.asghari@uregina.ca
PTRC: Incubation Project
Abstract: In-situ combustion, air injection or fire flooding has been deemed as the most
unsuccessful thermal recovery method. Although In-Situ Combustion has a huge potential in
recovering rather large percentage of original oil in place, it is very hard to control and optimize.
Many operators consider in-situ combustion as a high risk oil recovery method because of failures of
many early projects. However most of these failures can be attributed to the inappropriate application
of the fire flooding. This report provides a comprtehenssive overview of all reported field
implementations of in-situ combustion, and air injection, around the world since 1920s. The gaol of
this study is to gather past experiences with this process in order to shed light on future, hopefully
successful, implemenattion of in-situ combustion in Canadian heavy oil fields.
Review of Field Implementations of In-Situ Combustion and Air Injection Projects i
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In-situ combustion, air injection or fire flooding, has been deemed as the most
unsuccessful thermal recovery method. Although In-Situ Combustion has a huge
potential in recovering rather large percentage of original oil in place, it is very hard to
control and optimize. Many operators consider in-situ combustion as a high risk oil
recovery method because of failures of many early projects. However most of these
failures can be attributed to the inappropriate application of the fire flooding.
Basic principle of In-Situ combustion lays in burning heavier and less mobile
components of oil and hence reducing its viscosity through thermal effect and
compositional change. Typical application of this technique is carried out when the
reservoir is too deep, the pressure of the reservoir is too high or the pay zone is too thin to
effectively conduct steam flood techniques.
This report provides the result of a comprehensive study conducted on investigating
and collecting information related to nearly all instances of implementing in-situ
combustion projects around the world since as early as 1920s. A total of 33 field
implementations of the in-situ combustion/air injection in different countries are
reviewed in this course project. Chapter 1 gives a description of early in-situ combustion
projects held from 1920 to 1950. Chapter 2 gives a description of 20 air injection projects
that were held in U.S. Chapter 3 presents an overview of some air injection projects that
were investigated and/or held in Iran, India, China, Romania, Canada, Venezuela and
Russia. In Chapter 4 a classification of all reviewed in-situ combustion projects by their
application to heavy or light oil reservoirs is given.
Results of this study provide guidelines for future implementation of air-injection
projects in Canadian oil reservoirs.
PTRC : Incubation Project

ii Koorosh Asghari
Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges the support of the Petroleum Technology Research Centre
(PTRC) for funding this project.
Project Team
Koorosh Asghari: Associate Professor, Petroleum Systems Engineering

Review of Field Implementations of In-Situ Combustion and Air Injection Projects iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Early Air Injection Projects 1
2. Air Injection Projects in the United States 3
2.1 Bodcau Project, Bellevue Field 3
2.2 Cotton Valley Project, West Heidelberg Field 6
2.3 Glen Hummel Project 8
2.4 Gloriana Project 10
2.5 Trix-Liz Project 11
2.6 Paris Valley Field 12
2.7 West Newport Project 15
2.8 Kentucky Tar Sands 16
2.9 Buffalo Field 18
2.10 Fry Project 21
2.11 Shannon Pool 22
2.12 Carlyle Field 24
2.13 Medicine Pole Hills Unit 26
2.14 North Tisdale Field 27
2.15 May-Libby Field 29
2.16 W. Hackberry Project 31
2.17 Sloss Project 33
2.18 Horse Creek 34
2.19 North Ward-Estes Field 37
2.20 Midway Sunset Field 39
3. Air-injection projects in Canada, South America, Europe and Asia 40
3.1 Zaqeh Field in S.W of Iran 41
3.2 Balol and Santhal fields, Mehsana, India 42
3.3 JiLin Oilfield, China 44
3.4 Suplacu de Barcau Field, Romania 47
3.5 Miga Field of Eastern Venezuela 51
3.6 Tia Juana Field, Western Venezuela 55
3.7 Suplacu de Barcau and Balaria fields, Romania 57
3.8 Mordovo-Karmalskoye Field, Tatarstan, Russia 62
3.9 Videle Field, Romania 64
3.10 Joli Fou Pilot, Wabasca Heavy Oil Sands Deposit of 69
North Central Alberta, Canada
3.11 Morgan Field in Alberta, Canada 72
3.12 Wolf Lake Project, Cold Lake, Alberta 76
3.13 Fosterton Field, Saskatchewan, Canada 79
4. Classification of the Air injection Projects 83

Conclusions 86
References 87
APPENDIX 93

iv Koorosh Asghari
List of Tables
Page
Table 2.1 — U.S. Air Injection Projects 4
Table 2.2 — Reservoir and Fluid Characteristics of Nacatoch 5
Sand, Bodcau Project, Bellevue Field
Table 2.3 — Average Reservoir Characteristics of West 7
Heidelberg Field
Table 2.4 – Reservoir Properties of the Glen Hummel Field 9
Table 2.5 – Reservoir Properties of the Gloriana Field 11
Table 2.6 – Reservoir Properties of the Trix-Liz Field 12
Table 2.7 — Average Reservoir and Combustion Characteristics 13
of Ansberry Sand, Paris Valley Field
Table 2.8 – Reservoir Properties of Big Clifty Formation 17
Tar Sands
Table 2.9 – Reservoir Properties of Individual High Pressure Air 19
Injection Units in Buffalo Field
Table 2.10 – Reservoir Data – Shannon Pool 23
Table 2.11 — In-situ Combustion Pilot, May-Libby Reservoir 30
Table 2.12 — Reservoir data, Sloss Field 33
Table 2.13— Reservoir and fluid properties of the Horse Creek Field 35
Table 2.14 – Rock and Fluid Properties of the Ward-Estes Field 37
Table 2.15 — Reservoir and Fluid Characteristics of the Midway 39
Sunset Field
Table 3.1 – Air injection projects in Canada, South America, 41

Europe and Asia
Table 3.2 - Results of ignition time and air volume consumed at 46
different air temperature and air injection rate
Table 3.3 - Result of typical combustion tube experiments 47
Table 3.4 - Reservoir Properties Data, Miga Field 52
Table 3.5 – Reservoir Characteristics of Balaria Field 59
Table 3.6 - Videle and Balaria Reservoir Properties 65
Table 3.7 — Average Injection and Production Volumes Per 74
Well for Cyclic Stimulations
Table 3.8 – Reservoir Properties of Fosterton Field 80
Table 4.1 — Air Injection Project in Heavy Oil Reservoirs 84

Table 4.2 — Air Injection Project in Light Oil Reservoirs 85

Review of Field Implementations of In-Situ Combustion and Air Injection Projects v
List of Figures
Page
Figure 3.1 - Typical diagram of in-situ combustion 43
Figure 3.2 - The performance of the commercial ISC project 49
Figure 3.3 - MG-517 Project Reservoir, Structure-Isopach Map, 52
Miga Field
Figure 3.4 - Oil production by different mechanisms 56
Figure 3.5 – Oxidation of Balaria Oil in Silica 59
Figure 3.6 – Oxidation of Balaria Oil in the Reservoir 60
.Figure 3.7 – Influence of Temperature on Oxidation Rate of 61
Balaria Oil in Reservoir Sand
Figure 3.8 – Balaria Combustion Pilot – Cross Section of Well Logs 62
Figure 3.9 – Gas Analysis, oil and water production rates for 67
Well 1272, East Videle
Figure 3.10 – Gas nalysis, average oil and water production rates 67
– Wells 602 and 603 West Videle
Figure 3.11 – Daily Oil Rates vs. Cumulative Oil Production, 81
Fosterton Field

Review of Field Implementations of In-Situ Combustion and Air Injection Projects 1
1. Introduction
In-situ combustion, air injection or fire flooding has been deemed as the most
unsuccessful thermal recovery method. Although In-Situ Combustion has a huge
potential in recovering rather large percentage of original oil in place, it is very hard to
control and optimize. Many operators consider in-situ combustion as a high risk oil
recovery method because of failures of many early projects. However most of these
failures can be attributed to the inappropriate application of the fire flooding.
Basic principle of In-Situ combustion lays in burning heavier and less mobile
components of oil and hence reducing its viscosity through thermal effect and
compositional change. Typical application of this technique is carried out when the
reservoir is too deep, the pressure of the reservoir is too high or the pay zone is too thin to
effectively conduct steam flood techniques. In-Situ combustion is a displacement process
in which an oxygen containing gas is injected into reservoir where it reacts with the crude
oil to create a high-temperature combustion front that is propagated through the reservoir.
Generally, there is a variety of In-Situ combustion methods and alternatives, each of
which has certain advantages and drawbacks. The most commonly known type of In-Situ
combustion is Forward Dry Combustion, which utilizes two wells as a minimum or a
pattern designed for water flooding techniques. Its alternative is a reverse combustion
that has different injection/production schematic and same well requirements as for
forward combustion. Second most commonly known In-Situ combustion is Wet
Combustion, the only fundamental difference between dry and wet combustion lays in
water co-injection as a part of In-Situ steam generation.
1.1 Early Air Injection Projects
The first planned successful in-situ combustion project took place in October 1920
near the town of Marietta in southern Ohio, U.S.1 The Smith-Dunn Company used the in-
situ combustion technique (actually cyclic combustion process) to melt paraffin and
increase production. Following this, the U.S. Bureau of Mines joined the Smith-Dunn
Company in burning out another well in December 19201. In this project, the well was

2 Koorosh Asghari
bailed dry, tubing run to the bottom of the oil sand, and a drum of gasoline poured down
the hole. Compressed air was then forced down the bottom of the hole through the tubing
into the formation. Dropping down some burning oil soaked waste ignited the well. The
fire was kept burning for several days by supplying compressed air through the tubing.
The fire was then extinguished and the well was put to production by releasing the
pressure. The well flowed oil along with gas. The rate of production was increased sev-
eral times over what it was before the burning.
The Hope Natural Gas Company in 1922 used a similar, but more refined process to
improve oil production. This project was the first to use a combustion chamber to initiate
ignition. The process resulted in considerable increase in production in a nearby well and
is thus truly a combustion drive process.
In the summer of 1927, Marland Oil Company (now Conoco) initiated a combustion
oil recovery project in Ponca City, Oklahoma by injecting the hot exhaust gases (800°F)
to a very shallow oil sand, which was found at a depth of 20 ft. In this experiment, large
manhole size holes were drilled to the top of the sand and the hot still gases injected for
several months. Oil recovery from the four offset producing wells, situated in a square
pattern 50 ft. away from the injector increased considerably and the experiment deemed
as a success. It was reported that the bottom hole temperature at the injector was 700°F
and the gas injection ceased after a few months due to excessive backpressure. Visual
inspection of the sand face, after the hole has been cooled, revealed carbon deposition
and clay fusion2. Following this successful experiment, Marland Oil Company initiated
another hot air injection pilot in the shallow South Coffeyville Pool in Nowata County,
Oklahoma in December 1927. This experiment, however, was deemed unsuccessful
because the operator was unable to maintain the air injection due to plugging of the sand
face by coke.
The first known field experiment of in-situ combustion outside the U.S. occurred in
Russia in 19353.
By mid-1940s, concept of burning a portion of the oil bearing formation for the
purpose of enhancing oil production began receiving serious attention from major U.S.
oil companies. In 1947, Magnolia Petroleum Company (now Mobil) and Sinclair Oil and

Gas Company (now Arco) began investigating the process in the laboratory to learn about
the parameters controlling the process. Both Magnolia's and Sinclair's laboratory
investigation resulted in field pilots in Oklahoma in 1950. Both pilots proved to be
technically successful and paved way to the rapid development of this oil recovery
technology.
1. Air Injection Projects in the United States
For nearly 90 years in-situ combustion technique has been used in the U.S. in
attempts to improve recovery from oil reservoirs. A total of 228 combustion projects
(dry, wet, and enriched air) have been implemented in the U.S. since 1950. 37 projects
were both technically and economically successful, while other projects were just
technically successful (combustion resulted in additional oil production) 4. Most of the
combustion projects implemented in the U.S. were held in California, Texas, Oklahoma
and Wyoming.
Table 2.1 gives a summary of the U.S. air injection projects that are discussed in this
report.
2.1 Bodcau Project, Bellevue Field 4, 5, 6
Bellevue Field is located in the north-western of Louisiana, U.S. The field was
discovered in 1921 and produced from Upper Creteceous Nacatoch sand. Due to the low
reservoir pressure and high viscosity of the oil at reservoir temperature typical producing
rates are 1 or 2 BOPD per well. The reservoir and fluid characteristics are shown in Table
2.2.
In 1971 Cities Service Company (now Oxy USA) began a pilot combustion test in
the Bellevue Field. The success of this in-situ combustion project prompted Cities
Service Company to enter into a cost-sharing contract with the U.S. Department of
Energy to demonstrate the efficiency and economics of a commercial scale wet in-situ
combustion process and to test techniques for increasing vertical sweep efficiency.

4 Koorosh Asghari
Table 2.1 — U.S. Air Injection Projects

Date
Combustion Pilot or Field Reference
Project Name Operator Initiate
Type wide s
d
Bodcau Project,
Cities Service Co. (now
Bellevue Field, 1976 Dry, Wet Field wide 4, 5, 6
Oxy USA)/U.S. DOE
Louisiana
Cotton Valley Project,
West Heidelberg Field, Gulf Oil Corp. 1971 Dry Field wide 7, 8
MI
Glen Hummel, Texas Sun Oil Co. 1968 Dry Field wide 9
Gloriana, Texas Sun Oil Co. 1969 Dry Field wide 9
Trix Liz, Texas Sun Oil Co. 1968 Dry Field wide 9
Husky Oil Company/
Paris Valley, California 1978 Wet Pilot 4, 10
U.S. DOE
West Newport,
General Crude Oil Co. 1958 Dry Pilot/Field wide 4, 11
California
Kentucky Tar Sands, Westken Petroleum
1982 Wet Pilot 12
Kentucky Corporation
Buffalo, Continental Resources
1979 Dry Field wide 13, 14, 15
South Dakota Inc.
Fry Project, Robinson,
Marathon Oil Company 1960 Wet Pilot/Field wide 16
Illinois
Shannon Pool, Salt Pan American Petroleum
1959 Dry Pilot 17
Creek Field, Wyoming Corp.
Layton Oil Company,
Sohio Petroleum
Carlyle Field, Kansas 1963 Dry Field wide 18, 19
Company, Texas Pacific
Oil company
Madicine Pole Hills
Amoco Production Co. 1986 Dry Field wide 20
Unit, North Dakota
North Tisdale Field,
Continental Oil Co. 1959 Dry Pilot 21
Wyoming
May-Libby Field,
Sun Oil Co. 1966 Wet Pilot 22
California
W. Hackberry Field,
Amoco Production Co. 1994 Dry Field wide 23, 24
Louisiana
Sloss Field,
Amoco Production Co. 1963 Wet Pilot/ Field wide 25, 26, 27
Nebraska
Horse Creek, Total Minatome
1996 Dry Pilot 28, 29, 30
North Dakota Corporation
North Ward-Estes Field,
Gulf 1978 Dry Pilot 31
Texas
Midway Sunset Field,
Mobil Oil Co. 1960 Dry Field wide 32, 33
California

Table 2.2 — Reservoir and Fluid Characteristics of Nacatoch Sand, Bodcau Project,
Bellevue Field
Depth, ft 450
Project size, acres 19
Average pay thickness, ft 54
Average porosity, % 33.9
Average permeability, md 700
Water saturation, % PV 27.4
Oil saturation, % PV 72.6
Oil Satn. at the start of fireflood, STB/ac-ft 1,909
Reservoir pressure, psig 40
Reservoir temperature, °F 75
Oil gravity, °API 19
Oil viscosity at reservoir temperature, cP 676
Dip angle, degree 4.5
Following laboratory combustion tube experiments, the five injectors were ignited
using electric heaters in August and September of 1976. During the first six months of
operation, air was injected down the casing for the dry burn phase. After the injection
rates stabilized at their maximum, the injectors were reperforated in the top 10-12 feet to
allow water injection into the upper section of the Nacatoch sand simultaneously with air
injection into the base of the zone. A limestone interval provided partial separation of the
two injected fluids. The purpose of water injection was to improve vertical sweep
efficiency by forcing the combustion to expand farther out in the lower section of the
reservoir before rising to the top, thereby heating a large volume of the reservoir. Air
injection was terminated in late 1980 after 50% of the pattern volume was burned and
heat scavenging water injection was initiated. Because of the gravity segregation effects,
much of the heated oil remained in the lower portion of the thicker pay after the
termination of air injection. This heated oil was displaced and recovered by the heat
scavenging water. To better evaluate the performance of the simultaneous air and water
combustion process, four wells were drilled, cored and logged. Results of the program
indicated extensive burning outside of the pattern area.

6 Koorosh Asghari
Sand production and the handling of hot combustion gases were the major operating
problems during project life. During the combustion phase, the producing wells
experienced hot gas breakthrough or even burnout as combustion front approached the
producers. When this occurred, the wells became impossible to operate due to sand
production or tubing leaks. Also, an explosion occurred in the air injection system,
destroying the distribution lines and severely damaging one of the three main
compressors. The explosion was attributed to the build-up of a lubricant film on the
inside walls of the air injection lines.
During the six years of operation (duration of the DOE contract), the project produced
667,609 bbl of oil, compared with 700,000 bbl predicted. The actual expenses were $8.79
million compared to the initial estimates of $8.23 million. Additional costs were spent on
drilling nine additional producing wells and four post burn core wells and also repairing
the damaged compressor.
The Bodcau fireflood was industry cost-shared in-situ combustion project that was
both technically and economically successful. The project was carefully designed and
well operated. Many of the operating problems were predicted and backup provided.
Explosion on the air injection system could be prevented by periodic washing of the
air distribution system with nitrox solution and checks of lubricants on discharge valves
and cylinders for build-up during maintenance.
2.2 Cotton Valley Project, West Heidelberg Field 7, 8
Cotton Valley air injection project began in December 1971 at West Heidelberg
Field, Jasper County, Mississippi, U.S. Project was operated by Chevron and is probably
the world’s deepest in-situ combustion project. The Cotton Valley sands are Jurasic age
and the average depth of the sands is 11,400 ft. Sands 4 and 5 are the major oil reservoirs
in the Cotton Valley. Table 2.3 gives average reservoir data.
Poor primary oil recovery from all Cotton Valley sands caused studies of different
processes that would increase ultimate oil recovery. Water flooding was rejected because
of unfavourable water/oil mobility ratio and lifting costs that would be followed by
producing high-water-cut wells from this depth. Favourable results of burn-tube tests and

Table 2.3 — Average Reservoir Characteristics of West Heidelberg Field

Productivity area, acres 350
Net pay (two sands), ft 62
Porosity, % 15
Air permeability, md 65
Initial oil saturation, % 85
Initial water saturation, % 15
Gravity, °API 26
Reservoir pressure, psi
Original 5,100
At start of air injection 1,500
the presence of heavy oil on the flanks of the Sand 5 made in-situ combustion process
seem to be successful.
A pilot air-injection project was started in December 1971 on Sand 5. One well was
converted to injection and air input was started at the rate of 1 million scf/D. Surface
injection pressure was 2,500 psi. Spontaneous injection occurred soon after the start of air
injection. Production response to air injection was noticed in 3 month in the form of
increased oil production. As of June, 1981 cumulative oil production from the Sand 5 by
air injection was 2.07 MMstb or 16% of the estimated 13 MMstb OOIP. The oil
production rate was 1,100 Stb/D from eight producers. Cumulative air-oil ratio for the
nine and a half year project was 2,660 Scf air/STB of produced oil. Encouraged by good
response of Sand 5 to air injection, the pilot was expanded to a full-scale project to
include the next larger Sand 4. Oil production from Sand 4 began in December 1977,
followed by the start of flue gas injection in June 1978. In January 1980, a dual air
injection well was completed to inject air separately, through isolated tubing strings, both
into Sand 4 and Sand 5. Sand 4 was produced by pressure maintenance by reinjecting
flue gas produced from Sand 5 back into Sand 4. As of June 1981 the Cotton Valley
project had 3 injectors and 14 producers. Seven wells were producing from Sand 4 and
seven wells were producing from Sand 5. All producing wells are flowing with the
exception of 3 wells on Sand 4 which are produced by pumping. As of June 1981,
cumulative oil production from Sand 4 was 186,000 Stb or about 2% of the estimated 12

8 Koorosh Asghari
MMstb OOIP. The injection rates for Sand 4 were 2.5 MMscf/D of flue gas and about 1
MMscf/D of air. Oil production from Sand 4 was 560 Stb/D. The cumulative air-oil ratio
was 2,505 Scf/Stb.
An explosion in the inlet of the fifth-stage air line of the six-stage compressor
occurred in September 1972. The spontaneous ignition of the built-up excess lubricant
caused serious damage to the piping. Compressor shut down because of overheating were
a constant problem with the high pressure discharge cylinders.
As a result of air injection 2.9 million bbl oil over primary recovery have been
produced. Ultimate primary oil recovery was about 6.1% and the additional 16.1% has
been recovered since the start of air injection.
Even though oil prices were less than $4.00/bbl during the early period of fireflood
operations, payout of the pilot project occurred in about two and a half years.
Chevron operated both technically and economically successful in-situ combustion
project. Air injection could be replaced with oxygen. When we inject pure oxygen
increased combustion and drive efficiency occurred.
2.3 Glen Hummel Project 9
The Glen Hummel field is situated in Wilson County, Texas, U.S. Glen Hummel in-
situ combustion project was operated by Sun Oil Co. The average depth of the Glen
Hummel reservoir is 2,432 ft subsurface. The reservoir dips from northwest to southeast
approximately 200 ft over a distance of 5,000 ft. The reservoir is made up of three major
sand layers separated by continuous shale stringers. Reservoir properties of the field are
listed in Table 2.4. During the period of primary production the major producing
mechanism in the Glen Hummel reservoir was hydraulic expansion and gravity drainage.
The ultimate recovery by primary production was 928,000 bbl of oil or 10.44 % OOIP.
Three different cases were studied while deciding upon an improved recovery
program for Glen Hummel field. They were water flood, polymer flood and in-situ
combustion. A comparison of recoveries, profits, and time to completion for each of the
three cases led to the decision to apply the in-situ combustion process in the reservoir.
Three wells were used for air injection. One injection well was drilled and two
existing producers were converted to injectors. Well GH 1-1-TIW, the first injection well,

Table 2.4 – Reservoir Properties of the Glen Hummel Field

Type of formation Poth “A” ss
Depth of pay, ft 2,432
Area of reservoir, acres 544
Average net pay thickness, ft 8.77
Volume of reservoir, acre-ft 4,775
Well spacing, acres 20
Average porosity, % 36
Connate water saturation, % 30
Horizontal permeability, md 1,000
Oil gravity, °API 21.9
Original BHP, psig 953
Original BHT, °F 113
Viscosity at BHT, cp 74
Solution GOR, scf/STB 50
Formation volume factor RB/STB 1.05
Original oil content STB/acre-ft 1,862
Original oil in place, STB 8,891,000
was completed in the up dip portion of the reservoir. The reservoir was ignited at this
well in January 1968, using a down-hole gas burner. Well GH 6-5 was converted to an air
injector in March, 1969. The reservoir was ignited at this well by spontaneous ignition.
The two burn zones begun at Wells GH 1-1-TIW and GH 6-5 were expanded until they
merge in the vicinity of Well GH 1-1. After the two burn zones had merged, a single
combustion front was pushed until it reached the last row of producers near the oil-water
contact. A third combustion was created by converting Well GH 7-1 to air injector. The
operating procedure that were held for monitoring the in-situ combustion program
consists of testing each well in the field often enough to keep track of the oil, water, and
gas produced. Also, gas samples were taken from selected wells, in the vicinity of the air
injection wells, to verify the ignition. Oil recovery from the Glen Hummel reservoir as of
January 1, 1972, has been 1,660,000 bbl. 456,791 bbl of this volume is primary
production and 1,204,000 bbl has been produced since the in-situ combustion program
was started. The ultimate oil recovery from the Glen Hummel reservoir by the in-situ
combustion process was 56 % OOIP.
Glen Hummel in-situ combustion project was both technically and economically
successful.

10 Koorosh Asghari
2.4 Gloriana Project 9

The Gloriana field is situated in Wilson County, Texas, U.S. Gloriana in-situ
combustion project was operated by Sun Oil Co. The average depth of the Gloriana
reservoir is 1,678 ft subsurface and average thickness is about 4.4 ft. The reservoir dips
from north to south about 40 ft in 1,000 ft. The reservoir is made up of two major sand
layers separated continuously by a shale stringer. Reservoir properties of the field are
listed in Table 2.5. During the period of primary production the major producing
mechanism in the Gloriana field was gravity drainage. The ultimate recovery by primary
production was 415,400 bbl of oil or 11.4 % OOIP.
Good results of the in situ combustion project at Glen Hummel reservoir influenced
in the decision to fireflood the Gloriana field. However, the oil in Gloriana reservoir is
2.4 times more viscous than that in the Glen Hummel reservoir and the available natural
energy for oil production was less.
A full field, dry in-situ combustion project at Gloriana was started in May 1969.
Three injectors (well GU 2-8, well GU 2-5 and well GU 2-6) were located near the center
of the reservoir in the south-north direction. After several months of air injection into
well GU 2-8 a spontaneous ignition failed to occur, so in September 1969 well was
ignited with a catalytic ignition system. In May 1971 air injection was started at well GU
2-5. Since a bottom-hole temperature of this well was 300 °F a spontaneous ignition
occurred shortly. The two combustion fronts propagated toward the east and west
directions and eventually covered the whole reservoir. The operating procedures
established for monitoring the in-situ combustion project consists of periodical analyzing
of gas samples taken from each well. They were used to build nitrogen and carbon
dioxide isoconcentration maps.
Oil recovery from the Gloriana field as of January 1, 1972, has been 556,624 bbl.
234,348 bbl of this volume has been produced since the in situ combustion program was
started. Gloriana in-situ combustion project was both technically and economically
successful.

Table 2.5 – Reservoir Properties of the Gloriana Field

Type of formation Poth “A” ss
Connate water saturation, % 41.5
Horizontal permeability, md 1,000
Original BHP, psig 855
2.5 Trix-Liz Project 9

The Trix-Liz reservoir is situated in Titus County, Texas, U.S. Trix-Liz in-situ
combustion project was operated by Sun Oil Co. The Trix-Liz Woodbine "C" zone is
Cretaceous in age and is located in the Dexter series. The reservoir, formed by a
stratigraphic trap, is part of the Trix-Liz anticline located in the Talco fault. Trix-Liz
reservoir is characterized by interbedded sand and shale members. Table 2.6 lists the
physical properties of the Trix-Liz reservoir. During the period of primary production the
major producing mechanism in the Trix-Liz field was gravity drainage and weak natural
edge-water drive. The ultimate recovery by primary production was 448,315 bbl of oil or
15 % OOIP.
The flow characteristics of the Trix-Liz reservoir were sensitive to the freshness of
injected water. This fact placed several limitations on the choice of secondary recovery
methods that could be implemented. A comparison of the physical properties of the Trix-
Liz reservoir with criteria for various secondary recovery methods showed that the in-situ
combustion process had the greatest probability of being successful.

12 Koorosh Asghari
Table 2.6 – Reservoir Properties of the Trix-Liz Field

Type of formation Woodbine “C” ss
Horizontal permeability, md 500
Original BHP, psig 1,945
The reservoir was ignited in Well TL 1-2 in September 1968, by spontaneous

ignition. In October 1969, Well TL 1-3 was ignited using the catalytic ignition system.
Two combustion fronts propagated outward and joined at Well TL 1-5. After arrival of
combustion front to Well TL 1-5, it was converted to air injection. The merged burn
zones have been propagated generally to the north and south of the reservoir.
Oil recovery from the Gloriana field as of January 1972, has been 650,114 bbl.
230,799 bbl of this volume has been produced since the in situ combustion program was
started. The ultimate recovery of oil from Trix-Liz by primary production and in-situ
combustion process was estimated to be 60 % OOIP. Trix-Liz in-situ combustion project
was both technically and economically successful.
2.6 Paris Valley Field 4, 10
Paris Valley Field is situated in Monterey County, California, U.S. In-situ combustion
project at this field was operated by Husky Oil Company, with the support from U.S.
DOE. Geologically, the Paris Valley field consists of unconsolidated, oil bearing
Miocene sands. The pilot in-situ combustion project was held in the Ansberry sand. The
Ansberry sand is separated into three distinct zones: Upper, Middle, and Lower Lobes.

Average reservoir and combustion characteristics of Ansberry sand are listed in Table
2.7.
Table 2.7 — Average Reservoir and Combustion Characteristics of Ansberry Sand,
Paris Valley Field
Reservoir depth, ft 800
Porosity, % PV 32.2
Permeability, md 3,748
Oil Saturation, % PV 63.7
Water Saturation, % PV 36.3
Oil in place, bbl/ac-ft. 1,801
Oil in the pilot area, MM STB 2.6
Average net pay thickness, ft 58
Reservoir pressure, psia 235
Oil viscosity, cP at reservoir temperature
Upper Lobe 227,000
Lower Lobe 23,000
Formation volume factor, STB/RB 1.0
Fuel requirement, Lbs/ft 2.33
Bbl/ac-ft 295
Air required for combustion: Scf/ft 417
Mscf/ac-ft 18,165
Oil displacement from burned zone, bbl/ac- 1,296
ft
The purpose of this in-situ combustion project was to test the technical and economic
feasibility of this thermal recovery technique within an unconsolidated sandstone
reservoir that never produced economic quantities of oil because of its high viscosity.
Wet combustion, was selected, because it was thought the heterogeneous permeability
profile would permit heat to breakthrough to the producers and improve the vertical
sweep efficiency. Also, to match the production with displacement prior to the heat
breakthrough, stimulation of producers by steam was proposed.
Initial combustion test was initiated in January 1976. The initial testing was finished
in September 1976 after injecting 60 MMscf of air. The purpose of the test was to
determine the formation air injectivity and the air injection rate. The first well was ignited
using a down hole gas burner. In later ignition operations it was found that the formation

14 Koorosh Asghari
could be auto ignited by injecting steam to provide the heat required for ignition.
Eighteen producers and five air injection wells were drilled in the pilot area. Nine wells
(1, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, and 18) were completed in the Upper Lobe; six were
completed in the Lower Lobe, and eight wells in the full interval of the Ansberry sand,
including the Upper, Middle, and Lower Lobes. Two temperature observation wells were
also drilled for monitoring and data gathering. All the wells were cored and logged to
characterize the formation. Air injection was resumed in May 1977 in Wells 6, 8, 12, 15,
and 18. It became quickly evident that the injectivities in wells completed in the Upper
Lobe were significantly lower than wells, completed in the Lower Lobe. Leading edge of
the heat zone reached up dip wells completed in the Lower Lobe, but did not reach the up
structure wells. High injection pressure became necessary to inject air into the Upper
Lobe, which contained the most viscous oil. High injection pressure resulted in severe
channelling of air into Well 21. Air injection stopped in August 1977 due to compressor
damage. After repairing the compressor, air injection was resumed in January 1978 in
Wells 6, 12, 15 and 22. Air injection into Well 18 was discontinued due to mechanical
problems with the surrounding wells. Air injection was terminated in February 1979, due
to operations problems.
Well 21 was the only well that produced incremental oil from combustion operation.
After heat broke through in the well, a cooling system was installed in the well to prevent
the bottom hole temperature from exceeding 350° F. However, failure of the cooling
pump caused the bottom hole temperatures in Well 21 to exceed 700° F and damage the
liner. Attempts to replace the damaged liner were unsuccessful. Heat also broke through
in several other wells (4, 11, 14, and 17), but combustion gas and high water production
prevented these wells from being stopped. Only 61% of the injected air was recovered in
the producing wells. Tracer tests indicated the migration of unrecoverable air outside the
pilot area.
Significantly high operating costs were spent during the operation of the pilot.
Damage to producing wells from severe channelling of the combustion gas resulted in
expensive workovers. Oil production rates were not sufficient to cover the high operating
costs and continue the project. Because of the operational problems and poor oil pro-

duction, the pilot was terminated in March 1979 as uneconomical. The total operating
costs for the pilot were $3,317 million or $23.89/bbl.
The project failed due to poor selection of test site and planning. A production test
from a well open to both zones was used for the productivity calculation and average
viscosity. The results were wrong, and the project was designed based on this
information. This resulted in using compressor that was totally inadequate for supplying
air at the desired injection pressure. This mistake could have been avoided if each zone
was tested separately. Injectivities in both zones were widely different. This was not
recognized during the planning and design stage. The viscous oil in the Upper Lobe
caused a viscous oil block. Each zone should have been tested separately by an extended
air injection tests. The reservoir structure that was assumed for the Paris Valley Project
was later determined to be incorrect. This resulted in migration of air and combustion
front away from the pattern. The situation could have been avoided, by drilling some
wells outside the project area to determine the reservoir structure. There was no backup
system for example such as a cooling water pump. Mechanical failure of the cooling
water pump resulted in the loss of a producer with heat breakthrough. It is reasonable to
have a backup for all critical equipment.
2.7 West Newport Project 4, 11
West Newport field is located in California, U.S. In-situ combustion project was
operated by General Crude. The major reservoir being burned was the "B" sand with a
net thickness of about 500 ft. consisting of a highly porous and permeable oil sand with
scattered shale stringers which had little continuity. Depth of the "B" sand was from
1,400-2,000 ft. and contained 15° API oil with a viscosity of 3,700 cp at reservoir
temperature.
West Newport fireflood was started in 1958. Air injection wells were completed by
drilling a 7-7/8 in. hole to the base of the "B" sand. Steam injection was carried for at
least 24 hours and then air injection started at low rates. Ignition was spontaneous and
occurred in one hour to one week. Ignition was evidenced by a 300-500 psi injection
pressure drop and sometimes was felt physically. Air injection was continued for about
two months when the tubing string was replaced by plastic lined 2-3/8 in. tubing with a

16 Koorosh Asghari
packer. The average air injection rate at that time was about 3,120 Mcfpd per well. There
were 35 air injectors in the "B" sand and 1 in the "A" sand pilot and 245 producers, some
of which produced from the "A" and "C" sand reservoirs. "Hot" wells were producing
wells that were being reached by the fire front which was indicated by increasing
temperatures and volumes of flue gas. When a well was about to enter the "hot" stage, the
normal sucker rod string was replaced by a hollow rod string. The thermocouple was
used to measure down hole temperature and automatically controlled a water injection
system used for cooling the down hole producing string and also controlled backpressure
on the annulus by restricting flue gas flow. In this manner, the fireflood front was slowed
and diverted away from the "hot" well allowing the well to be produced much longer.
This technique appeared to be successful and allowed hot wells to be produced for
several years longer, increasing the oil recovery and reducing corrosion problems.
Problems with sand production were kept to a minimum by use of the gravel packed
liners. Each well was equipped with a small gas scrubber and orifice meter to measure
gas flow rate and temperature from the annulus. Down hole temperature profiles and gas
sampling were periodically carried out.
Production from the Newport field was 4,000 BOPD with 18,000 BWPD. The "B"
sand was productive over 590 acres. Original oil in place was estimated at 120,000,000
barrels. Cumulative oil production was about 40,000,000 barrels or 33% OOIP. Air
injection plant capacity was about 24.0 MMscfpd with the injection rate at that time
being 11.0 MMscfpd at 550 psi. The air-oil ratio (AOR) ranged from 2-4 Mcf per barrel.
West Newport fireflood project was apparently an economical operation. General
Crude had learned much about fire flooding in the 18 years the project had been under
way. The post project analysis indicated good sweep efficiency for a reservoir of this
thickness. This may have been due mainly to operation's policy of fireflood control and
low air injection rates. During the West Newport project some excellent equipment and
techniques to improve recovery and efficiency of the fireflood process were developed.
2.8 Kentucky Tar Sands 12
In-situ combustion pilot project was held on the Big Clifty formation tar sands,
Edmonson County, Kentucky, U.S. Project was operated by Westken Petroleum Corp.

They constructed a 1-acre inverted seven-spot pattern in 1981 to produce heavy oil from
the Big Clifty formation tar sands, which contains more than 400x106 bbl of heavy oil in
place. The reservoir properties of the 1-acre pattern are summarized in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8 – Reservoir Properties of Big Clifty Formation Tar Sands
Depth of the top formation, ft 380
Thickness of the pay zone, ft 35 to 48
Permeability, md 402
Porosity, % 16.4
Oil saturation, % 49.5
Oil saturation, bbl/acre-ft 630
Westken Petroleum Corp. consulted with the Texas Petroleum Engineers and selected
to use a forward wet combustion preceded by a steam preheat to establish good
communication with the producing wells.
The first step in the pilot operation was a steam preheats operation. High-pressure
steam was injected down the injection well to establish a hot path to each of the
producing wells. Because the oil was highly viscous, the initial mobility of the formation
was low. However, as the steam-heated area increased, the formation mobility improved.
During the steam preheat operation the initial steam breakthrough was achieved at
Producing Well 6. The resistance to flow to this well was reduced to such an extent after
breakthrough that heat advance toward the other wells was interrupted, as a result
temperature declines at the observation wells on the opposite side of the pattern from
Well 6. The problem with flow distribution was overcome by injecting high-pressure
steam down the producing wells and steaming back toward the injection well.
Air injection was initiated in February 1982. Auto ignition was achieved shortly after
the start of air injection at the temperature of 380 to 400°F that was actually the steam
temperature existing in the formation. During the air burn period, oxygen consumption
was essentially complete. Air was shut off several times during the test period, sometimes
for periods up to 1 month. Immediate auto-reignition was always achieved after air
injection resumed. Initial oil production was achieved shortly after air injection.
Comparison of the produced oil with the OOIP showed no change in viscosity, gravity, or
boiling range.

18 Koorosh Asghari
No problems with well burnout or premature bum-through were experienced in the

pilot.
As of March 1983, 6,005 bbl of 10°API oil were produced from this pilot,
representing 22.5% of the OOIP on the 1-acre pattern. In-situ fuel consumption was 2.6
Ibm/cu ft. The air burn period was terminated before completion of the burn because the
primary objective of demonstrating high production rates had been achieved and
continuing the operation would have complicated the analysis of the post burn coring
data. Analysis of the data indicated that if operation was preceded the overall recovery of
45 to 55% of the OOIP in the pattern volume would have been achieved. Predictions
indicated an expected fuel bum of 1.5 to 2 lbm/cu ft after the pattern was fully heated.
While Kentucky oil could be produced economically by a steam flood, data from the
in-situ combustion project indicates that it would be better to use the wet-combustion
technique in this reservoir. The major advantage is primarily from the lower cost of
generating steam and heat underground by using the residual OIP as fuel instead of
generating steam on the surface with the higher-cost produced oil as fuel.
Based on the work done in western Kentucky, wet-combustion process can be applied
economically to the production of heavy oil or bitumen’s from tar sands, both those with
high oil saturations and those with saturations.
2.9 Buffalo Field 13, 14, 15
The Buffalo Field is located in the Harding County, South Dakota, U.S. In-situ
combustion projects on the Buffalo Filed were operated by Continental Resources Inc.
The field produces from the Red River carbonate reservoir of Ordovician age that occurs
at the average depth of 8,500 ft. Some average reservoir properties for each of the three
(Buffalo Red River Unit, South Buffalo Red River Unit and West Red River Unit) high
pressure air injection projects are shown in Table 2.9.
The primary recovery mechanism on the field was fluid expansion and rock
compaction. Ultimate primary recovery was estimated to be only six percent of the
original oil in place. Several different improved oil recovery techniques were studied for
this field. Water flooding was declined because of the limited water injectivities and also
high water saturations. Natural gas and carbon dioxide injection were declined mainly

Table 2.9 –Reservoir Properties of Individual High Pressure Air Injection Units in
Buffalo Field
BRRU SBRUU WBRUU
Unit area, acres 7,680 20,800 4,640
Developed acres, acres 6,320 11,470 3,644
Original oil in place, 51 100 32
MMBO
Net pay, feet 10-18 12-18 13-16
Porosity, % 15-20 15-20 13-16
Water saturation, % 45-55 45-55 45-50
because of high costs both for gas and carbon dioxide. In the mid-1977 the operator
initiated laboratory tests reservoir fluid study, special core analysis and combustion tube
test), feasibility studies and pilot air injectivity test. Because the pilot results were
promising, the original 3.5-section Buffalo Red River Unit (BRRU) was formed in
September 1978. The results continued to be encouraging and the unit was enlarged to
nine sections in 1980 and to twelve sections in 1981. Based on the success of the BRRU
high pressure air injection project, the South Buffalo Red River Unit (SBRRU) of 30.5
sections was formed in June 1983 and began to respond to injection in 1985.
Furthermore, the 7-section West Buffalo Red River Unit (WBRRU) was formed and
started air injection in November 1987.
Air injection in BRRU began in 1979 and has continued to the present rates up to 16
MMSCFD and injection pressures up to 4,400 psi. In December 2007 air was being
injected into 6 injectors at a rate of 10 MMSCFD and an average injection pressure of
3,800 psi. Air injection in SBRRU began in January 1984 and has continued to present at
rates up to 23 MMSCFD and injection pressure of 4,400 psi. In December 2007 air was
being injected into 12 injectors at a rate of 18 MMSCFD and an average injection
pressure of 3,500 psi. Air injection in WBRRU began in 1987 and has continued to the
present rates up to 5.4 MMSCFD and injection pressures up to 4,400 psi. In December
2007 air was being injected into 5 injectors at a rate of 10 MMSCFD and an average
injection pressure of 3,800 psi.
The oil production rates in the Buffalo field went from 162 BOPD in 1978 to a peak
of 2,979 BOPD in 1991. In December 2007 oil was produced from 63 wells at a rate of

20 Koorosh Asghari
1,925 BOPD. As of December 2007 the three units have produced 18.8 MMSTB of oil
since the beginning of air injection project.
Water cuts before the start of air injection were typically above 50 percent and have
increased since the start of air injection. Currently all units exhibit average water cut of
70%. Both oil and water production rates started to increase immediately after the start of
air injection, which shows that repressurizing process was very efficient in mobilizing
reservoir fluids.
Gas breakthrough in the units occurred soon after air injection started. However, this
has not slowed down production, as would be expected from such an early breakthrough.
Incremental oil production due to high-pressure air injection was estimated per
individual wells, after performing a conventional decline curve analysis. An economic
limit of 5 BOPD was used. As of December 2007, BRRU, SBRRU and WBRRU have
recovered about 5.5, 9.6 and 2.1 MMSTB of incremental oil respectively for a total of
17.2 MMSTB of incremental oil from the three units.
Incremental air-oil ration (AOR) is generally used to measure the performance of air
injection projects. As of December 2007, the average yearly incremental AOR of BRRU,
SBRRU and WBRRU has been 16, 14 and 12 MSCF/STB respectively.
The estimation of ultimate recovery from high pressure air injection projects is not
straightforward and should preferably be done using thermal reservoir simulation. A
cumulative oil production of at least 33 MMSTB (or 18% OOIP) is expected from three
high pressure air injection units of the field.
Enhanced production from the field has been handled with conventional oil field
facilities. The air compression system has been designed to use high-flash-point
lubricants, minimize lubricant retention in piping and reduce maximum inter stage
temperatures. Primary problems with the production wells were gas interference, carbon
dioxide corrosion, emulsions, and casing collapse. Primary problems with the injection
wells were near well formation plugging an annular air leaks. The operation of the project
was relatively simple. Most problems have been prevented and solved with conventional
engineering practices.

The high pressure air injection project on the three unit of Buffalo Field has been
technically successful in terms of incremental recovery, quick response and high
production. The projects were economically successful as well.
2.10 Fry Project 16
The Fry in-situ combustion project was held on the Robinson sandstone, located in
the Robinson Field, Crawford County, Illinois, U.S. Project was operated by Marathon
Oil Company. Robinson sandstone is about 12,000 feet long and 3,500 feet wide. It varies
in thickness from 0 to 55 feet and trends from northeast to southwest at depths ranging
from 880 to 936 feet. The average porosity is about 19.7 % and average permeability of
320 md. The initial oil saturation in the Fry Project reservoir has been estimated from
material balance calculations to be 79%.
The Fry in-situ combustion project was initiated as a research project in 1960 when
air injection well AI-1 was drilled and air injection tests were started. After determination
that the desired injectivity could be obtained, a decision was made to develop a 3.3-acre
five-spot pilot around AI-1 to evaluate the technical feasibility of the combustion process.
The central portion of the Fry Unit was chosen for this pilot due to the unsuccessful water
flood that was attempted in this area previously. Ignition occurred on October 1961, and
was confirmed on October 17, 1961, by the presence of combustion gases in an
observation well. The pilot project continued until January 1964, when evaluation
showed that project was technically successful.
As a result of the successful pilot, an expansion was made to fully evaluate the
technical performance of a large-scale in situ combustion project. Several units were
added to expand the project to a total of 797 surface acres. Three more air Injection wells
were drilled and ignited in 1965 and 1966. The expanded project area included
approximately 70 active producers previously used in water flood operations.
In 1970, a wet combustion technique was tested in the AI-2 and AI-4 areas in an
attempt to improve heat utilization efficiency. Heat utilization in the dry forward
combustion process is very inefficient. As much as 80% of the heat generated from
combustion can remain behind the burn front and eventually be lost to the rock above and
below the formation. Water was injected simultaneously with air into the AI-2 and AI-4

22 Koorosh Asghari
wells from 1970 until late 1972 when serious corrosion problems developed with
simultaneous air and water injection. Water injection was started again in late 1974 into
all three of the burn zones through burned out wells adjacent to the air injection wells.
Operations have continued in this manner with no major changes taking place since 1974.
Simultaneous air and water injection into a burn zone has caused injection well
corrosion problems. These problems can be eliminated by injecting the water into wells
adjacent to the air injection well.
Over 1,000,000 BO have been produced from in situ combustion operations at the Fry
Project since 1961. Project production peaked in 1968 at 380 BOPD and as of 1977 was
averaging at 100 BOPD (15.9 m3/d) from 34 active wells.
High water saturation in some areas has not harmed the in situ combustion process.
This shows that in situ combustion may be attractive after successful water flooding.
Project operations have shown that in situ combustion can be an effective tool in
recovering crude oil of low viscosity (10-80 cp). The success of this project clearly
demonstrates the technical and economic feasibility of recovering significant reserves
from an area that cannot be successfully water flooded.
2.11 Shannon Pool 17
The Shannon pool is located on the north end of the Salt Creek field in Natrona
County, Wyoming, U.S. The field was operated by Pan American Petroleum Corp. for
the Midwest Oil Corp., the owner. The Shannon sand is 950 ft deep, contains a heavy
(25° API), viscous (76 cp) oil. Natural reservoir energy is limited. Primary production,
since 1889, recovered only about 2 percent of the oil in place. The crude is composed
mostly of naphthenes. The reservoir had neither an effective water drive nor significant
solution gas energy. The limited reservoir energy was not capable of producing the 76 cp
oil at high rates. Some reservoir data for the Shannon pool are listed in Table 2.10.
In 1953 and 1954, three new wells were drilled to obtain cores and to determine the
possible primary production performance of wells. Bottom-hole heaters were temporarily
installed in two of the new wells. Oil production increased from 10 B/D before
installation to a maximum of 26 B/D, but repeated mechanical breakdowns led to
termination of the test. Water flooding was investigated. Calculations indicated that,

because of adverse mobility ratios, recovery could not be expected to exceed 30 per cent
of the oil in place. Because of the high crude viscosity, producing rates were expected to
be low. Studies on in-situ combustion were made specifically for the Shannon pool.
These studies indicated that the prospects of forward combustion in the Shannon pool
were favorable. It was decided to conduct a pilot test of forward combustion in the
Shannon pool.
Table 2.10 – Reservoir Data – Shannon Pool
Sand Lower Shannon
Depth 950 ft
Net Pay Thickness 33 ft
Porosity 23.3 %
Permeability 250 md
Connate Water Saturation 40 %
Oil Saturation 60 %
Oil Gravity 25° API
Oil Viscosity at Reservoir Temperature 76 cp
Reservoir Temperature 68°F
Initial BHP 395 psig
Bubble-Point Pressure 29 psig
Solution gas Negligible
Area:
Original Pilot (Five-spot) 1.32 acres
Expended Pilot 5 acres
Calculated Original Oil in Place
Original Pilot (Five-spot) 47,200 bbl
Expended Pilot 179,000 bbl
The original reverse combustion pilot was a 1.32-acre five-spot. The expanded pilot
has eight producing wells surrounding a roughly triangular area of about five acres with
the injection well near the center. A control or comparison well was also recompleted in
another part of the field. Ignition occurred in June 1959. A bottom-hole gas-fired heater
developed by Pan American was used.
On August 1960 a fire breakthrough occurred in Well No. 19. After fire
breakthrough, the well produced oil and water at rates of about 10 to 20 B/D and 80 to
100 B/D respectively. Also, after fire breakthrough, the oxygen content of the produced
gas gradually increased and the carbon-dioxide content gradually decreased.

24 Koorosh Asghari
There were no great operating difficulties during the combustion operations probably
because the relatively lower temperatures were maintained in the producing well at fire
breakthrough. Combustion operations were maintained with only a minimum of
relatively inexpensive equipment beyond that which would have been required for a
conventional gas drive.
In spite of poor oxygen consumption, the over-all performance of the pilot has been
good. Total oil recovery to June 1, 1961, was 73,971 bbl. The wells of the original pilot
alone had produced about 24,000 bbl, equivalent to 50 per cent of the oil in place, when
fire breakthrough at the first well occurred. These wells have now produced oil
equivalent to more than 74 per cent of the oil in place in the original pilot area.
Performance of the Shannon combustion-drive pilot indicates that ultimate recovery
may approach the recovery predicted from laboratory tests and that a full-scale project
would be profitable.
2.12 Carlyle Field 18, 19
Carlyle field is located in Allen County, Kansas, U.S. Starting from February 1963 to
1970 Layton Oil Company, Sohio Petroleum Company and Texas Pacific Oil Company
operated three in-situ combustion pilots in this field. Carlyle field produces from the
Bartlesville sand lying at the average depth of about 860 ft and with average thickness of
35 to 45 ft in the area of fireflood pilot tests. The sand is quite well consolidated with
porosity averaging about 25%. Permeability is also high – about 2 Darcy’s. The 19°API
gravity crude oil has a viscosity of about 700 cp at the reservoir temperature of 74°F.
Although the field has been produced since the early 1900's, cumulative production is not
more than 3 or 4 percent of the original oil-in-place. There has been enough natural water
influx to maintain reservoir pressure at about 230 psig.
The first combustion project was started in 1963. The pilot area included 4 air-water
injection wells and 12 producing wells in an 11-acre area. During the test 1035 MCF of
air and 124,000 bbls of water were injected. During the same period 32,500 bbls of oil,
335,900 bbls of water, and 925 MCF of combustion gas had been produced. Oil
production rate for the project area had increased from 10 B/D to a peak rate of about 90
B/D. Two of the major problems indicated by the early test performance were the need

to increase oil productive capacity of cold wells and the need to confine air flow and
combustion to the oil zone where it was underline by permeable water bearing sand.
On June 1966, Sohio Petroleum Company expanded the on-going fireflood operation.
This included completion of 3 additional test patterns, partly developed by Layton, the
development of a totally new 5-spot pattern, and the conduct of many attempts to
increase productivity of cold wells. These stimulation attempts included: (1) drilling in
with air to avoid mud damage to permeability, (2) burn stimulation, (3,) steam
stimulation, (4) injection of solvents, emulsion breakers, and acid into the formation, and
finally (5) fracture treatment. None of these were successful in achieving a significant
sustained increase in oil production rate.
After the recognition that the low oil production rates of wells were due to the
combination of high oil viscosity of 700 cp and much lower permeability of sand than
reported earlier, as a last resort, oil recovery by reverse combustion was attempted. Two
ignited air injection wells were converted to production and two cold producing wells
were converted to air injection. In this process, air was injected through cold sand to
reach the combustion front which moves counter-current to the air flow. The products of
combustion, heated oil and cracked oil flow through hot sand to the producing well. Air
flux necessary to sustain reverse combustion and overall air requirements were much
higher than those required for forward combustion. However, the process offered the
physical possibility of recovering oil too immobile to be produced by forward
combustion at the reservoir temperature. The better of the two hot producing wells
achieved a sustained rate of 25 BOPD with an combustion GOR of about 40,000 cu
ft/bbl. The cumulative average GOR was 68,000 cu ft/bbl. Tests of an observation well
100 ft from this producing well indicated much of the combustion occurred in the water
zone. Later, tests of the observation well, backflow tests of the two cold air injection
wells, and tests of other wells indicated that spontaneous ignition had occurred within 8
to 10 months in the vicinity of the injection wells.
Reverse combustion was found to be physically operable in this field over a distance
of about 300 ft between cold air injection wells and hot producing wells. Due to sand
conditions and well completions, at least part of the air flowed through the bottom water

26 Koorosh Asghari
sand. However, within 8 to 10 months, spontaneous ignition occurred in the vicinity of

cold air injection wells. This precludes application of the reverse combustion process to
this reservoir at any economically attractive well spacing.
2.13 Medicine Pole Hills Unit 20
The Medicine Pole Hills field is located in the southwest corner of North Dakota,
U.S. The field produced light oil (39 °API) from the Red River carbonate formation that
occurs at an average depth of 9,500 ft and has a low permeability (1 to 30 md). The
original reservoir pressure was 4,120 psi, and the reservoir temperature 230°F. The
volumetrically estimated OOIP was 40 million bbl. The recovery mechanism under
primary production was by liquid and rock expansion with a partial water drive. Primary
recovery is estimated to be 15% of the original oil in place (OOIP). The field was
operated by Amoco Production Co.
Several EOR methods have been considered as a result of the low primary recovery.
Water flooding was ruled out because of limited injectivities. Repressurization to original
reservoir pressure was expected to take more than 10 years with water injection. Natural
gas and CO2 injection were ruled out because of the high cost of both gases. Air injection
was considered to be a good alternative because of the successful performance of the
Buffalo field air-injection project, 20 miles south of Medicine Pole Hills field. Both these
fields produced from the Red River formation and had similar reservoir characteristics.
Results of reservoir fluid study, combustion-tube tests, packed-column displacement
study and accelerating rate calorimeter (ARC) tests were considered before starting of the
full scale air injection project.
Air injection was started in March 1986 but was suspended after 2 months of
injection because of the decline in oil price. Air injection was resumed in October 1987.
As of December 1993, air has being injected into seven injectors at a rate of 9 MMscf/D
and a pressure of 4,400 psi. The injection rates on most wells have been fairly constant or
have increased slightly over time. Gas production started to increase after 15 months of
continuous injection and as of December 1993 was 45% of air injection. Cumulative air
injection as of December 1993 was 12 Bscf. Oil production has increased from 400
BOPD before unitization to the rate of 950 BOPD, while the number of producing wells

was nearly the same as before unitization. The air/oil ratio (AOR) was 8 Mscf/STB. The
estimated burned volume around each injection well was calculated and only 2.4% of the
total unit reservoir volume had burned as of December 1993.
The determination of the oil response to the air injection is complicated by the well
warkovers, acid fracturing, and pump changes in some producers. Production decline
curve analysis was used to estimate the incremental oil recovery due to air injection. The
incremental oil as of December 1993 was 1 million bbl (2.5% of OOIP).
The success of this project could be also attributed to the optimized operation of the
compressor facility, the monitoring of producing wells to ensure maximum productivity,
and the efficient application of technology based on experience that allowed successful
and safe operation of this high-pressure air-injection project.
2.14 North Tisdale Field 21
North Tisdale Field is located in the north central Wyoming. The forward in-situ
combustion project was operated by Continental Oil Co. North Tisdale Filed produces
from the Curtis sand that dips about 3° to the north. Sand depth varies from 776 to 1,090
ft in the productive area. Gross sand thickness is about 100 ft, and average net effective
pay in the developed area is about 50 ft. The original oil content was about 15 million bbl
or 1,230 bbl/acre-ft. The average permeability of the reservoir is 1.034 md, porosity —
24.5%, initial saturations — 64.6% of oil and 35.4% of water. The crude oil has a gravity
of 21°API and a viscosity of 175 cp at the original reservoir conditions of 290 psig and
73 °F.
Water cuts had increased to 50% by the time the original development was
completed. The primary producing rate had declined from a peak of 312 BOPD to 180
BOPD by 1957, and it was estimated that less than 5.0 % of OOIP would be recovered
economically. For this reasons water flooding was not chosen as secondary recovery
method for the North Tisdale field. An in-situ combustion project was initiated because
of the following favorable conditions: high oil saturation, good porosity and permeability,
moderately viscous oil, low ultimate primary production, a fairly homogeneous, thick and
consolidated sand, relatively new wells and surface equipment. Factors of concern were
the lack of gas saturation, the low reservoir temperature, and the bottom water zone. The

28 Koorosh Asghari
primary objective of the pilot project was to establish the feasibility of a combination
fireflood-water flood process.
To determine the injectivities and the type of response to be expected, about 6 MMscf
of air was injected into Well 18 during a 9-day test period that began on October 15,
1957. Oil production increased on the fifth day, and air breakthrough occurred
immediately afterward. Most of the produced gas flowed from the 10-acre offsets to the
west and south of Well 18. The resulting 30-BOPD rate increase declined gradually, and
the total secondary oil reached 2,330 bbl. A second air injection test was performed
during May and June, 1958, to select a location for the pilot. The field production rate
increased from approximately 160 to about 250 BOPD. Water cuts decreased slightly.
These tests showed that most of the air tended to flow in an east-west direction.
During January 1959, the injection rates and pressures were increased from 450 to
900 Mcf/D and from 700 to 800 psig, respectively. During 1959, field producing rates
stabilized at about 230 BOPD. The air injection pressure was increased from 900 to 925
psi in November 1959, and moderate injectivity increase was soon observed. At the end
of 1960, after 18 months of burning, the combustion drive was gradually improving the
oil production rates. Field production rates of 290 BOPD were approaching the primary
peak, and secondary recovery totaled 102,291 bbl of oil. During this 2-year period from
1961 to 1962, combustion operations continued in the pilot pattern, Hot Well 34 was
worked over and used as a temperature observation and control well, two information
wells were drilled, and Well 1 was produced as a hot well for 11 months. At the end of
the period, Well 33 was converted from air to water injection, Well 10 was ignited for a
second combustion pattern, and a water flood was begun at Wells 20 and 22 to provide
containment on the south end of the reservoir.
The combustion zone was active in the pilot pattern for about three and a half years.
During that time the field produced 191,000 bbl of secondary oil, 44% of which came
from pattern wells. The total oil produced by pattern wells at that time equaled 14% of
the original stock-tank oil in place (STOIP), and primary was 46,300 bbl, or about 5% of
STOIP. The pattern oil rate reached a peak of 118 BOPD for 1 month and averaged 88.4
BOPD during the period, or about three times the rate before air injection. An estimated

200,000 bbl of oil was displaced from the pilot area, including some 17,400 bbl displaced
prior to ignition. About half this oil came from the burned zone and half from the
unburned areas. The cumulative pattern-average air-oil ratio (AOR) from October 1958,
to October 1962, was 16 Mscf of air per barrel of total oil produced, or about 25 Mscf of
air per barrel of secondary oil. The GOR was 10 Mscf per barrel of total oil.
In-situ combustion was easily established and maintained in the North Tisdale field
and the combination thermal process improved recovery and rate. When the “hot wells”
were controlled by water injection they provided a good rate during combustion drive.
Combustion gas analyses and gas rates were good status indicators. Oxygen utilization
was poor, but it improved with time. CO higher than 1 percent indicated excessive
wellbore temperatures. Combustion stimulation of wells was effective and more
economical than steam stimulation.
2.15 May-Libby Field 22
May-Libby field is located in the Delhi Unit, California, U.S. In-situ combustion
project was operated by Sun Oil Co. The reservoir is Upper Cretaceous in age, and is
contained within the lower Tuscaloosa formation. Structurally, the May-Libby reservoir
is a sand lens that appears to be isolated by shale. Some reservoir characteristics of the
May-Libby field are listed in Table 2.11.
The May-Libby reservoir was produced by solution gas drive from January 1945 until
August 1953. Oil recovery from the reservoir during primary production amounted to
32.05 percent of oil originally in place. After period of primary production a water flood
was begun in the reservoir. From August 1953 until August 1966, water was injected at
six locations along the southern flank of the May-Libby reservoir. Before the start of in-
situ combustion project in August 1966 water flood had produced approximately
1,245,800 STB of oil, reducing the remaining oil in place to an estimated 4,428 STB.
During 1965 a detailed analysis of the reservoir performance indicated that the water
flood was an outstanding economic success: recovery was increased by 14.9 percent of
oil originally in place. This meant that approximately 53% of the original oil would
remain in the reservoir after waterflood. More efficient recovery methods were
considered so that the productive life of the reservoir could be extended. After careful

30 Koorosh Asghari
Table 2.11 — In-situ Combustion Pilot, May-Libby Reservoir

Date of discovery January 12, 1945
Type of formation Tuscaloosa sandstone
Number of producing wells 32
Size of reservoir, miles 1*2 1/2
Area of reservoir, acres 1,362
Net pay thickness, ft 2 to 12
Average net pay, ft 4.4
Permeability range, md 20 to 2,900
Average permeability, md 1,069
Formation volume factor, at 1,556 psig 1.216
Original BHP, psig 1,556
Oil content, STB/acre-ft 1,395
Original oil on place, STB 8,350,000
Primary production
Oil, STB 2,676,411
Water, bbl 177,519
Gas, Mcf 2,364,674
Water flood recovery
Oil, STB 1,245,800
Water, bbl 2,273,538
Gas, Mcf 714,060
examination of various data created by laboratory and reservoir modeling techniques it

was decided to do a pilot test of the in-situ combustion process in the western portion of
the May-Libby reservoir. The water flood was continued in the eastern portion of the
reservoir.
Well DU2-1 TIW was drilled in July 1966 and completed as the injection well for the
in-situ combustion project. During the 12 months air was injected into the pilot pattern at
an almost constant rate of 39.40 MMscf/month. To increase the transfer of heat across the
combustion zone and to accelerate the growth of the condensation zone, water was
injected with the air, starting from October 1967. The injection of the two fluids has been

accomplished by injecting 1,000-bbi slugs of water alternately with 8 to 10 MMscf of air.

Total air injection into the May-Libby reservoir as of January 1 1970, was 2,327 MMscf.
The four producing wells were drilled and completed. Cumulative oil production due to
the in-situ combustion project as of January 1970 was 163,080 bbl. Peak producing was
222 BOPD, which occurred during in July 1968. Cumulative water production from the
pilot has totaled 148,800 bbl. This volume of water has been produced fairly consistently
at an average 114 BWPD. The air requirement and the fuel consumed in the May-Libby
in-situ combustion project was 240 scoff per cubic foot of rock, and 120 bbl/ acre-ft
respectively. Both of these process variables were predicted from combustion tube test
data. The reservoir volumes drained by Wells DU 73-1 and DU 80-2 contained 694 and
339 bbl of stock-tank oil at the beginning of the in-situ combustion project. Of these
volumes of oil, 574 bbl/acre-ft, or 82.7 % and 219 bbl/acre-ft or 62.8% were recovered.
The primary operational problem in the May-Libby in-situ combustion project has
been the difficulty in the controlling corrosion in the down-hole sucker-rod pumps.
The in-situ combustion project in the May-Libby reservoir was both technically and
economically successful. The rate of return on investments, after taxes, from the thermal
program was 16.6 percent as of January 1, 1970.
2.16 W. Hackberry Project 23, 24
W. Hackberry field is located in Southwestern Louisiana, U.S. The W. Hackberry air
injection project was cost shared project of U.S. DOE and Amoco.
The objective of the W. Hackberry project was to demonstrate the technical and
economical feasibility of combining air injection with the Double Displacement Process
for EOR. The Double Displacement Process is the gas displacement of a water invaded
oil column for the purpose of recovering tertiary oil through gravity drainage. The new
aspect of this project is the use of air as the injection fluid. The use of air injection in this
process combines the benefits of air’s low cost and universal accessibility with the
potential for improved oil recovery resulting from spontaneous in situ combustion. This
concept has being field tested in low pressure (300 to 600 psi) reservoirs on the North
Flank of the field and high pressure reservoirs (2500 to 3300 psi) on the West Flank of
the field. The low pressure reservoirs on the North Flank of the field are characterized by

32 Koorosh Asghari
steep bed dips, large low pressure gas caps, slow water encroachment and thin oil rims. A
thin oil rim on a steeply dipping structure occupies a small area. As water encroaches, a
producing well will water out while up structure wells will still reside in the gas cap. Air
injection in this situation can increase light oil recovery by: 1) repressurizing the
reservoir, 2) pushing the oil rim to down structure producing wells and 3) effective use of
the Double Displacement Process. The high pressure reservoirs on the West Flank were
under active water drive and all producing wells have watered out. Air injection in the
high pressure reservoirs is expected to generate tertiary oil recovery through the Double
Displacement Process.
Before the project began, tests were run in an accelerating rate calorimeter that
accurately predicted that the oxygen would spontaneously combustion with the reservoir
oil at reservoir temperature and pressure.
To minimize initial investment, the existing gravel pack completions were utilized in
the producers that were converted to injectors.
Air injection was started in November 1994 and began producing incremental oil in
July 1996. Air was injected into Oligocene Age sands found between 7500 and 9000 feet
below sea level. Four million standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD) of air is split
between high pressure reservoirs (2500 to 3300 psig) on the West Flank of the field and
low pressure reservoirs (300 to 600 psig) on the North Flank of the field. Over 160
month, air injection has generated 70,000 barrels of incremental oil production in six
wells in two low pressure North Flank reservoirs. The six wells were producing at a
combined rate in December of 1997 that was 250 BOPD. In December 1997, air injection
was extended to a third low pressure North Flank reservoir. The air injector well in the
high pressure West Flank reservoir was totally plugged with magnetite on October 23,
1997. Attempts to clean out the well with coiled tubing and acid were unsuccessful.
Reservoir performance has been effectively monitored with periodic bottom hole
pressure surveys and produced gas analyses. The produced gas analyses confirmed both
nitrogen breakthrough and the combustion taking place in the reservoir. Also, an
automated system provided continues monitoring of air injection rates and pressures.

2.17 Sloss Project 25, 26, 27

The Sloss field is located in Kimball County, Nebraska, U.S. The field produces light
paraffinic oil from a stratigraphic trap in the well consolidated Muddy "J" sandstone.
There are two main reservoirs — the J1 at a depth of about 6,200 ft and the slightly
deeper J2. In some areas, the two reservoirs are separated by only a few feet of shale.
Some reservoir properties of the Sloss reservoir are listed in the Table 2.12.
Table 2.12 — Reservoir data, Sloss Field
Formation Muddy J1 sandstone
Structure Stratigraphic
Production mechanism, primary Solution gas drive
secondary Water flood
Average depth, ft 6,200
Average porosity, % 19.3
Average air permeability, md 191
Oil saturation after water flood, % PV 30+-10
BHP, psig 3,158
BHT, °F 200
Crude gravity before COFCAW, °API 38.8
Oil viscosity before COFCAW, cp 0.8
Reservoir volume factor, vol/vol 1.05
Full-scale project
Area, acres 960
Average net pay, ft 14.3
Oil in place, bbl/acre-ft 427
Million barrels 5.9
In 1963 Amoco Production Co. began pilot field tests of a new field recovery process
that involves combination of forward in-situ combustion and water flooding (COFCAW)
on the previously water flooded portion of the Sloss field. The results of this EOR pilot
were encouraging. It became apparent, however, that the economic potential of
COFCAW as EOR method could not be determined by a pilot test alone. The pilot
therefore was terminated before completion.
The project began in 1967 with six 80-acre five spots and later was expanded to 960
acres. Air injection was started on February 1967, and was terminated on July 1971.
During that period, 13.7 billion scf of air and 10.8 million bbl of water were injected into
the expanded project injection wells. In addition, 1.6 million bbl of water were injected

34 Koorosh Asghari
into the peripheral “backup” water injection wells. Because of the high reservoir
temperature (200 °F) a spontaneous ignition occurred shortly after the start of air
injection. Water injection started after 8 months the air injection started. Air rates were
gradually increased for a month following ignition. After that, air alone was injected for
another month to build a heat bank in the reservoir before starting water. The oil
producing rates increased steadily after ignition and reached about 500 BOPD by
November 1967. The overall AOR was 21,266 scf/bbl. For most of the producing wells
gas never contained a measurable amount of oxygen. The full-scale project area was a
long way from being burned out when air injection was terminated. Water injection was
not terminated with air injection. In the two and a half years after air injection was
stopped, continued water injection contributed an additional 189,000 bbl of oil while the
oil producing rates declined to about 120 BOPD.
One of the main problems in producing operations occurred with the heat
breakthrough. Three wells were shut in because of heat breakthrough and a fourth well
was at the point of breakthrough. Because the Sloss project was carried out in a
previously water flooded reservoir, heat breakthrough could not be recognized by a
temperature increase at the surface. The second major problem was injectivity problems,
because of the bed wellbore and near-wellbore conditions.
During approximately four and a half years of the air injection 646,776 bbl of stock
tank oil was recovered. In additional, about 340,000 bbl of hydrocarbons vaporized by
flue gas passive through the reservoir was vented to the atmosphere.
The Sloss Field COFCAW project was operated at substantial loss. However, the
project contributed a lot of information, recovered a substantial amount of oil from a thin
water flood reservoir and demonstrated that COFCAW is operable. The reason that
project was not economically successful is because it did not produce enough oil fast
enough. The reasons the oil rate and oil recovery were not high were: 1) low oil
saturation, 2) poor sweep, and 3) injectivity problems.
2.18 Horse Creek 28, 29, 30
The Horse Creek Field is located in the south-central portion of the Williston Basin,
Bowman County, North Dakota, U.S. The Horse Creek field is a carbonate reservoir

located within the Ordovician Red River formation. The Red River formation, in this
portion of the Williston Basin, is subdivided by industry workers into four porosity
zones. These porosity zones are referred to as the "A" through "D". Air injection at the
Horse Creek field has been limited to the "D" porosity zone. Horse Creek reservoir
produced light oil (32 °API) and had an OOIP of 46 MMBBLS. Some reservoir and fluid
characteristics of the Horse Creek field are listed in Table 2.13. Air injection project at
the Horse Creek Filed was operated by Total Minatome Corporation.
Table 2.13— Reservoir and fluid properties of the Horse Creek Field
Productive Formation Red River
Productive Zone D
Trapping Mechanism Stratigraphic
Depth to Reservoir, ft 9125
Productive Acreage 3824
Average Porosity, % 16
Average Permeability, md 10-20
Average Net Pay, ft 20
Average Water Saturation, % 35
Reservoir Temperature, °F 220
Initial Reservoir Pressure, Psi 4000
Oil Gravity, °API 32
Bubble Point Pressure, Psi 625
Solution Gas Ratio, SCF/STB 205
Formation Volume Factor, RB/STB 1.205
Original OOIP, STB 45,740,260
OOIP, BBLS/acre-ft. 598
Estimated Primary Production, BBLS 4,536,502
Estimated Incremental Production, BBLS 7,600,000
Total Recoverable Reserves, BBLS 12,136,502
Primary Recovery Factor, % 9.92
Incremental Recovery Factor, % 16.62
Total Recovery Factor, % 26.53
The primary producing mechanism for the Red River "D" Zone in the Horse Creek
Field is liquid and rock expansion. Because there was no natural pressure maintenance
(no gas cap, ne active aquifer) the production rapidly decreased after 1984. Total
cumulative primary production from the field from November 1972 to October 1996 was
3.3 MMBBLS. The total remaining primary reserves as of May 1996 (prior to injection)

36 Koorosh Asghari
were estimated at 1.2 MMBBLS and ultimate primary recovery (produced + remaining)
at 4.5 MMBBLS.
To evaluate EOR potential of the Horse Creek field Total Minatome Corporation
completed a series of geologic and reservoir studies. These studies included: 1)
geological review of the field; 2)numerical simulations with a Black oil model which
enabled to obtain fast and reliable results regarding the incremental recovery and
production scenarios required to make decisions for the project; 3) laboratory
experiments (ARC test, Combustion and Oxidation Tube runs) which gave results on the
recovery efficiency by air injection, provided kinetic parameters required for the thermal
simulation, and indicated a good oxygen consumption potential by the oil; 3) thermal
simulations of the combustion tube tests and full-field thermal simulations allowing to
assess an optimal air injection rate as well as the injectors and producers locations. Based
on these studies, air injection as secondary recovery process was chosen for the Horse
Creek field.
Air injection into the Red River "D" zone began in May 1996. The Olson 1-30 was
the first injection well. In June 1996 two additional injection wells, the Mud Buttes 1-25
and the Comtrust 24-13 were added. As of June 1997, there were eleven producing wells,
three air injection wells, monitor well, and one water disposal well within the unit area.
Air was injected into the reservoir through three injection wells at a rate of approximately
8,500 MSCF/D at a 4700 psi discharge pressure. As of June 1997 the following changes
have been observed in the reservoir: 1) the average GOR has decreased as
repressurization of reservoir occurred; 2) the average BHP has increased approximately
to 550 psi; 3) average daily production rates had increased from 293 BOPD to
approximately 400 BOPD (36%). All these changes in the reservoir performance were
predicted by reservoir simulation studies. The produced incremental oil was calculated by
difference between the actual production and an extrapolated decline curve. The
cumulative incremental oil was 100,000 BBLS. It was also possible to calculate a
monthly Air to Oil Ratio. The AOR seems to stabilize around 18MSCF/BBL. The first
C02 breakthrough occurred in May 1997 (one year after the air injection start-up). In
December 1997, C02 breakthroughs were identified on 2 other wells. The presence of C02

confirms that an in-situ combustion process is occurring in the reservoir. However, it

should be pointed that as of 1997 the air injection response was not yet observed on all
the wells.
There is no information published on the performance of the Horse Creek air
injection project, after 1997.
2.19 North Ward-Estes Field 31
The North-Estes Field is located in Ward County, Texas, U.S. The North-Estes Field
is Permian age reservoir that consists of seven sands trapped by dense dolomites and
limited areally by shells. In-situ combustion project at this field was operated by Gulf Oil
Exploration and Production Co. Some rock and fluid properties of the field are listed in
Table 2.14.
Table 2.14 – Rock and Fluid Properties of the Ward-Estes Field
Depth to top of J-2, ft 2,690
Sand volume in pilot area, acre-ft 9,233
Average thickness, ft 25
Porosity, % 20
Permeability, md 88
Reservoir temperature, F 81
Estimated oil saturation, bbl/acre-ft 500 to 600
Transmissibility, md-ft/cp 1,570
Oil gravity, API 33
Bubble-point pressure, psi 1,400
Formation volume factor at 1,400 psi 1.2
Solution GOR at 1,400 psi 386
Oil viscosity at 1,400 psi 1.39
North-Estes Field was discovered in 1929 and has been under water flood since 1955
to 1978. Reservoir characteristics were marginal in comparison with the screening criteria
for the in-situ combustion. However, laboratory tests using produced fluids and preserved
cores demonstrated that fireflood could be a viable process for this field. To prove the
laboratory tests and to answer questions if ignition could be obtained and combustion
could propagate in the light-gravity crude reservoir, a dry forward in-situ combustion
pilot was initiated on April 11, 1978. The pilot was implemented in two phases.

38 Koorosh Asghari
Phase 1 was conducted in an inverted 10-acre five-spot pattern. A propane igniter was
used and burned temperature was controlled at 800°F. Initial response to air injection and
combustion occurred within 48 hours in two producing wells. An early response was
characterized by high 02 concentrations in produced gas. Any increase in air injection
caused increase in the 02 concentration, which in some producers was more than 16%.
High 02 and low C02 concentrations in gas samples from producing wells indicated low
burn quality. Rapid flue gas migration and the evidence of a low-quality burn caused this
phase to be terminated in April 1979.
Phase 2 was started after five month before the termination of phase 1 in an inverted
40-acre nine-spot pattern. The new location was chosen for its increased sand thickness
and better porosity and permeability distribution, and as it was thought higher oil
saturation. On November 1978, the ignition equipment was installed, and air injection
began at a rate of 950 Mcf/D with a tubing pressure of 1,475 psi. The burner temperature
was increased slowly to 850 °F. This condition was maintained for 127 hours until
ignition was obtained and verified by flue gas response at the producing wells. Air
injection then was increased gradually to 2,000 Mcf/D. The initial O2 and CO2
concentrations in the produced flue gas indicated a better burn quality in this area. An
observation well was drilled and cored behind the calculated location of the combustion
zone to determine whether ignition was obtained and whether combustion propagation
was possible in this formation. Another observation well was drilled and cored in an
attempt to locate the leading edge of the combustion zone and to determine whether an
oil bank was developing.
The lack of oil response of the pilot section could be from the presence of a possible
natural fracture system, high-permeability zones causing fingering of the burn front, and
possible lower residual oil saturation than originally believed. It is also probable that the
fuel consumption was higher than anticipated, although data could not be obtained to
substantiate this possibility. In-situ combustion project on the North-Estes Field failed
because of the lower fluid saturation as it was that before and wrong understanding
reservoir structure and heterogeneity.

2.20 Midway Sunset Field 32, 33

Midway Sunset Field is a thick, moderately dipping, heavy oil reservoir located in the
western Kern County, California, U.S. The reservoir is a small anticline with six major
sands. The sands generally are separated by interbedded shales and to the east become
thin and disappear. Reservoir and fluid characteristics of the field are listed in Table 2.15.
In-situ combustion project on the Moco zone reservoir was operated by Mobil Oil Co.
Table 2.15 — Reservoir and Fluid Characteristics of the Midway Sunset Field
Productivity area, acres 150
Average depth, ft 2,100 to 2,700
Gross formation thickness, ft 500
Average net sand thickness, ft 129
Porosity, % 36
Oil saturation, % 75
Water saturation, % 25
Formation volume factor 1.06
Initial oil in place, bbl/acre-ft 1,980
Initial oil in place, total bbl (millions) 38
Specific permeability, md 1,575
Initial formation pressure, psi 1,000
Oil viscosity at formation temperature, cp 110
Sand character unconsolidated
Field was discovered in 1957 and partially developed. However, because there was no
demand for the heavy crude, it was essentially shut in until 1959. It was expected that
without fluid injection of some kind there would be a rapid decline in oil production rate.
Evaluation of several methods of operation indicated that the most desirable economics
would be obtained if the combustion process were applied immediately. Predictions of
performance under combustion were based on the results of the South Belridge Thermal
Recovery Experiment.
A dry in-situ combustion project was started in January 1960. At that time the
cumulative oil production from the reservoir was 160,000 bbl, or 0.4 % of the oil in
place, and the reservoir pressure was only slightly below its initial value of 1,000 psi. Air
was injection into two wells at a total rate of 2000 MSCF/D. Production was from the

40 Koorosh Asghari
surrounding 26 wells. Spontaneous ignition occurred after 18 days of continuous

injection. In early 1964, the air injection rate was increased to average of 8000 MSCF/D.
After 1971 the air injection rate remained relatively constant at an average 5500
MSCF/D. The initial oil production response was observed in early 1960 at a rate of
2850 BOPD. Peak oil production was reached in 1964 at a rate of 4200 BOPD. The
declines in oil production correlated well with declines in air injection in 1963, 1967 and
1973. As of 1975, the producing oil rate was 1040 BOPD from the 14 active wells.
Generally, the project's air-oil ratio was low (4-4.3 MSCF/Bbl), with the producer to
injector ratio of 6:1
The main problem during the operation of the Midway Sunset in-situ combustion
project was a loss of high pressure air from the reservoir. In 1961 air was found to be
migrating eastwards to wells producing from the Obispo-Pacific zone. To solve this
problem well Moco 592 was converted to an air injector. In 1962 the well Moco 504
blew out. The hole was lost and air from the Moco zone began to leak to the Webster
zone above. Ignition occurred in the Webster zone and oil rate increases were observed at
in Webster zone wells near the leak. Water was injected into Moco 504 and an attempt
was made to drill to the leaking lost hole and cement it. After several attempts a shutoff
was established.
Despite the complication of multiple sands in the Moco zone reservoir, in-situ
combustion has been applied effectively as a primary recovery process. Project was both
technically in economically successful. As of 1975, the recovery was 9 million bbl of oil,
or 24% of the oil originally in place. Air injection operations account for 20 of the 24%
recovered. Cumulative air injected was 26 Bcf. The burned volume was estimated at 7.5
% of the reservoir and is generally limited to the area at the top of the structure around
the injectors and nearby producers.
3. Air-injection projects in Canada, South America, Europe and Asia
A list of field implemented air injection project in Canada, South America, Europe and
Asia could found in Table 3.1

Table 3.1 – Air injection projects in Canada, South America, Europe and Asia
Pilot or
Date Combustion
Project Name Operator Field References
Initiated Type
Wide
Oil and
Balol and
Natural Gas Field Wide
Santhal fields, 1990 Dry, Wet 35
Corporation
Mehsana, India
Ltd, ONGC
China
JiLin Oilfield, National
N/A Dry Pilot 36
China Petroleum
Corporation
Suplacu de
Barcau Field, PETROM 1970 Dry, Wet Field Wide 37, 40
Romania
Miga Field of
Mene Grande
Eastern 1964 Dry Field Wide 38
Oil Co.
Venezuela
Tia Juana Field,
Western Shell 1964 Wet Field Wide 39
Venezuela
Balaria fields,
PETROM 1964 Dry, Wet Field Wide 40, 42
Romania
Mordovo-
Karmalskoye
- 1987 Dry Pilot 41
Field, Tatarstan,
Russia
Videle Field,
PETROM 1966 Wet Pilot 42
Romania
Joli Fou Pilot, General
Wabasca Field, American 1981 Wet Pilot 43
Alberta. Oils, Ltd
Morgan Field in Amoco
1980 Dry, Wet Field Wide 44
Alberta, Canada
Wolf Lake
Project, Cold BP Canada 1980 Wet Pilot 45
Lake, Alberta
Fosterton Field, Mobil Oil
1974 Dry, Wet Pilot 46
Saskatchewan Canada
3.1 Zaqeh Field in S.W of Iran 34

This study is about finding the best suitable secondary/tertiary oil recovery methods
for the Zaqeh field, which is one of the heavy oil reservoirs, located in S.W of .Iran.
This reservoir is selected because of its high pressure (14690 psig), high temperature
(246°F), and having very deep (13895ft)/thick pay zone (820 ft) with respect to other
neighbouring heavy oil reservoir. After reviewing the applicability of processes, which

42 Koorosh Asghari
includes thermal processes (steam flooding and in-situ combustion), and miscible gas
flooding, the technical feasibility of each method is carried out by screening procedure
based on process characteristics, reservoir and fluid properties. Based on the reservoir
specification, it seems that oil recovery by primary depletion mechanism would be low
(approximately 7-10%) and reservoir pressure would decline rapidly. To avoid high
lifting cost and increase the reservoir oil recovery factor, decision was made to use a
pressure maintenance project that relies on EOR process. After screening, it is found that
the In-Situ Combustion is the applicable process for this reservoir. This selection was
further approved when it compares with approximately similar reservoir (West
Heidelberg in Jasper Country, journal of petroleum Tech., 1983). By this method the
ultimate oil recovery of the Zaqeh field would be reached to about 60%.
The ultimate recovery of this field using in-situ combustion process was
recommended by implementing; the drilling of horizontal wells near the top and bottom
of formation instead of vertical because of vertical fracture that exist in the formation,
using the gravitational drainage because of pay zone thickness, preventing flue gas-air
overriding problems, allocation of top wells for air injection and bottom for production,
reservoir natural depletion only from bottom wells until pressure reaches near 7000 psi.
3.2 Balol and Santhal fields, Mehsana, India 35
Mehsana asset, located in Northern part of Gujarat State, is the highest oil producing
onshore asset of ONGC. The annual crude oil production of the Asset is in the tune of
2.35 MMT. The Asset is having oil fields producing both heaviest crude and one of the
lightest crude in India with API gravity ranging from 13-42. Heavy oil fields at Mehsana
were found during 1970-71. These heavy oil fields belonging to northern part of Cambay
basin are Santhal, Balol, Lanwa and Becharaji. These fields cover an area of about 70 Sq
Km and contain around 150 MMT oil in place. Heavy oil exhibits gravity less than 20
API. They are characterized by high viscosity that increases as API gravity decreases,
low hydrogen/carbon ratios, low gas/oil ratio, as well as significant asphaltenes, sulphur
and heavy metals. In short, heavy oil reservoirs generally present low-energy and low
productivity wells. These characteristics make recovery challenging. Balol and Santhal
are two major fields of the heavy oil belt bearing oil with API gravity between 15-18.

These fields encompass 22.17 MMt and 53.56 MMt of OOIP respectively. The crude is
asphaltic in nature containing 6-8% asphaltene and has oil viscosity in the range of 50 to
450 cps in reservoir conditions. Reservoir pressure and temperature are 100 kg/cm2 and
70°C respectively at 990 m. Reservoirs have permeability of the order of 3-8 Darcies and
are operating under active water drive. High mobility contrast between oil and water has
resulted into primary recovery below 13%. Moreover on the application of artificial lift
water production was on rise. In many wells it became 95-100% and some wells had to
be closed due to high water cut. The poor primary recovery and less effective artificial lift
method necessitated search for suitable enhanced oil recovery method for improving
ultimate recovery from these fields. One of the methods was In-situ combustion
technique. In-situ combustion is a thermal enhanced oil recovery process. The technique
is based on the principle of reducing viscosity by heating of oil in the reservoir itself.
ONGC, Mehsana has successfully implemented this technology. The project was initiated
at Balol field on pilot scale in 1991. Based on encouraging results, in-situ combustion
technique was implemented on commercial scale in 1997 at Balol and Santhal fields. It
has not only given a new lease of life to these fields but has also increased the oil
recovery factor from 6-12% to 39-45%. Figure 3.1 shows a typical diagram of in-situ
combustion.
Figure 3.1 - Typical diagram of in-situ combustion

44 Koorosh Asghari
The in-situ combustion process involves injection of a calculated volume of air in a

cycle of six days followed by one-day water. At Mehsana, based on internationally
accepted screening criterion and laboratory results, this process was identified as the most
suitable technique. To initiate the process, pilot and commercial schemes were taken.
Major issues that came up during implementation includes auto ignition occurrence, air
compressor effective utilization, failure of after cooler of air compressor and oozing of
air/flue gases though remedial actions taken were able to overcome these problems.
However, the technique is costly for oil production, but as oil prices are going up and
conventional reserves are going down day by day, this technique is becoming more and
more techno-economically feasible for exploitation of heavy oil reserves.
For the Balol and Santhal fields in Mehsana, India, the successful implementation of
this EOR technique on a large scale has presented new challenges however these
challenges has been tackled efficiently with innovative schemes. Although the recent oil
prices would have made heavy oil exploitation economically feasible, the present oil
price might be a challenge to further expansion of the project.
3.3 JiLin Oilfield, China 36
Bai92 reservoir is a typical shallow, thin and multi-layered heavy oil reservoir in Jilin
Oilfield. The central oil bearing area is about 1.26km2 and oil reserve is more than
2,500,000tons. It is a lithologic and anticlinal heavy oil reservoir blocked by a large
reverse fault, and there is a large active aquifer in down dip direction. Saertu strata are the
oil-bearing sand formation, which consist of 3 stratigraphic units or 16 thin layers with
limited thickness (only 2.5m in average), the total thickness of the oil bearing formation
is 6.9m in average. The sedimentary environment belongs to braided stream deposit and
delta deposit with remarkable heterogeneity in thickness and permeability. The oil-
bearing layers are shallowly buried from 272m to 399m. The metamorphism of the sand
deposit is weak, as a result, primary intergranular pore and dissolution pore is dominant
there, unconsolidation of intergranular cement generated, and higher porosity and
permeability observed in core analysis (average porosity is up to 35%, and average
permeability 3600×10-3μm2). As a whole, the formation is strong in water sensitivity,
flow rate sensitivity and alkaline sensitivity. Under reservoir condition (18 and 3.22MPa),

the oil density is 903.8kg/m3, viscosity 1.851Pa·s, ratio of separated gas to oil 10.2m3/m3,
volume ratio of crude oil 1.03, and saturation pressure 3.2MPa close to initial reservoir
pressure. And obvious increase in oil production was achieved by cold production(4~8
tons/d average oil production rate obtained, the peak well oil production is up to 30tons/d,
about 9 times than natural production method). However, due to the low reservoir
pressure, heterogenity, and limited thickness formation, the oil production has rapidly
decreased, and 62% of the 97 oil wells have been shut off now. In the first year, the oil
production is 58,000 tons, but it is only 7,000 tons last year. Up to now, the oil recovery
is only 6%, and the average well oil production is 0.5 ton/d. Field testing of steam
stimulation has been carried out in B92 reservoir and oil production of all nine testing
wells were enhanced obviously (up to 2 tons increased per day in average). However,
average ratio of oil to steam is only 0.1555, it is not satisfied commercially. In addition,
some factors affected the performance of steam stimulation like large heat loss, bottom
water coning, low steam quality and large sand production. At present, more than 94% oil
remaining in place is difficult to exploit. To investigate the feasibility of in-situ
combustion, combustion experiments and performance have been carried out, primary
reservoir numerical simulation is implemented and progress in pilot test is briefly
introduced.
In this report, feasibility of dry and wet forward in-situ combustion is investigated. In
the cracking/vaporization zone in front of the combustion zone, the crude oil is upgraded
under high temperature condition. The chemical reactions involved in combustion are
complex and numerous, and occur over a broad temperature range. They are classified as
following in ascending temperature namely Low temperature oxidations (LTO), Medium
temperature reactions and High temperature oxidations (HTO). Both laboratory
investigation and numerical simulation with THERMAL model are presented to
demonstrate the feasibility of in-situ combustion in shallow, thin, and multi-layered
heavy oil reservoir. In the laboratory experiment for reactor experiment, runs at different
air temperature and air injection rate are performed and the experimental result and field
values converted are list is Table 3.2. The optimal fire temperature is above 400°C. It is

46 Koorosh Asghari
recommended that higher air injection rate should be implemented in the ignition stage in
view of large reservoir heat loss.
Table 3.2 - Results of ignition time and air volume consumed at different air
temperature and air injection rate
For the combustion tube experiment after pressurizing the tube, nitrogen injection is
started. At the ignition temperature, the heater is turned off and the injection is switched
to air. The combustion is quenched. After cooling off, the system is dissembled and the
tube unpacked for visual examination and analysis of the sands. At 400°C the injection
was shifted to air at the same rate in the combustion tube runs. Condition and result of
typical dry and wet forward combustion simulation runs are list in Table 3. 3.
Furthermore, both large oil recovery (more than 80%) and favourable ratio of air to
oil produced indicate the potential to enhance the oil recovery by in-situ combustion. The
numerical simulation was done by selecting a block with appropriate geological condition
as the simulation reservoir. Moreover, effects of vertical stratification, heterogeneity and
adequate air injection rate (important in keeping effective combustion and proper front
movement) on combustion performance were investigated and further research on wet
forward combustion application is still on. Based on the results of above laboratory and
numerical simulation, it could be concluded that in-situ combustion is feasible for this
heavy oil reservoir. The progress of ongoing air injection pilot test also further
demonstrates the applicability of in-situ combustion. The pilot testing wells are those
involved in the simulation, inter-well distance of production is 150m, and the distance

Table 3.3 - Result of typical combustion tube experiments
between injections well and production well is 106m. To date, all three air injection wells
are operate well at the rate of about 7000m3/d, larger content of flue gas have been
detected in three production wells and increase in oil production found for one of these
wells.
It is challenging to improve oil recovery of shallow, thin and multi-layered heavy oil
reservoir for the JiLin Oilfield in China. Pilot testing in addition to primary experiment
and numerical simulation were carried out to investigate in-situ combustion (ISC)
feasibility. The progress of the pilot test indicates the applicability of ISC though further
research is needed for efficient performance.
3.4 Suplacu de Barcau Field, Romania 37, 40
Although the Suplacu reservoir has very good production parameters, production
forecasts for the high density and viscous oil originally indicated that under primary
depletion expected recovery would be only 9 %, requiring more than 80 years.

48 Koorosh Asghari
Theoretical and laboratory studies accomplished between 1961 and 1964 led to the
conclusion that thermal recovery methods in-situ combustion and steam drive (ISC and
SD) could increase oil production and cause a very significant increase in the recovery
factor, accompanied by a dramatic decrease in the exploitation period. Field pilot tests
performed during 1964 – 1970 led to the conclusion that both tested methods are
commercial. Based on the results, indicating 10-15 % of additional recovery, a final
decision was made to go forward with In-Situ Combustion. Subsequent results have
largely confirmed this forecast even if some factors were less known or ignored in the
initial development plans. In spite of excellent performance in terms of recovery, close to
60 %, the ISC process offers potential for further improvement, including: water injection
behind the front, air rate optimization and better control on the combustion front . Major
conclusions of the pilot tests are as follows; it is necessary for well stimulation in both
ISC and SD cases to use cyclic steam injection, in situ combustion can improve recovery
to over 40%, better performance of ISC conducts on the decision to go at the industrial
stage with exploitation, a continuous combustion front has better results than a “pattern”
system and the proper strategy for exploitation is to gradually sweep the reservoir from
the upper part to the lower part of the structure (approximately parallel to the isobaths).
For the reservoir geology, the Suplacu de Barcau structure is situated in the northeast
margin of the Panonian Depression. The structure forms a monocline trending east west,
with a fault-dependent closure to the south. The reservoir rock is made up of poorly
sorted, unconsolidated sands, grain size ranging from fine to gravel, mainly medium and
coarse grains. The reservoir was put into production in 1960, the solution gas drive being
the main mechanism. Based on this mechanism, an ultimate oil recovery of 9% was
predicted, due to very small GOR values. Initial oil rates were in the range of 2 to
5m3/day/well but they decreased very quickly to 0.3 to 0.1m3/day/well. As a result,
thermal methods were considered in order to increase oil recovery and the oil production
rate. The decision to sweep the reservoir starting from the uppermost part of reservoir
was also supported by two experimental ISC patterns located at the middle and at the
lowest part (close to the water-oil contact) of the structure, respectively. These pilots

showed that the control and the efficiency of the process are lower when not located
upstructure. The performance of the commercial ISC project is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Figure 3.2 - The performance of the commercial ISC project

Based on real performance of the wells, for the zone already processed by ISC an
ultimate oil recovery of 55% was calculated and based on that, it was estimated that the
expected ultimate oil recovery for the entire pool would be higher than 50%. The ISC
application has led to the increase of concentration in natural emulgators in the produced
oil, such as asphaltene, resins, naphtenic acids and finely dispersed solid particles,
leading to the formation of the very tough, problematic emulsions. Special fluidizers have
been administered at the bottom hole or even into the formation, to break those
emulsions. As far as the dehydration and desalting of the crude oil is concerned, a
patented, special technology for the thermal-chemical treatment, with a final step of
stripping, was developed. As of January 01, 2006, there were productions in ~800 wells
with a medium daily production of 1200 tons of oil. Injection rates were ~2000 thousand
Sm3 air/day through 90 wells and ~1300 t/day steam through 24 wells. The cumulative
recovery factor was 45.3%.

50 Koorosh Asghari
In 1972, at the time when the development of the in situ combustion process started in
Romania, the Combustion Laboratory was set up. Suplacu crude-oil oxidation and
burning studies were undertaken on the oxidation-cell and combustion tube, collaborating
on data monitoring. The possibility of Suplacu sand consolidation using short-time in-situ
combustion process was also analyzed. Some important aspects were observed in
combustion with oxygen enriched air test (42%) namely; oil recovery is faster (after two
hours in O2 combustion comparing to four hours in air combustion) and the oil
production rate is higher; the average advancement rate of the combustion front is 5 cm/h
comparing to 2.8 cm/h in air combustion; the concentration of carbon dioxide in
combustion gases is 23.5% comparing to 12% for air combustion. The cumulative effects
of the following factors: lower injected gas volume, higher advancement rate of
combustion front and an increase in oil mobility due to CO2 solubilization, lead to a
shorter exploitation life and to low operation cost. Wet combustion test had revealed
some important aspects. The presence of oxygen ahead of the combustion front and the
existence of a ‘burning’ front at low temperatures lead to the alteration of the oil and to
modifications in the chemical composition of water. Analysis of the oil samples from
Suplacu field show density between 920-965 kg/m3, viscosity between 200-14000 cP,
Conradson coke between 5-9%, asphaltene content between 2-5.3%, resin content
between 11-15%. The lowest value for density, viscosity, asphaltene, and resin content
shows that the oil is from the vaporization-condensation zone near the combustion front.
The highest value for density, viscosity, asphaltene, resin content shows the presence of
oxidation at low temperature. The hydrocarbon gas analysis showed the presence of
unsaturated hydrocarbons resulting from cracking at high temperatures. High values of
CO2 (17 –19%) indicates high temperature burning reactions of a fuel rich in carbon,
while low CO2 percentages can indicate oxidation processes at low temperatures or air
channeling. Operational challenges encountered were well ignition, production/surface
facilities and fluid processing. Well ignition is a key element in ISC process as the
nucleus of the future combustion front and the methods used are with combustible gases,
electrical, chemical and combined chemical + electrical. Surface facilities includes
Combustion gases collecting and transporting system, Air - compression and distribution,

Steam producing and distribution system, Cogeneration plant, Gathering parks and
Facilities. C2+ components includes saturated and some unsaturated and aromatic HC up
to C9. Corrosion was accelerated beside the O2 and CO2 present in gases by organic
comp. entrained with steam. From 1991, the steel stacks were replaced with
polyester/glass fibber stacks that resist corrosion, and are higher (90-95 m). Oil /water
separation was done using a thermo chemical process (demulsified E 96) with acceptable
results. For a short period (in the 80’s) an installation for water removal from oil by
stripping with hot gases was in use. The non-ionic demulsified was replaced with a
cationic polyacrilamide. Key technical challenges were optimizing air rate, maximizing
oil rate, reducing operation cost and assessing steam drive potential.
For the Suplacu de Barcau and Balaria fields in Romania, the favourable results
accomplished by ISC in Balaria field and the experience achieved from Suplacu de
Barcau field industrial exploitation led to the decision to expand the Balaria project to
industrial scale. Also better performance of ISC confirmed from theoretical modeling led
to the decision in 1970 to design the entire reservoir exploitation using the ISC technique.
3.5 Miga Field of Eastern Venezuela 38
In 1964 Mene Grande Oil Co, started a fireflood in the P2-3 sand reservoir in the Miga
field of Eastern Venezuela. The project has continued since that time. The original oil in
place was estimated at 23.2 million bbl and 1.2 million bbl (5 %) was expected to be
produced by primary depletion. To date, an additional 2.6 million bbl, or more than twice
the primary production, have been recovered by the use of the fireflood process. The air
injection rate has averaged about 10 MMcf/D over the 9-year life. The average air/oil
ratio (AOR) has been 11,000 ft3/bbl. No serious operating problems have been
encountered during the fireflood. Past performance and sweep pattern indicates that fire
flooding could result in the production of 50 % of the original oil in place, whereas the
ultimate primary recovery would be only 5 %. Experience both in this reservoir and other
similar ones had shown that gas drive and water flooding were completely ineffectual.

52 Koorosh Asghari
Figure 3.3 - MG-517 Project Reservoir, Structure-Isopach Map, Miga Field
Table 3.4 - Reservoir Properties Data, Miga Field
The project was performed in the P2-3 sand, MG-517 reservoir, of the Miga field
located in Eastern Venezuela. A structure-isopach map of the project reservoir appears in
Fig. 3.3.
Depth of the reservoir ranges from 4,000 to 4,350 ft below ground level. The sand is
loosely consolidated, with a porosity of 0.226 and an estimated average permeability of 5
Darcies. Maximum sand thickness is about 25 ft. Connate water saturation is about 0.22;
stock-tank oil originally in place was 23.2 million bbl. Oil gravity ranges from 14°API up
dip to 13°API down dip, with a corresponding viscosity span of 280-430 cp at the
prevailing reservoir temperature of 146F. Reservoir volume factor of the oil is estimated
to be 1.095 res bbl/STB. Production in the reservoir began in late 1958, and throughout
most of the next 3 years three wells (MG-525, MG-524, and MG-5 17) were on
production. In Sept. 1961, a trial heavy-oil gas-injection project was initiated. Results
were poor. The entire reservoir was closed and remained, so until the start of combustion
in 1964. Injection of air into Well MG-525 was initiated on April 1, 1964, and the project

has remained in continuous operation to the present. Nominal air injection capacity was
originally 9 MMscf/D at 2,500 psi; two additional compressors installed in Oct. 1965
raised the nominal capacity to 15 MMscf/D. The produced gas was obtained from Well
MG-592 for the first 2 months. In June 1964, it was decided to encourage gas migration
to all wells, with the idea that gas would eventually have to permeate the entire reservoir
as it does a laboratory core. Only with stabilized producing conditions could the injected-
air/produced-oil ratio be determined and the main objective of the project was to
determine the AOR. Liquid off take reached its low point in Feb. 1965, after which time
chokes on the various wells were gradually opened to keep gas output balanced with
input. Oil production gradually increased. Two additional compressors were added
because the air injection philosophy called for high injection rates that would result in
efficient fireflood performance. However, by Feb. 1966 off take had reached 1,200
BOPD, with all wells flowing at full capacity, and withdrawal of sufficient gas was no
longer possible. Injection rate was required to be curtailed because of excessive rise in
reservoir pressure. After removing well MG-592 from production and drilling/completion
of MG-817, more new off take capacity was still necessary. The problem was that the
maximum productive capacity of the heavy oil wells was simply insufficient when
flowing at GOR around 10,000 scf/STB. By Dec. 1966, two additional outlets, Wells
MG-819 and MG-820, had been drilled and completed. Oil production increased rapidly
to 1,350 BOPD with the addition of these wells, and the AOR dropped to a stable 10,250
scf/STB. Air injection into Well MG-525 continued satisfactory with production
averaging close to 1000 BOPD and no major difficulties. Based on areal sweep studies a
new injector, Well MG-825, was drilled and completed. Air injection into the new well
began in Sept. 1969. In order to utilize some of the heat stored in the air cap at Well MG-
525 and to prevent re-saturation of this region with displaced oil, work began in Sept.
1969 to convert Well MG-525 into a water injector. Water injection began in March 1970
and continued through Aug. 1970. Water injection had to be stopped, however, when a
rapid increase in water production appeared at Well MG-524. Air injection into Well
MG-825 has continued without difficulty. The air injection rate has declined somewhat
since 1970. Total oil production from the reservoir is 3,747,396 bbl, or 16 percent of the

54 Koorosh Asghari
original oil in place. Oil in place at the start of the project was about 22.4 million bbl; of
this 2.9 million bbl (13.3%) has been recovered since the start of combustion. Along the
oil, some water was recovered where the bulk was combustion water plus connate water
displaced by the fireflood. Cumulative gas production was 31,560 MMscf totally. After
more than 9 years of operation, the observed cumulative injected-air/produced-oil ratio
for the project is 11,317 scf/STB. The corresponding “combustion” AOR for the project
is somewhat less than this because the observed AOR includes unreacted air stored in the
burned-out rock, whereas the combustion AOR is based only on air actually consumed by
the combustion process. The corresponding combustion AOR is 10,500 scf/STB. This is
believed to be a good estimate for the steady-state AOR for the project. In addition to the
AOR, a second important parameter to be evaluated in the Miga project was the fraction
of the reservoir swept by combustion. A number of potentiometric model studies of the
reservoir were made. They indicated an ultimate sweep out exceeding 70%, which would
correspond to an oil recovery of 58%. Predicting recovery by combustion theory for the
Miga reservoir, a fuel consumption of 1.36 lb/cu ft of rock means that 16 % of the oil in
place will be consumed as fuel, leaving 84 % of the oil available to be displaced by the
fire. Again assuming a 60 % volumetric sweep of the reservoir, we obtain an oil recovery
figure of 50 % of the oil in place. The advantages of using only one injection well and
treating a fireflood as gas cycling, condensate recovery process rather than as a pattern
water flood are as follows. The total maximum required air rate is less if patterns are
used; reservoir anisotropy is less detrimental than in a pattern flood and the need to
produce hot fluids at any given well is eliminated because there are backup producing
wells. All of the producers have shown good response to the fireflood during the 9 years
of project operation. Wells closest to the air injector responded sooner than outlying
producers. No serious operating problems have been encountered during the fireflood.
Corrosion has not been a problem because the heavy oil coats the tubular goods,
effectively protecting them against corrosive water and gas. Water injection was not used
for cooling producing well.
The Miga Field of Eastern in Venezuela fireflood project based on history was a
technically feasible recovery process, and should be applied to other heavy oil reservoirs

with similar properties. Past performance and study results indicates that recovery could
be at least 50% of the OOIP.
3.6 Tia Juana Field, Western Venezuela 39
Steam soak was discovered as a promising production method rather accidentally in
1969, during early steam drive testing in the Mene Grande Tar Sands. When steam
erupted at the surface due to breakdown of the overburden, the injection wells were back-
flowed to relieve the reservoir pressure. This resulted in high oil production rates, all the
more impressive because the reservoir is unproductive by primary means. It was
concluded that injection of limited amounts of steam might be a very effective method for
heavy-oil wells stimulation. To obtain information that would be more widely applicable,
testing of the process was continued in the eastern part of the Tia Juana field. Here results
that are even more favourable were obtained in Mene Grande. This created sufficient
confidence to prompt a large-scale project, which was considered essential for an
adequate evaluation of ultimate recovery, steam requirements, mechanical problems and
economic prospects. To obtain an early answer on the ultimate recovery, a fairly depleted
area was selected in the western part of the same field. The first steam was injected in
March 1964. This paper describes the performance until the end of 1966. Shell’s part of
the Main Tia Juana reservoir has a proven area of 8,800 acres and an average net oil sand
thickness of 130 ft. It contained an initial quantity of 2.75 billion bbl of stock tank oil
(STOIIP), with an API gravity ranging from 10 to 15° API and a viscosity of 100 to
10,000 cp (at 122F). The field was developed mainly in the period from 1936 to 1950.
The ultimate primary recovery is estimated at 18.1% of STOIIP, of which 12.5% STOIIP
had been produced by the end of 1963 from some 540 wells. By then the average
pressure had decreased from an initial value of 960 to 550 psig. The injection rates per
well varied between 1,200 and 3,000 B/D at wellhead pressures of 400 to 800 psig. The
injectivities during second and subsequent injection cycles are higher than those observed
during first cycle injection. Full steam capacity was required only in the first year, for a
fast potential build up. The wells usually were left shut in for 2 to 4 days before being put
on production. By the end of 1966 the recovery since the start of the project amounted to
6 % of STOIIP, which is equal to the estimated primary reserves of 20 years. The water

56 Koorosh Asghari
cut rose from 2-8 % upon start of steam injection, but remained practically constant
thereafter. At the end of 1966, with only 60 of 73 soaked wells on production, the off take
was still more than ten times the pre-repair primary rate extrapolated to the same
cumulative. Taking into account that the average reservoir pressure was still about 250
psig at a cumulative recovery of 24 % of STOIIP, an ultimate recovery of more than 30
% of STOIIP is considered possible. The average oil production per well since first steam
injection is 300,000 bbl, with a maximum of 470,000 bbl. The oil/steam ratio at the end
of a cycle ranges from 1.5 to 11 bbl/bbl, with an average of 3 bbl/bbl.
Figure 3.4 - Oil production by different mechanisms
The experimental character of the project, which involved, for example, variation of
cycle length and steam slug size, has influenced this ratio unfavourably. A higher over-all
oil/steam ratio is therefore considered feasible, possibly by increasing the cycle length for
the same steam slug size. During the primary production period, considerable subsidence
was observed in this field, indicating compaction of the reservoir rock. It was also
conclude that compaction has been virtually the only production mechanism for most of
the primary production period. Only during the early life of the field has solution gas

drive contributed some 5 % of STOIIP. Other mechanisms also became active after steam
injection. A small fraction of the oil produced can be attributed to thermal expansion and
to inflow from the surrounding area because of the faster pressure drop in the project
area. However, these three effects together can account for not more than 60 % of the net
liquid withdrawal. Furthermore, taking into account that inflow into the test area
corresponds with additional compaction in the surrounding area, it can be concluded that
compaction is responsible for about 40 % of the oil produced since the start of the
project. The effect of steam injection on the well inflow performance is estimated based
on a simple model, taking into account gravity overlay of the steam zone and transient
pressure effects. Gravity overlay, due to the low density of the steam, will increase the
areal extent of the steam zone for a given amount of steam injected. Another consequence
of gravity overlay is that the steam zone will, to a certain extent; act as a highly
permeable fracture in the upper part of the sand, resulting in a combination of radial and
vertical inflow. Subsequently, the production rate is calculated as a function of
cumulative production, both for transient and semi-steady state flow conditions. The
transient effect, which is important in the early stage after steam injection, has been
considered only for the case of negligible pressure difference across the hot zone. The
rate of cooling of the hot zone is determined by convection and conduction of heat both
in radial and vertical direction. In comparing the production rate of a soaked well with
that of an identical non-soaked well, the improvement in Productivity Index with respect
to that of an actual primary well is still greater because, the high after-soak rates justify
more intensive well maintenance, hot wells suffer less from skin formation and the
production decline after steam injection is slowed down by the effect of additional
production mechanisms.
Steam soaking has caused a considerable increase in productivity for Tia Juana Field
in Western Venezuela. In addition, it is expected that steam soak will open the possibility
for economic development of large heavy oil reserves in Bolivar Coast fields.
3.7 Suplacu de Barcau and Balaria fields, Romania 40, 42
The outline of the laboratory and field results for two Rumanian fields: Suplacu de
Barcau and Balaria, are presented in this section. In-situ combustion is in the industrial

58 Koorosh Asghari
stage at Suplacu de Barcau (38 air-injection wells), and the Balaria project (now 5 air-
injection wells) is being expanded. Emphasis will be on Balaria field project in this
section since Suplacu de Barcau field has already being covered. Data given include air
injected, oil produced, cumulative air/oil ratio, and composition of gas produced. These
data, with measurements of temperature and thickness burned, have been used to follow
and control the process.
Once a reservoir is chosen based on screening criteria, in-situ combustion is carried
out in three phases: ignition, process implementation, and measurements and
interpretation. If sufficient heat is released by the oxidation of the oil under reservoir
conditions, spontaneous ignition will occur a few days after air injection is begun. To
determine the probability of spontaneous ignition, the oxidation rate of the oil under
reservoir conditions was measured in the laboratory. A numerical model then is used to
calculate the temperature changes vs. time and the space coordinate when air is injected
into the formation. It appears that spontaneous ignition is likely to occur when the
reservoir temperature is above 55 to 60°C (131 to 140°F). Otherwise, ignition is set off
by special downhole ignition equipment positioned directly opposite the reservoir. Two
types of such devices have been used namely the gas burner and electric burner.
In the gas burner, a mixture of combustible gas and primary air is ignited in the
combustion chamber with a heating resistance, and secondary air is injected through the
annulus at a flow rate dependent on the temperature of the burned gas at the outlet of the
combustion chamber. The burner or the electric igniter heats up the area around the
injected well to a controlled temperature to achieve rapid ignition without damaging
downhole equipment. Preliminary oxidation tests are very useful for determining the
oxidization ability of crude oils in porous media. The combustion tube tests, used to
investigate combustion propagation, lead to a better understanding of the phenomena of
the process and provide the basic data required for defining a field application. Pertinent
measurements must be made during the field applications of in-situ combustion to be able
to follow and control the process and to interpret the tests. The economic evaluation of
the project is based on the value of the air/oil ratio. Interpreting production data and
taking core samples from the zone behind the combustion front are very useful ways of

forecasting or evaluating sweep efficiency and recovery, as well as helping understand

the process. This paper successively examines the application of in-situ combustion to the
Rumanian fields of Suplacu de Barcau and Balaria with emphasis on Balari field. One
reservoir containing heavy and viscous crude oil is the Sarmatien reservoir in Balaria
field. It was discovered in 1960. The main physical data of the reservoir are given in
Table 3.5. The forecast for this reservoir was about 10% by primary recovery.
Table 3.5 – Reservoir Characteristics of Balaria Field
A study showed that the characteristics of the reservoir were such that an in-situ
combustion test could be considered seriously. Laboratory tests were performed to study
the oxidation reactions of the oil in a porous medium in the equipment. Fig. 3.5 and Fig.
3.6 show the profiles for temperature and effluent gas composition for the two tests
performed - one in amorphous silica and the other in reservoir sand.
Figure 3.5 – Oxidation of Balaria Oil in Silica

60 Koorosh Asghari
Figure 3.6 – Oxidation of Balaria Oil in the Reservoir

In silica, two successive oxidation reactions were observed. In the first, low-
temperature oxidation of the oil occurred with oxygen fixation and limited production of
carbon oxides. In the second, combustion of a coke like fuel occurred. In sand from the
reservoir, heating had to be limited to 50°C/h (122F/hr) [compared with 100°C/h
(212F/hr) in silica] to separate the various oxidation reactions. The amounts of fuel
determined from the amounts of CO2 and CO produced are two to three times greater in
the rock from Balaria than in silica. The oxidation rate of Balaria oil in reservoir sand
was measured at different temperatures under a pressure of 6 MPa (870 psi) to determine
the possibility of spontaneous ignition and the kinetic parameters (Fig 3.7). A numerical
model taking heat transfer by conduction and convection into consideration was used to
calculate the ignition delay, which, for the properties of the Balaria field, is more than
200 days for a reservoir temperature of 46°C (115°F). Thus, the possibility of
spontaneous ignition must be ruled out for Balaria. The initial intention was to perform
combustion on four adjacent inverted five-spot patterns (injection wells: C1, C2, C3, and
C4), each with an area of 10000 m2 (2.5 acres) but Well C3 was excluded from the
pattern due to technical accident in the experiment.

Figure 3.7 – Influence of Temperature on Oxidation Rate of Balaria Oil in

Reservoir Sand
Subsequently, two more adjacent patterns - centered on Wells C5 and C6 - were
added to enlarge the process area and to complete the data required to expand it to
industrial scale. Cross-sectional logs of wells in the pilot area are shown in Fig. 3.8. The
results of the tests, highlighted by the production data of the wells, may be summarized
as follows; (1) the procedures already described to control the combustion process was
used successfully. (2) Most wells showed flowing production after in-situ heating of the
crude oil due to the approaching burning fronts, with the temperature of the produced
fluid sometimes reaching more than 80°C (176°F). (3) Well production sometimes
improved to more than 100 to 120 m3 (630 to 750 bbl) of liquid per day and per well, as
compared with 3 to 10 m3/d (19 to 63 B/D) attained before the combustion process. (4)
The incremental oil production from the pilot amounted to about 100,000 bbl. The
recovery from the four adjacent patterns, which were swept almost entirely by the
combustion front, was about 37%. The mean value of the air/oil ratio has been 4500 STD
m3/m3 (25.3 Mscf/bbl) since the beginning of the operation. This high value can be
explained by the fact that almost no additional oil was recovered during the first 2 years

62 Koorosh Asghari
of air injection and that considerable inflows of sand caused a great many production
shutdowns.
Figure 3.8 – Balaria Combustion Pilot – Cross Section of Well Logs
The air/oil ratio is now 2500 std m3/m3 (14 Mscf/bbl). The present improvement in
the recovery factor, compared with production obtained by conventional methods, is
estimated at more than 20% of the oil in place for the whole reservoir. Six additional
experimental patterns are being prepared in the area. These successes encouraged the
development of the in-situ combustion process on an industrial scale. The industrial
project will be carried out in stages. The total number of new wells needed for the entire
reservoir is more than 1,000.
3.8 Mordovo-Karmalskoye Field, Tatarstan, Russia 41
The Republic of Tatarstan has the significant reserves of the natural bitumens.
According to the estimations of different experts, these reserves are equal to 2.5-6.5
billion tons and above. The oil resources of Tatarstan are still estimated to be enough
high but an essential decrease in the oil production and increasing oil consumption are the
reasons to begin the large-scale development of bitumen deposits nowadays. The paper is
aimed to study the specific features of the chemical composition of heavy oils and natural
bitumens of the Mordovo-Karmalskoye field, which is the first pilot commercial project
in Tatarstan where the bitumens are produced by the thermal technology. In addition, to

evaluate the effects of in situ combustion processes on the characteristics of produced oil
and organic matter left in the reservoir rock. For the methodology, the samples of natural
bitumens derived from the Permian deposits, the Mordovo-Karmalskoye fields, are
examined. The iron-bearing minerals of the reservoir rocks are also studied. On the
bitumen composition, the Mordovo-Karmalskoye field is located on the western slope of
the South-Tatar Arch. Since 1987, the pilot commercial operations have been being
carried out there to produce the natural bitumens.
For the composition after passing combustion front, the product from the injection
well (well 463), becomes like the light paraffinous oil of A type. That is due to the
additional formation of light hydrocarbon fractions and alkanes of normal structure
(bitumen of B2 type). The content of tars and asphaltenes sharply decreases, a part of
which likely is burnt in the bed. The well 463a, which was a subject of investigation, was
drilled after passing of the combustion front in the producing well. The cores were
derived from the interval of 69.9-87.8 m. It is the major part of the productive thickness,
excepting the floor, which is presented mainly by highly calcified low permeable
sandstone having several bitumen-saturated layers. In the interval of 71.7-72.9 m a share
of the bitumen sharply decreases and the insoluble organic matter (IOM) becomes
predominating in the total balance of organic matter (OM). The content of IOM in the
rock becomes close to the value higher 8 %, which is lesser 0.512% for other cases. In the
tests earlier performed for the well, which underwent no thermal impact, the volume of
IOM is lesser 0.339%. The bitumen saturation of the cross section was evaluated by the
content of chloroformous bitumen (ChBA), which is an epigenetic constituent of the
bitumoid components of OM and actually characterizes the oil saturation of the reservoir
rocks.
From the available data, it should be concluded that the combustion front passed in
the upper part of bed in the interval of 69.9-73.0 m. There is no bitumen in the reservoir.
In the lower depth of 73.0m, the volume of bitumen increases and becomes equal to
4.78%. In the more deep part of bed, the volume of bitumens becomes essentially higher
and it may be possible that it is initial bitumen saturation. It should be noted that the very
high concentration of IOM in the part of bed that underwent the combustion front

64 Koorosh Asghari
passing, is caused by the formation of the solid bitumens like coke. At the deeper
horizons, the bitumen density becomes generally closer to the density of non-transformed
bitumens of the deposit. In the composition of hydrocarbons, there is the decrease in PN
structures and the decrease of petroleinother oils. Obviously, the bitumen became heavier
due to the gravity differentiation of the combustion product in bed. While passing the
combustion front the phase composition of iron minerals is altered, iron (II) is
transformed to iron (III) in the rocks.
The combustion process caused the alterations in the composition of bitumens and
differentiated the bitumen composition through cross section for the Mordovo-
Karmalskoye Field of Tatarstan in Russia. There was movement of light components
together with the combustion front to the producing wells, most likely due to the high
temperature. The ISC is hard to control due to the heterogeneity of the geological and
physical conditions in the formation. There is need to resolve the economic and
ecological problems for the realization of commercial projects on bitumen production.
3.9 Videle Field, Romania 42
An in-situ combustion test was started in 1975 in the Balaria Sarmatian reservoir.
After 4 years, the favorable results obtained led to the decision to expand the combustion
test to a full-scale project. This paper presents the results obtained in the in-situ
combustion tests performed in the Videle field as a tool for increasing oil recovery in a
relatively heavy-oil reservoir produced by peripheral and internal water injection. The
basic ideas of expanding the in-situ combustion process to full-scale operations are
discussed. The Videle field is located in the southern part of Rumania, about 72.4 miles
(117 km) west-southwest of Bucharest. The Sarmatian 3 Videle field consists of three
producing horizons, Sarmatian 3a (Sa3a), Sarmatian 3b (Sa3b), and Sarmatian 3c (Sa3c).
The productive zones range from 2,132 to 2,789 ft [650 to 850 m] and consist of slightly
consolidated medium- to-fine-grained sand in Sa3a+b and loose, fine-to-very fine-grained
sand in Sa3c. The main properties of the strongly undersaturated heavy oil of the Sa3
Videle and of the Sa3 Balaria are given in Table 3.6.
The field was discovered in 1959. Sa3a+b were put into production in 1961. The
reservoir began to produce oil in 1972 when sand control was achieved by gravel

packing. On the basis of successful water-injection pilot tests carried out in 1964-66 in
Sa3a+b, West Videle, a full-scale waterflood project was initiated in 1966 in Sa3a+b and
in 1974 in Sa3c. The oil recovery currently is about 13 % for both Sa3c and Sa3a+b; in
the latter, however, the oil recovery varies between 7 and 19% according to the properties
of the reservoir. Reservoir static pressure ranges from 284.5 to 570 psi [I960 to 3930
kPa]. In 1965-66, a test was carried out in the Sarmatian 3 West Videle to check the
possibilities of using the Rumanian gas igniter for greater depths than in the Suplacu de
Barcau field. The ignition operation was successful, and the combustion front moved a
short distance from the combustion well during a period of 6 month.
Table 3.6 - Videle and Balaria Reservoir Properties
The laboratory oxidation tests in a small reactor using Sarmatian 3 oil and rock
indicated the great reactivity of the oil/matrix sample, especially for Sa3c. The
performance of the Balaria pilot in-situ combustion test initiated in 1975 led to the
conclusion that substantial amounts of oil could be produced by combustion and that this
reservoir is a good candidate for a field wide in-situ combustion program. The decision to
evaluate the prospects of the in-situ combustion process in the Videle field was prompted
by the declining oil production and the large quantity of oil remaining in the reservoir, the
laboratory test results using Videle oil and rock, and the favorable performance of the
Balaria fireflood pilot and the short-duration Videle test. Three field combustion pilot
tests have been planned: two for Sa3a+b and one for Sa3c. The first test is located in the
eastern part of the Sa3a+b reservoir and consists of two irregular eight-spot, 27.8-acre
[11-ha] patterns. The second is a five-spot 10-acre [4-ha] pattern situated in the western

66 Koorosh Asghari
part of Sa3a+b. The third is a 7.4 acre [3-ha] pattern with the central injection moved to
the updip boundary of the rectangular pattern; it is located in the western portion of the
Sa3c. Chemical ignition by use of 6.7 to 15.5 bbl [l to 2.5 m3] of linseed oil was
performed in all field pilots. The injectivity problems encountered were probably a result
of the oxidation of the linseed oil in the borehole. Based on the 1965-66 short combustion
test, the air requirements for igniting and sustaining the burning front were supplied at a
maximum pressure of 853.4 psi [5884 Pa]. In the East Videle area Sa3a+b combustion
pilot, the water injection began in 1974 to 1976. Just before the combustion experiment
started, the average oil rate per well was 12 B/D [1.9 m3 /d], and the oil recovery was
7%. All the producing wells were pumping wells. In Well A1, ignition was carried out in
April 1979 with 12.1 bbl [1.9 m3] of linseed oil. The H/C ratio (Z) decreased indicating a
successful ignition. After ignition, the air injection rate was gradually increased to a
maximum value while the pressure was increased. The in-situ combustion front is well
developed in all directions, moving at a relatively uniform rate toward the production
wells, including Wells 1272 and 1207 located farther away. The variation of the oil and
water production rate and the gas analysis results for Well 1272 are shown in Fig. 3.9.
The total oil production increased from about 93.7 to 173.9 BID [15 to 28 m3/d], its
progress parallel to the air rate. Meanwhile, the water cut declined from 70 to 60%. The
increase in the total oil production is mainly a result of the oil production increase in
Wells 2338, 2335, and 1272. A total test time of 5 to 6 years has been estimated. So far,
an additional production of about 23,415 bbl [3723 m3] has been obtained. It has been
estimated that a cumulative injected air/additional- oil ratio of 19,652 to 22,459 scf/bbl
[3500 to 4000 std m3/m3] will be attained by the time the burning front has reached most
of the producing wells.

Figure 3.9 – Gas Analysis, oil and water production rates for Well 1272, East Videle
In the West Videle area Sa3a+b combustion pilot, oil recovery was 18 % with a water
cut of about 95 %. The average oil production rate per well was 15.4 B/D [2.4 m3/d] at
the time wet combustion was initiated in Well Pattern I1. Combustion was started in Well
I1 in Dec. 1979 shows the variation in the air and water injection rates for Well I1. An
alternate air and water injection schedule of 9 days air injection and 1-day water injection
was used. When the air injection was resumed after a period of stoppage, no decline in
combustion intensity was noticed, while the oil production showed a marked increase.
Fig. 3.10 shows the variation of the oil production and the composition of the combustion
gas produced by Wells 602 and 603.
Figure 3.10 – Gas nalysis, average oil and water production rates – Wells 602
and 603 West Videle

68 Koorosh Asghari
The highest increase in oil production was obtained from Wells 602 and 603. The
production rate per well increased from 13.4 to 20.8 B/D [2.1 to 3.3 m3/d] to a high as
100.4 to 107 B/D [16 to 17 m3/d] and from 0.7 to 1.4 B/D [0.1 to 0.2 m3/d] to about 20
B/D [3.1 m3/d], respectively. From the performance of the producing wells in
Combustion Pattern I1 (Fig. 11), it appears that the combustion process resulted in an
increase of the average oil production rate per well from 14.4-20.1 B/D [2.3 to 3.2 m3/d]
to 40.1-53.5 B/D [6.4 to 8.5 m3/d], while the average water cut declined from 96 % to 70
to 85 %.
The additional oil production obtained is about 6,690 bbl [1064 m3]. The pilot test is
estimated to be completed in 2 years. The current value of the injected-air/additional-oil
ratio is about 11,800 scf/bbl [2100 std m3/m3]. A cumulative-air/additional-oil ratio of
20,800 scf/bbl[3700 STD m3/m3] is expected to be obtained by the end of the
experiment. For Sa3c Combustion Pilot, oil recovery in Block D4 (where Pattern B1 is
located) was 11 % and water cut was 82% at the start of the combustion experiment in
Pattern B1. The average oil production rate per well was 12 B/D [1.9 m3/d]. The air and
later the flue gas channelled toward Well 3113, the only well to produce flue gas. This
flue gas contains 12 to 15% CO2 and up to 1 % O2. It thus appears that the combustion
front is well developed, channeling, however, to Well 3 1 13. The performance curves for
this experiment (Fig. 12) show the oil production to decrease in time, while the water cut
is increasing. Decreases in oil production immediately after the start of combustion also
occurred in the combustion tests at East and West Videle. In the three Videle combustion
pilots, emulsion treating and corrosion problems were not encountered. The successful
combustion tests conducted at Balaria (nearly completed) and in the Videle Sa3a+b
reservoir, as well as the self-supporting ability of the combustion process in Sa3 have
allowed the design of a full-scale fireflood project for the Sa3a+b and Sa3, reservoirs.
The full-scale project should use moderate wet combustion followed by water injection in
the burnt-out zones. The full-scale operations should be conducted from the top down-
i.e., successive operation of the well lines parallel to the major fault. Thus, the
combustion front will form updip, parallel to the fault, and will move down dip to the
oil/water contact.

The application of the full-scale combustion project will not stop the water flood
operation. A certain minimum distance will be kept between the combustion-well line
and the uppermost water flooding line. The staggered line drive has been selected for the
combustion project. The wells located in the uppermost row (close to the major fault) will
be used only as combustion wells, while the wells located in the last down structure row
will be only production wells. As the combustion process advances, the remaining
production wells will be converted to air injectors and the air injectors to water injectors
in the burnt-out zone. It has been estimated that the application of the in-situ combustion
in the Videle field will permit an ultimate oil recovery of 38 to 40%. This estimation is
based on the project design calculations and on the calculated oil recovery for the four
adjacent patterns at Balaria, where oil recovery is about 40% and a few wells are still
producing. The full-scale combustion project life is estimated at 45 to 50 years.
The performance of the three Videle Field combustion tests still under way and the
successful test completed in the Balaria field, which has similar reservoir properties, have
warranted a decision to plan a field wide combustion project in the Sa3 Videle field. The
combustion pilot tests have been located upstructure, and the full-scale operation will be
conducted in line drive from the top down to take advantage of gravity.
3.10 Joli Fou Pilot, Wabasca Heavy Oil Sands Deposit of North Central
Alberta, Canada 43
While extensive pilot operations have been conducted in Athabasca, Peace River and
Cold Lake, very little has been done to date in the Wabasca deposit. Pilot operations were
conducted in the Grand Rapids formation but the underlying Wabiskaw formation has
only recently been the subject of experimental pilot studies. General American Oils, Ltd.
decided in 1979, to conduct a pilot on its lands, which are located approximately 174
miles (280 km) north of Edmonton. This decision was made following an evaluation
program that involved delineation drilling which began in 1969. Decision to proceed with
a pilot was made after the study of fluid recovered from area and laboratory work
incorporating steam flood and combustion test. Air injection was begun in February of
1981 and ignition was obtained in March of 1981. The Wabiskaw is a member of the
Clearwater formation. It is the lowermost glauconitic unit and consists of reworked

70 Koorosh Asghari
McMurry sediments. This unit is the only Clearwater sand in the Wabasca area that
contains significant amounts of crude bitumen. This zone is found at an average depth of
1190 ft. (362.7 m) in the pilot area. A tight sandy shale overlies the pay zone, which is
essentially void of oil saturation. The pay zone averages 19.8 ft. (6.0 m) and ranges in
thickness from 18.9 to 21.3 ft. (5.76 to 6.49 m). This zone has been subdivided into three
intervals as indicated on the petrophysical summary of producing well #1 (PW1). The
average properties of the three zones are summarized in Table 1- fig 1. A sample from
the core from PW5 was analyzed to determine which clays were present. Based on the
analysis it was concluded that clays should not constitute a swelling problem.
One of the primary problems in the Joli Fou Pilot was that the characteristics of the
oil found in the pilot area were significantly different from that found in the exploratory
wells to the west of the project site. A sample of the oil from PW6 was analyzed prior to
ignition using elution chromatography in order to have a reference to compare with later
oil production. It was hoped that this would provide a basis for telling when oil that had
been modified by the thermal process was being produced. Producing and injection wells
were completed. A comprehensive set of experimental data was collected from all aspects
of the pilot operation to aid in the evaluation of the in-situ combustion process and of the
serviceability of down hold and surface production equipment. Due to the limited size of
the Joli Fou Pilot, automated systems were used only for data gathering and limit-alarm
warnings. Process control was exercised primarily through manual procedures.
The six producing wells were tested prior to ignition in order to determine if the wells
would produce naturally and how they would respond under thermal stimulation. The
only natural production obtained was from PWl, which produced gas at a rate of
approximately 1MMCF/D, PW5 that produced a small quantity of light oil and some gas,
and PW4, which produced a small amount of heavy oil. PW3, PW5 and PW6 were then
tested to determine the response to steam stimulation. It was during this phase that the
lower API gravity and higher viscosity of the oil in the pilot area was first noted. The
higher viscosity oil resulted in a much lower steam injectivity than had originally been
anticipated. Thus due to the injection pressures(1500 psi) required to inject steam at
reasonable rates, being considerably higher than the design capabilities of the casing,

steam injection packers were required to facilitate further steaming operations. The
significance of the pre-pilot steam stimulation was reduced due to equipment problems
and the short duration of the tests. Evidence of formation parting was seen in these tests.
This parting occurred at surface injection pressures of 1170 psig (8.07 MPag) and 1220
psig (8.41 MPag). When the formation parted, the rate increased and pressure fell.
Air injection was begun in February 1981 and 12.409 MMCF of air was injected prior
to ignition of the injection well. Ignition was made using a gas burner operating at an
average temperature of 800F during the period from March 1 to 8, 1981. Air injection
continued following ignition until June 1981 when the injection well was shut in to run a
seismic survey. Following the seismic survey, water injection was begun on an alternate
basis with air injection. Initially it was difficult to attain the required air injection rate
after injecting water. Subsequently, the injectivity improved and increased, then
decreased slowly and again increased continually over the life of the project at the same
time that the gas composition in five of the producing wells and the observation well was
indicating an increase in oxygen. An air injectivity test was performed on the air injection
well in December 1982 to determining the cause of oxygen increase. This test indicated
that formation parting occurred at a surface injection pressure of between 1325 and 1335
psi though normal operations at that time was 1316 psig wells within two months of
ignition and the oxygen in the produced gas from all the producing wells essentially
disappeared by June 1981. Due to the frequency of workovers in the latter half of 1981,
air and water injection rates were approximately half the rates predicted for this stage of
the project. This problem was rectified. The excessive shut in times experienced during
this period may have had an adverse effect on combustion. All of the wells at one time or
the other have produced large amounts of free oxygen. Based on the gases from the
observation well, it would appear that a combustion front had formed but some of the
injected air was also bypassing the combustion zone. While individual wells at times
experienced breakthrough and an increase in gas production, the overall gas produced
from the project has been low. Only a total of 37 MMCF of gas production was reported
as opposed to an air-injected volume of 275 MMCF. These zones above the Wabiskaw
were monitored for air channeling when the observation well was drilled and were

72 Koorosh Asghari
checked on the CNL-density log. There was no indication that any of them had been
charged with gas. The oil production was also much less than had been originally
predicted. (Figure 9) Only 10,269 bbls (1633 m3) or 1.9% of the total oil in place was
recovered during the pre-pilot steaming and the two years of pilot operations. One of the
causes of the low oil production may have been plugging of the gravel packs by reservoir
fines. In February 1983, PW3 and PW6 were perforated to determine if and to what
extent that plugging of the gravel pack and slotted liners might be occurring. PW3
production increased nine fold while PW6 increased eight fold, but this may be due in
part to recovery of last circulation fluids. Unfortunately, the pilot operations were being
terminated so there was limited time to make an evaluation. From seismic monitoring, the
survey maps indicate that a regional reservoir alteration has occurred, and that fluids
movement was occurring primarily in a north/south direction. The disturbed zone
advancement correlated closely to production well behaviour during pilot operations.
Oxygen injection could be an improvement over air injection in order to compensate
for the low injectivity at the Joli Fou Pilot. Seismic surveys conducted during the
operational phase of the pilot correlated well with production well behavior, therefore
providing some additional insight toward the areal sweep efficiency. Such surveys should
be considered over shorter time increments to provide better interim progress data.
3.11 Morgan Field in Alberta, Canada 44
The Morgan in-situ Combustion Project is located in Alberta, Canada. The oil is a 12
API heavy crude with a live oil viscosity of 6800 cp at 70F. The formation has an average
thickness of 31 ft and has no permeability barriers present. The project has 45 wells on 10
acres/well (4 ha) spacing lay out in 30 acre (12 ha), 7-spot patterns. After a brief primary
production period, steam and air/steam cyclic stimulation were performed on individual
production wells from 1981 to 1986. Cycling stimulations enhance production by
injecting steam or air-steam mixture into a well for a short period followed by a
production phase from the same well. The performance of cyclic stimulations
deteriorated with time resulting in increasing injected steam-to-produced oil ratios (SOR)
and water-oil ratios (WOR). Air was added to one steam stimulation in cycle 2. High
producing oil rates increased the use of air in subsequent cycles on different wells. The

resulting SORS and WORS decreased to the initial levels in cycle 1. The recovery
process at Morgan Field was changed to pressure cycling in 1986. A pressure cycle
consisted of air injection into a central injector followed by production from its
surrounding producers. The injection phase started with low rate air injection into the
central injectors with the producers open for production. A producer was shut-in when it
cannot be maintained. Once the production loss in the area of the field affected by air
injection was significant, the air injection rate was increased to as high as 1 MMSCFD.
Once a pre-determined pressure level was reached, air injection was stopped and the
producers were reactivated. Production was continued until the oil rate dropped below its
economic level or when injection had to be restarted to maintain burning in the reservoir.
Four field wide pressure cycles were conducted from 1985 to 1991. The fifth pressure
cycle is currently in the production phase. Field performance has been exceptional, with
air-oil ratios of less than 2 MCF/STB and calendar day oil rates per well of 30-150
STB/D. The cumulative oil production as of December 15, 1992 has been 23% of the
OOIP within the patterns (15.2 MMBBLS). The wells at the low end of the range have
not shown any response to air injection. Some of these wells are in marginal pay and/or
have no or only one offset air injection well. Overall, this project recovered more than its
operating expenses at the end of a pressure cycle. The success of the process in the field
led to an effort to model its performance. A numerical model was used to match the field
performance.
Prior to field history matching, significant background work was done to arrive at a
field model. Prior steps are as follows; (1) History matching a combustion tube
experiment using Morgan core and oil. (2) develop a grid system that .captures areal and
vertical conformance in a simple 2-D radial model. (3) Scale combustion tube results to
field scale blocks. (4) History matching cyclic steam performance to fine-tune reservoir
description. Nine cycles of steams or air-steam stimulation were history matched.
Reasonable agreement was obtained between the field and model results (see Table 3.7).
The simulation results indicated that the improved performance of steam cycling by
addition of air is partly due to gas trapping and its impact on water relative permeability.

74 Koorosh Asghari
Table 3.7 — Average Injection and Production Volumes Per Well for Cyclic
Stimulations
The simulation indicated that air injection could compensate for the pressure and rate
declines associated with smaller spacing. Oil samples taken in April 1989 show a higher
percentage of light ends than the samples taken in August 1983. The April 1989 oil
samples have gravities of 20-30 API and are observed during the production phase of the
pressure cycles. A standard frontal displacement combustion process will only show
upgraded production once a significant portion of a pattern is burnt and the light oil bank
reaches the production well. The residual effects of steam cycling probably assisted the
recovery during the pressure cycling 1 and 2. In these early cycles, the steam effect was
minor. However, improvement in recovery was partly due to use of progressive cavity
pumps that allowed pumping the fluid levels down and to handle the sand production.
Low oil producers during 1986-89 were producing as high as 95-125 STB/D (15-20
m3/day) oil through 1991-92. Field observations that substantiate the existence of a
channel include rapid gas break-through, high oil rates and condensate production, rapid
communication between the injector-producer pairs, and tie early production of upgraded
oil (generated at the burn front close to the injector). In this study, a channel was not
needed to model the performance of steam or air/steam cycles. The steam and air/steam
cycles appear to have affected only the immediate area surrounding the well, a relatively

small portion of the reservoir. Live heavy oils have been found to exhibit substantial
foaming upon the release of pressure. Only over many hours does the gas escape from the
foam, leaving largely degassed heavy Oil behind. In addition, gas-in-oil emulsions that
are difficult to break are produced in the field. This behaviour was modeled by solution
gas entrainment. The entrained gas provides an efficient depletion drive as it expands.
The mechanism of entrained solution gas extends quite naturally to flue gas or
combustion gases. Combustion gas is originally in the gas phase but is assumed to
become trapped in the oil phase due to emulsification. Once in the oil phase, the
combustion gas was assumed to behave like an ideal gas, causing the oil phase to expand
upon depressurization. The trapped combustion gas results in higher reservoir energy
lower GORs and more retained gas in the formation. Results of the model runs indicate
that this mechanism is necessary in the model to predict a response similar to that
observed in the field. These results also indicate that the mechanism of combustion gas
entrainment need not be incorporated into the air/steam cycles conducted before 1986.
The model results are close to the response of tire wells that showed an increase in oil
production due to air injection. However, there is a wide variation in the field response
during the production phase likely due to variations in pump-efficiency and speed. The
model results do not show this variance since a constant bottom hole producing pressure
of 150 psi (1,035 kPa) was imposed on each well. The GOR results from the base case
simulation matched the average field GOR until late 1989 (3000 days), when the model
results continued to decline while the field GOR remained constant. An indication of gas
retention can be inferred from air injection pressures. Starting pressures match well but
the model predicts higher pressures at the end of the injection period than reported from
the field. Also, very little oxygen production has been observed in the field. The model
also did not show any oxygen production through the simulated channel. The model
indicated that the top of the formation close to the injection well is a region of continuous
burning. This observation matches similar observations made by BP at their Marguerite
Lake oxygen project. The model predicted an earlier response of the upgraded oil than
observed in the field. Most likely, the field response was missed due to equipment
limitations. For sensitivity runs, the effect of channel speed was investigated by

76 Koorosh Asghari
modifying its effective permeability. Cumulative oil production for the three channel
permeabilities was observed. The reasonable match between the field response and the
model results indicates that a high permeability channel is a possible explanation for the
field observations. The effect of limiting the length of the channel to one-half the distance
between the injector and the producer was investigated. The field GOR results were
consistently higher than those predicted by the model. The higher GORS predicted at
50% entrainment, are closer to the field results than the l00% gas entrainment run. The
injection pressures predicted by 50% and 100% entrainment were closer to the field
values. The effect of not using entrained solution gas was investigated. The history match
of the combustion tube results showed that the tube run could be matched with two
different levels of oil conversion to coke. A high oil conversion to coke resulted in less
upgraded oil than did a low oil conversion. The oil phase with a high fraction of
combustion gas was produced earlier due to the lower oil phase viscosity. The higher gas
production reduced the reservoir pressure and lowered the oil production. The 1/12 of a
7-spot element of symmetry assumes fully developed patterns with no-flow across pattern
boundaries. There was only a small increase in the cumulative oil production, indicating
that production was largely influenced by the area enclosed by the pattern.
In the observations made from the steam and air-steam stimulation at Morgan Field;
air injection maintained reservoir pressure and decreased water relative permeability
because of gas trapping. For pressure cycling, the model from history matching predicted
the cumulative oil production, the producing GORS and the reservoir pressures
reasonably well.
3.12 Wolf Lake Project, Cold Lake, Alberta 45
In pursuit of extracting bitumen from extensive land holdings in the Cold Lake oil
deposits, BP Canada operated a pilot combustion project. The aim of the pilot was to
determine the feasibility of implementing field scale combustion in the reservoir after
cyclic steam stimulation had provided the initial reservoir heating. The pilot was started
in 1976 and operations were suspended in October 1988. The pilot was operated in the
Clearwater formation that is part of the Mannville Group of the early Cretaceous age. The
sand grains vary between very fine to medium size and the reservoir rock has about 33%

porosity. The horizontal permeability is high at 1 to 3 µm2 but the vertical permeability is
reduced by frequent clay lamina and up to three indurated ferron calcite cemented layers
dispersed within the sand. The formation is 65% bitumen saturated. The bitumen has a
density of 986 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 100,000 mpa.s at the original reservoir
temperature of 150C. There is no free gas cap present and the water saturation is close to
residual. Early testing of the conventional forward wet combustion process in the
experimental test area showed that modifications to the operating strategy were needed to
retard the frontal advance down the narrow heated channel. The experimentations formed
the basis of the pressure up blow down process. The key element of the process entailed
choking of highly communicating wells to promote the propagation of the combustion
front in other channels. This raised reservoir pressure, which assisted in transporting a
portion of heat to the colder regions of reservoir. The success at the test area led to the
implementation in the Main Pilot area. The combustion process was initiated after the
reservoir was preheated by three to four cycles of steam stimulation. Steam injection
created vertical fractures and the bulk of the heat was transported into the formation by
conduction heating from the faces of the narrow fractures. This network of long narrow
heated channels was utilized in promoting the combustion flood.
The pressure up blow down (PUBD) combustion process is a cyclic combustion
process, which consist of two stages namely, the pressurization or combustion flood
phase and blow down or reservoir depressurization phase. During the pressurization
phase, a combustion flood is initiated in the narrow heated channels created during
previous cyclic steam stimulation. Air or oxygen is injected in a preheated injector that
causes rapid propagation of the front towards the connected producing wells. The wells
are first produced unrestricted and injection rates are controlled to limit the rapid
reservoir pressurization. The injection phase is continued until a significant number of
producing wells are shut in or a desired volume of air/oxygen followed by a slug of water
to reduce the reservoir temperatures below those, which cause significant across the
reservoir by oil coking. Water is also injected concurrently or intermittently in slugs as a
part of the wet combustion process. Once the gas injection has ceased, the reservoir
depressurization phase begins by opening up all producing wells. In the early stages, the

78 Koorosh Asghari
combustion front is sustained by the release of gases stored behind the front. As the
pressures in the highly mobile channels decrease, a positive gradient between the cold
banks and the channels is developed. This pushes the newly mobilized oil to move into
the channels. This oil either is produced during the depressurization phase or is recovered
in the subsequent pressure up phase. The blow down period is terminated when the oil
rates at producing wells decline below the economic operating limits. The whole cycle is
then repeated beginning with injection of air/oxygen. The field performance of PUBP
process is first evaluated based on total cycle recoveries. A portion of oil recovered
during the combustion cycles was attributed to previous steam stimulations and steam
injection in the cycle. Significant quantities of steam were injected as a part of the
process. The steam assisted in diverting the combustion front towards other producers.
Steam was also injected into the wells, which remained isolated. The amounts of nitrogen
and carbon dioxide produced at producing wells were used as tracers to determine the
extent of influence exerted by a particular injector. A simple heat balance equation model
proposed by Wheeler was used to predict the stem produced oil. The heat equation
performs an overall heat balance across the reservoir by equating the enthalpy of injected
concurrently or injected steam with the fracture and formation heating, and heat losses.
The initial calendar day oil rates varied, from 3.5 m3/d/well for the Central sector to
0.87m3/d/well for the Northern sector. The lack of or excessive number of producing
wells in the pattern area as dictated by the analyses methodology were responsible for
such a large variation. The oil, water and gas material balances on a cycle and cumulative
basis are calculated as the volume injected plus the volume generated by the chemical
reactions minus the volumes produced. It is assumed that 1 Sm3 of oxygen burning
resulted in production of 0.73 m3 of water vapour and 1 Sm3 of produced gas. For the
effect of injection rates, little dependence of oil production on oxygen rates was
observed. The combustion water was injected both as alternating slugs following the gas
injection and/or concurrently with gas injection. Both the rates and injection sequence
showed little sensitivity in the process. The steam injection had a positive influence by
providing pressure drive for oil mobilization. Pressure up oil mobilization mechanisms is
highly complex. However, the majority of oil is produced by simple governing

mechanisms, and can be modeled by simple analytical/parametric models. In the

pressurization phase, the movement of the combustion front through the channel
mobilizes oil. Factors such as low temperature oxidation and the ability of the flood to
develop an oil bank affect the process recovery. The laboratory studies show that the
performance of combustion floods is often dictated by the mode of burning. If the front is
smouldering, a large percentage of oxygen is consumed in liquid phase oxidation
reactions and results in the excessive amounts of coke lay down. This adversely affects
the overall recoveries. The monitoring of hydrogen to carbon, H/C ratio at the pilot was
not very useful since it included the large amounts of hydrogen, which was produced.
The extent of low temperature oxidation was determined by monitoring the ratio of gases
produced during the pressure up period to the reacted gases. The oil recovery in the blow
down phase comes from the continuation of combustion flood until all of the oxygen
stored in the reservoir is consumed. Once the pressure in the channels deplete, freshly
mobilized bitumen from the conductive heat in the surrounding region starts arriving at
the production well.
The field performance suggests that pressure up blow down process is an ideal follow
up process to cyclic steam in immobile oil sand deposits at Wolf Lake Project. The
process, which should be added to steam stimulation, however, requires a greater degree
of control for the combustion front propagation otherwise the process shows a steep
decline in oil production. The burning characteristics in the field operations appeared
different from the observed combustion tube experiments.
3.13 Fosterton Field, Saskatchewan, Canada 46
The Fosterton Northwest (NW) Unit is situated in the Fosterton Field approximately
30 miles northwest of Swift Current, Saskatchewan in Canada. This paper reviews the
performance of the tertiary combustion recovery pilot with emphasis on the period from
January 1, 1974 to October 31, 1987. The pay zone of interests is the Fosterton NW
Roseray Sand Pool, which has an average net pay of 8.4 m (28 ft), a porosity of 28.8%
and a permeability of 958 md. The oil has a viscosity of 16 cp at initial reservoir
condition and a gravity of 24 API at 52°C (126°F). The Unit underwent five years of
primary production, followed by 12 years of water flood recovery, after which 23.2% of

80 Koorosh Asghari
the original oil-in-place (OOIP) had been recovered. The recovery scheme was converted
to an in-situ dry combustion in 1970 for the purpose of determining the economic and
technical viability of the process for tertiary recovery from similar watered-out Roseray
Sands in the area. Since February 1970, the Unit has undergone eighty years of dry
combustion, followed by ten years of wet combustion. Reservoir parameters are
presented in Table 3.8. The fluid properties shown were determined from a sample of
Roseray crude taken from well in the Main Pool.
Table 3.8 – Reservoir Properties of Fosterton Field
On the operational history, the main pool was placed on primary production for five
years. Afterwards waterflooding commenced in 1957. Water flooding was discontinued
in December 1969 after 23.2% of the OOIP had been recovered. Dry combustion was
initiated on February 1970 with air injection into the former production well 2B-15. This
continued for eight years. Wet combustion was initiated in October 1977 by injecting air
alternately with water (cyclic injection). The purpose was to improve production
performance and ultimate recovery by increasing reservoir pressure, reducing the air
requirements, improving heat utilization, and improving sweep efficiency. A corehole
was drilled 85 m (279 ft) northeast of the 2B-15 injection well in late 1979 (2B-15 OBS
well) to determine the vertical conformance of the burn and the thermally affected zone.
Air injection was suspended on four occasions due to economic considerations and

operational difficulties. The combustion project was expanded in 1983. For the injectivity
performance, during dry combustion, air injection rates averaged 1.18 MMscf/D. When
the cyclic wet combustion started in 1978, air injectivity decreased compared to dry
combustion due to relative permeability effects, particularly at the beginning of the air
cycle. Significant oil carry-over in the injected water has also reduced injectivity. Oil
accumulation in the near wellbore region was likely oxidized to form a tar-like substance,
which impairs injectivity. Workovers improved air injectivity.
Air injection rates were increased after the switch to continuous air-water injection in
May 1983. Reservoir pressure was restored and maintain in the process. For the
production performance, during the dry combustion period (1970 to 1977), fluid and oil
production rates declined significantly to the in-situ combustion scheme because of
decreased reservoir pressure. After the start of wet combustion in 1978, the fluid rate
remained very low due to the continuing low reservoir pressure. Fluid rates increased
appreciably in 1983 after several producer workovers were conducted to take advantage
of the increased reservoir pressure. After combustion expansion in 1984, both produced
fluid rates and watercut began to increase in response to increased water injection. The
air-oil ratio (AOR) since 1974 has averaged 3.3 x 103 m3/m3 (18.5 Mscf/bbl).
Figure 3.11 – Daily Oil Rates vs. Cumulative Oil Production, Fosterton Field

82 Koorosh Asghari
Daily oil rate versus cumulative oil produced is presented in Figure 3.11. Cumulative
oil recovered to October 1987 is 3,438,000 bbl or 27.7% of OOIP. Of that volume, 3.1%
of the OOIP was recovered during the dry combustion period (primarily due to gas
displacement), and 2.4% has been recovered during vet combustion. The combustion
performance has been routinely monitored by analyzing the produced gases for nitrogen
(N2), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbon
content. Hydrocarbon gases have averaged only 3% of the total produced gases. From
1974 to 1987, the produced gas has had average concentrations of 11.9% C02 and 0.61%
CO. From 1974 to 1987, the O2 utilization factor has been steady at an average of 94%,
indicating an efficient use of the injected oxygen in the combustion process. Average
yearly values for the hydrogen to carbon, H/C fuel ratio have ranged from 1.00 to 4.57
from 1974 to 1987. The overall H/C ratio for the period is 2.62, with a value of 2.39
during dry combustion and 2.72 during wet combustion. Acetic, formic and propionic
acids were formed from LTO reactions. The organic acids formed contribute to the
stability of the produced oil-in-water emulsions, which cause increased production and
treating problems. They can also decrease the pH of the produced fluids, thereby
increasing their corrosive nature. Based on calculations of burned volumes, it is estimated
that approximately 11.1% of the total reservoir volume has been burned to the end of
October 1987; 2.8% during dry combustion and 8.3% during wet combustion. For the
core hole observation, the overall core recovery was a poor 42%. Since the sand was
unconsolidated, particularly in the steam-affected zone, significant portions of core were
washed away. Based on core data, log data and analysis, it was concluded that the entire
pay interval has been thermally affected and that heat was being scavenged from the base
and cap rock for several years after the burn front had passed. The cumulative displaced
to produced oil ratio is 1.3, which represents approximately 214,000 bbl of oil displaced
from behind the combustion front and not yet produced. Recognizing that since the start
of combustion, much of the oil was produced by gas and water displacement, it is
apparent that considerably more than 214000 bbl oil has been continually banked. Some
wells appear to be within the oil bank. The remaining producers are outside the major oil
bank but are probably producing displaced oil. Because of the inability to produce all the

displaced oil, the economic viability of the in-situ wet combustion process using air has
not been established for this Pool. There was plans proposal for the future continued
operation and evaluation of the Fosterton NW Unit.
Wet combustion is a better process than dry combustion due to improved pressure
maintenance, reduced air requirements and increased heat utilization at the Fosterton
Field in Saskatchewan. Production of combustion-displaced oil has been severely
restricted by the larger volumes of inert gases being produced. Injection of oxygen would
reduce produced gas volumes and potentially improve economic viability.
4. Classification of the Air injection Projects
Here a classification of all in-situ combustion projects listed in this report based on
their application to heavy or light oil reservoirs is presented. As criteria of what to
consider heavy oil we used a definition agreed on by UNITAR (United Nations Inst. For
Training and Research) Working Group on Definitions. According to that group, “Heavy
crude oils have densities from 934 to 1000 kg/m3 (gravities from 20°API to 10°API)
47
inclusive.” Classification of in-situ combustion projects by type of the oil in the
reservoir is listed in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2.

84 Koorosh Asghari
Table 4.1 — Air Injection Project in Heavy Oil Reservoirs

Incremental
Average
Temp- AOR, Recovery by
Name of the Depth Porosity, Gravity, Viscosity, Oil
erature, Mscf/ Air References
project , ft % °API cp Prod.,
°F bbl Injection, %
B/D
OOIP
Bodcau Project,
Bellevue Field, 450 75 33.9 19 676 14.3 32.5 68 4, 5, 6
Louisiana, U.S.
Paris Valley no
23,000- no
Field, California, 800 87 32.2 10.5 - incremental 4, 10
227,000 product.
U.S. oil recovered
West Newport
1,400-
Field, California, - - 15 3,700 2-4 4000 33 4, 11
2,000
U.S.
Kentucky Tar
Sands, Kentucky, 380 - 16.4 10 - - - 22.5 12
U.S.
Balol and Santhal
fields, Mehsana, 2953 158 - 15-18 50-450 - - 33 35
India
Suplacu de
35 –
Barcau Field, 64 32 16 2,000 - - 45 37,40
220
Romania
Miga Field of
Eastern 4350 146 22.6 13-14 280-430 11 1350 10 38
Venezuela
Balaria field, 2625
118 30 19 120 14 750 20 40,42
Romania
Mordovo-
Karmalskoye
1181 - 16-34 - - - - - 41
Field, Tatarstan,
Russia
Videle Field,
2789 113-133 30 16.8-21.5 30-120 16 15 20 42
Romania
Joli Fou Pilot, 40000-
1190 72 - 10 1.9 43
Wabasca, Alberta 100000
Morgan Field,
70 - 12 6800 2 120 - 44
Alberta, Canada
Wolf Lake
Project, Cold 1476 59 33 - 100000 - 22 - 45
Lake, Alberta
Carlyle Field,
860 74 25 19 700 - 25 - 18, 19
Kansas, U.S.
Midway Sunset
2100-
Field, California, 125 36 14.5 110 4.3 1040 20 32, 33
2700
U.S.

Table 4.2 — Air Injection Project in Light Oil Reservoirs

Incremental
Average
Temp- AOR, Recovery by
Name of the Depth, Porosity, Gravity, Viscosity, Oil
erature, Mscf/ Air References
project ft % °API cp Prod.,
°F bbl Injection, %
B/D
OOIP
Cotton Valley
Project, W.
Heidelberg 11,300 220 15 26 6 - 400 - 7, 8
Field,
Mississippi, U.S
Glen Hummel,
2,432 113 36 21.9 74 - - 45.56 9
Texas, U.S.
Gloriana, Texas,
1,600 112 35 20.8 174 - - 42 9
U.S.
Trix Liz, Texas,
3,650 138 28 24 26 - - 45 9
U.S.
Buffalo, South 16, 14,
8,500 215 15-20 32 2.4 200 18 13, 14, 15
Dakota, U.S. 12
Fry Project,
800-
Robinson, 65 19.7 28.7 10-80 18.2 100 31.9 16
2100
Illinois
Shannon Pool,
Salt Creek
950 68 23.3 25 76 - - 50 17
Field,
Wyoming, U.S.
JiLin Oilfield,
1309 64 35 25 1851 - - 30 36
China
Fosterton Field,
Saskatchewan, 742 126 28.8 24 16 18.5 - - 46
Canada
Medicine Pole
Hills Unit,
9,500 230 - 39 - 8 950 2.5 20
North Dakota,
U.S.
North Tisdale
Field, 933 73 24.5 21 175 25 50 14 21
Wyoming, U.S.
May-Libby
Field, 3400 135 - 40 - - 222 - 22
California, U.S.
Sloss Project,
6200 200 19.3 38.8 1.8 4.63 20.5 68 25, 26, 27
Nebraska, U.S.
Horse Creek
Field, North 9125 220 16 32 - 18 400 16.62 28, 29, 30
Dakota, U.S.
North Ward- no
Estes Field, 2690 31 20 33 1.39 - - incremental 31
Texas, U.S. oil recovered

86 Koorosh Asghari
Conclusions
A total of 33 field implementations of the in-situ combustion/air injection in U.S,

Iran, India, China, Romania, Canada, Venezuela and Russia were reviewed.
A good many of these projects were both technically and economically successful,
while other failed for various reasons including unfavourable reservoir and fluid
characteristics, poor engineering and operational problem. In general most failed projects
were small experimental projects implemented in poor prospects.
Analysis of the successful projects, however, indicates that air injection process is
applicable to a wide range of reservoirs, and the chances of failure can be minimized by
careful selection of the reservoir and using modern engineering practices. The operational
problems associated with air injection are no different than those with other recovery
techniques and are easily conquerable. By adopting the most current technology in
planning, implementation, operation and managing air injection process, the operator can
minimize the risk of failures.

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Valentin, Research and Design Inst. for Oil & Gas: “Heavy-Oil Recovery by In-Situ
Combustion - Two Field Cases in Rumania”, Paper (SPE 8905) presented at the SPE
50th California Regional Meeting held in Los Angeles April 9-1 1, 1980
41. G.P. Kayukova, U.G. Romanova, A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical
Chemistry, Kazan Scientific Centre, Russian Academy Sciences; Scientific and
Research Centre for Hardly-Accessible Oil and Natural Bitumen Reserves; N.S.
Sharipova, V.I. Smelkov, B.V. Uspenskiy, Kazan State University; G.V. Romanov,
A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Kazan Scientific Centre,
Russian Academy Sciences; Scientific and Research Centre for Hardly-Accessible
Oil and Natural Bitumen Reserves: : “Mordovo-Karmalskoye Field: The Bitumen
Composition in Productive Strata After Passing of the Combustion Front in Well”,
Paper (SPE 64728) presented at the SPE International Oil and Gas Conference and
Exhibition in China held in Beijing, China, 7–10 November 2000

92 Koorosh Asghari
42. Turta, Alexandru T., Pantazi, Ion G.: “Development of the In-Situ Combustion
Process on an Industrial Scale at Videle Field, Rumania”, Paper (SPE 107091)
presented at the 1982 SPE/DOE Enhanced 04 Recovery symposium held in Tulsa,
April 4-7, 1984
43. J.H. Alderman, Cordova Resources Inc.; R.L. Fox, General American Oils Ltd.; and
R.G. Antonation, Phillips Oil Co.: “In-Situ Combustion Pilot Operations in the
Wabasca Heavy Oil Sands Deposit of North Central Alberta, Canada”, Paper (SPE
11953) presented at the 58th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
San Francisco, CA, October 5-8. 1983
44. D.M. Marjerrison, Amoco Canada Petroleum Co. Ltd., and M.R. Fassihi, Amoco
Production Co.: “Performance of Morgan Pressure Cycling In-Situ Combustion
Project”, Paper (SPE/DOE 27793) presented at the SPE/DOE Ninth Symposium on
Improved Oil Recovery held In Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, 17-20 April 1994
45. R. K. Mehra, BP Canada Resources: “Performance Analysis of In-Situ Combustion

Pilot Project”, Paper (SPE 21537) presented at the international Thermal Operations
Symposium held in Bakersfield, California. February 7-8, 1991
46. P.L. Mikkelsen, Mobil R&D Corp., and W.C. Cook and G, Ostapovich, Mobil
OilCanada Ltd.: “Fosterton Northwest: An In-Situ Combustion Case History”, Paper
(SPE/DOE 17391) presented at the SPE/DOE Enhanced Oil Recovery Symposium
held in Tulsa, Oklahoma, April 17-20, 1988
47. A. R. Martinez: “Report Working Group on Definitions”, Report presented at Second

International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands, Caracas, Venezuela,
February 7-17, 1982

APPENDIX
Résumés

94 Koorosh Asghari
Koorosh Asghari
Associate Professor, Petroleum Systems Engineering Phone: (306) 585 - 4612
Faculty of Engineering, University of Regina Fax: (306) 585 – 4855
Regina, SK S4S 0A2 E-mail: Koorosh.Asghari@uregina.ca
Canada
EDUCATION
 THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, U.S.A.
Ph.D. 1999
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering
 THE UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM INDUSTRY, Iran

Master of Applied Science, 1991
Reservoir Engineering
 THE SHARIF UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, Iran
Bachelor of Science, 1987
Chemical Engineering (minor in Natural Gas Engineering)
WORK EXPERIENCE
 Dec. 1999 – present
THE UNIVERSITY OF REGINA, Canada
Associate Professor of Petroleum Systems Engineering
 1994 – 1999
THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, U.S.A.
Research Assistant, Tertiary Oil Recovery Project
 1991 - 1994
TARABGIN Co. (THERMAL AND ACOUSTIC INSULATION MFG.), Iran
R&D manager and assistant of production manager
 1987 – 1989
NATIONAL IRANIAN GAS COMPANY, Iran
Operations Engineer
RESEARCH EXPERIENCE
HEAVY OIL RECOVERY
 2002 - present
Teaching heavy oil recovery, including steam and solvent based processes
 2004 – 2006
Investigating Application of Combined Steam and Solvent Flooding for Heavy Oil Reservoirs
 2005 - present
Optimization of Heavy Oil Recovery: A Simulation Approach
 2005 – present

Developing a Novel Solvent Injection Process for Improving Oil Recovery from Wormhole Reservoirs
CO2 STORAGE AND SEQUESTRATION

Petroleum Technology Research Centre, Regina, Canada
Project Advisor, CO2 EOR/Sequestration
Principal Investigator, IEA GHG Weyburn CO2 Monitoring and Storage Project
 2002 – 2004
Developing a lab-scale underground sonar for monitoring the location of CO 2 in porous media
 2004 – 2005
Optimization of CO2 EOR/storage project, Keg River F Pool reservoir, Alberta, Canada
 2004 – 2005
Member, IEA GHG Risk Assessment Team for long-term storage of Carbon Dioxide in depleted and
partially-depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs
 2004 – 2005
Investigating the feasibility of enzymatic sequestration of carbon dioxide in underground formations
using the enzyme Carbonic Anhydrase
Long-Term Stability of Wellbores Used for Injecting and Storing CO 2 in Oil Reservoirs
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

 2000 – 2001
Application of Gels for Sand Control Purposes
 2001 – 2003
Evaluation of Polyacrylamide-Cr(III) Gel Systems for Blocking the Flow of Carbon Dioxide in a
Carbonate Porous Medium
 2001 – 2003
Application of Polymer Injection and Flow Induced Polymer Adsorption on Curtailing the Excess
Water Produced in Production Wells
 2000 – 2002
Application of CO2-Foam Process in Weyburn Reservoir, Saskatchewan, Canada
 2001 – 2003
Application of Microwave Heating for Preventing Wax Deposition Near the Wellbore
 2003 – 2005
Development of a Novel Gel-Foam System for Conformance Control Purposes in Wormhole
Reservoirs
 2002 – 2004
Developing New Injections Schemes to Improve the Performance of Hydrogels Placed in Fractures
Mechanistic Study of Waterflooding of Heavy Oil Reservoirs
 2005 – Present
Miscible and Near Miscible Displacement Processes in Fractured Reservoirs

96 Koorosh Asghari
OTHER RESEARCH
 2000 – 2002
Development of A Knowledge Based Expert System for Oil Production Facilities
 2001 – 2003
Development of A Knowledge Based Expert System For Oil Treater
 2003 – 2004
3-D Visualization Techniques for Simulation Data Representation
ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES
1. Program Chair, Petroleum Systems Engineering, 2003 – 2005
2. Chair, Teaching Development Center, University of Regina, 2002-2004
3. Member, Executive of Council, University of Regina, 2000-2003
4. Member, Health and Safety Committee, University of Regina, 2001-2004
PROFESISONAL ACTIVITIES
1. Chair-Elect, South Saskatchewan Section of Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum
(CIM), 2002 - 2004
2. Member, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (CIM)
3. Member, Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE)
4. Member, Canadian Institute of Chemical Engineers (CIChE)
5. Faculty Advisor, SPE Student Chapter, The University of Regina Branch
6. Engineer in Training, Registered with the Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of
Saskatchewan (APEGS).
PUBLICATIONS
Articles in refereed publications:
1. Khalil, F., Asghari, K. “Application of CO2-Foam as a means of Reducing Carbon Dioxide
Mobility" Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology (JCPT), 45(5), 37-42, 2006.
2. Taabbodi, L., Asghari, K.; “Application of In-Depth Gel Placement for Water and Carbon
Dioxide Conformance Control in Carbonate Porous Media" Journal of Canadian Petroleum
Technology (JCPT), 45(2), 33-40, 2006.
3. Asghari, K.; Al-Dliwe, A.; Mahinpey, N. “Effect of Operational Parameters on Carbon
Dioxide Storage Capacity in a Heterogeneous Oil Reservoir: A Case Study” Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 45, 2452-2456, 2006.
4. Oganberu, A.; Asghari, K. “Water Permeability Reduction Under Flow-Induced Polymer
Adsorption” Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology (JCPT), 44(11), 56-61, 2005.
5. Asghari, K., Khalil, Faisal, “Effect of Operation Parameters on the CO 2-Foam Process,”
Journal of Petroleum Science and Technology, 23: 189-198, 2005.
6. Liu, N.; Paranjape, R.; Hara, E., Asghari, K. “Statistical Parameter Estimation to Find Oil
Pipeline Leakage Using a Fiber Optic Sensor” Journal of Environmental Informatics, 5(1): 1-
8, 2005.
7. Asghari, K., Al-Dliwe, A., “Optimization of Carbon Dioxide Sequestration and Improved Oil
Recovery in Oil Reservoirs” peer reviewed paper 390 presented at the 7 th International
Conference on Green House Gas Technology, September 5-9, 2004, Vancouver, Canada.
8. Law, D., Huang, S., Freitag, N., Perkins, E., Wassmuth, F., Dunbar, B., Asghari, K.,
“THEME 3: CO2 Storage Capacity and Distribution Predictions and the Application of

Economic Limits,” IEA GHG Weyburn CO 2 Monitoring & Storage Project Summary Report
2000-2004, 149-209, 2004.
9. Ogunberu, A., Asghari, K., “Development of an Statistical Model for Solvent-Aided
Waterflooding,” Journal of Petroleum Science and Technology, 21: 1851-1866, 2003.
10. Asghari, K., “Performance and Properties of KUSP1-Boric Acid Gel System for Permeability
Modification Purposes” Journal of Science and Technology, 20: 1141-1150, 2002.
Papers Submitted to Journals for Publication

1. Asghari, K.; Liu, N.; Paranjape, R. “Application of Acoustic Wave Propagation Analysis
Methods for Monitoring a Miscible Mixing Zone in Porous Media” Accepted for publication
Journal of Petroleum Science and Technology.
2. Wilton, R.; Asghari, K. “Improving Gel Performance in Fractures: Chromium Pre- flush and
Overload” Accepted for publication to Journal of Canadian Petroleum and Technology
(JCPT).
3. Mirjafari, P.; Asghari, K.; Mahinpey, N. “Investigating the Application of Enzyme Carbonic
Anhydrase for CO2 Sequestration Purposes” submitted for publication to Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res.
4. Paranjape, R.; Liu, N.; Asghari, K. “A Novel Acoustic Method for the Identification and
Measurement of a Miscible Fluid-Fluid Interface in Porous Media” submitted for publication
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering.
5. Mahinpey, N.; Ambalae, A.; Asghari, K. “In-situ Combustion in Enhanced Oil Recovery
(EOR)-A Review” submitted for publication to International Journal of Energy.
Papers Presented in Conferences

1. Asghari, K.; Mirjafari, P.; Mahinpey, N.; Dong, M. “Reducing the Permeability of Sandstone
Porous Media to Water and CO2: Application of Bovine Carbonic Anhydrase Enzyme” paper
SPE 99787, presented at the 2006 SPE/DOE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, Tulsa,
OK, U.S.A., April, 2006.
2. Asghari, K.; Dong, M.; Shire, J.; Coleridge, T.; Nagrampa, J.; Grassick, J. “Development of a
Correlation Between Performance of CO 2 Flooding and the Past Performance of
Waterflooding in Weyburn Oil Field” paper SPE 99789, presented at the 2006 SPE/DOE
Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, Tulsa, OK, U.S.A., April, 2006.
3. Wang, J.; Dong, M.; Asghari, K. “Effect of Oil Viscosity on Heavy-oil/Water Relative
Permeability Curves” paper SPE 99763, presented at the 2006 SPE/DOE Symposium on
Improved Oil Recovery, Tulsa, OK, U.S.A., April, 2006.
4. Al-Dliwe, A.; Asghari, K. “Reservoir Characterization and Simulations Studies in a
Heterogeneous Pinnacle Reef for CO2 Flooding Purposes: A Case Study,” paper 93472
presented at the SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference, March 12 - 15, 2005,
Kingdom of Bahrain.
5. Asghari, K.; Taabbodi, L.; Dong, M. “A New Gel-Foam System for Water Shut-Off purposes
in Wormhole Reservoirs” paper SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97765, accepted for presentation in
2005 SPE International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil Symposium 1-3 November 2005,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
6. Paranjape, R.; Liu, N.; Asghari, K. “Application of Underground Sonar Techniques for
Monitoring the Mixing Zone During Carbon Dioxide Flooding Process” 26th IEA Annual
Workshop & Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery, Chiba, Japan, September 25-29, 2005.
7. Asghari, K.; Shire, J.; Coleridge, T.; Nagrampa, J.; Grassick, J. “Predicting the Performance
of CO2 Flooding in Weyburn Oil Field based on the Past Performance of Waterflooding” 26th
IEA Annual Workshop & Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery, Chiba, Japan, September
25-29, 2005.
8. Asghari, K., Taabbodi, L., “Application of In-Depth Gel Placement for Water and Carbon
Dioxide Conformance Control in carbonate Porous Media,” CIPC Conference, Calgary, June
2004.

98 Koorosh Asghari
9. Ogunberu, L., Asghari, K., “Water Permeability Reduction under Flow Induced Polymer
Adsorption,” CICPC Conference, Calgary, June 2004.
10. Asghari, K., Taabbodi, L., “Laboratory Investigation of In-depth Gel Placement for Carbon
Dioxide Flooding in Carbonate Porous Media,” paper 90633 SPE, presented at the 2004 SPE
International Petroleum Conference in Mexico, Puebla, Mexico, November 2004.
11. Ogunberu, A.L., Asghari, K., “Water Permeability Reduction Under Flow-Induced Polymer
Adsorption,” paper 89855 SPE, presented at the 2004 SPE International Petroleum
Conference in Mexico, Puebla, Mexico, November 2004.
12. Asghari, K., Taabbodi, L., “Application of In-Depth Gel Placement for Water and Carbon
Dioxide Conformance Control in carbonate Porous Media,” Canadian International Petroleum
Conference, Calgary, June 2004.
13. Liu, N.; Paranjape, R.; Hara, E.; Asghari, K. “ On the Application of Statistical Parameter
Estimation to find Oil PipelineLeakage using a Distributed Fiber Sensor,” ISEIS 2004
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATICS, August15 -
27, 2004 Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada.
14. Asghari, K.; Wilton. R. “Methods of Improving Conformance Control in Fractured
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs” CICPC Conference, Calgary, June 2003.
15. Asghari, K., Sheidaei, M., “A Novel Study of Electromagnetic Heating of Fluids in Porous
Media for Preventing Deposition of Heavy Hydrocarbon Molecules,” Presented in the 53 rd
Canadian Chemical Engineering Conference, Hamilton, ON, October 26-29, 2003.
16. Asghari, K., “A Review of EOR Processes for Williston Basin” Proceedings of the 10 th
Williston Basin Horizontal Well and Petroleum Conference, Bismarck, North Dakota, May
2002.
17. Uraikul, V.; Chan, C.; Asghari, K.; Monea, M. “An Expert System for Monitoring and
Control of an Oil Production Facility” Proceedings of ITC-CSCC, Thailand, July 16-19, 2002.
18. Ningyu, L.; Paranjape, R.; Asghari, K. “An Underground Sonar for Miscible Displacement
Processes in Oil Reservoirs” IEEE Conference, Winnipeg, May 2002.
19. Krishnan, P.; Asghari, K.; Willhite, G.P.; McCool, C.S.; Green, D.W.; Vossoughi, S. “
Dehydration and Permeability of Gels Used in In-Situ Permeability Modification
Treatments,” SPE paper 59347, Presented at the Twelfth Symposium on Improved Oil
Recovery, Tulsa, OK, April 2-5, 2000.
US Patent Application
Methods of Improving Conformance Control in Fractured Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Inventors: Asghari, K., Wilton. R., 2004.

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Confidential

Review of Field Implementations of In-Situ

Koorosh Asghari, PhD

PTRC No. Incubation Project

PTRC 6 Research Drive Regina Saskatchewan Canada S4S 7J7

Review of Field Implementations of In-Situ

Koorosh Asghari, PhD

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4. Classification of the Air injection Projects 83

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Table 3.1 – Air injection projects in Canada, South America, 41

Table 4.1 — Air Injection Project in Heavy Oil Reservoirs 84

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1.1 Early Air Injection Projects

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Table 2.1 — U.S. Air Injection Projects

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Table 2.3 — Average Reservoir Characteristics of West Heidelberg Field

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Table 2.4 – Reservoir Properties of the Glen Hummel Field

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2.4 Gloriana Project 9

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Table 2.5 – Reservoir Properties of the Gloriana Field

2.5 Trix-Liz Project 9

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Table 2.6 – Reservoir Properties of the Trix-Liz Field

The reservoir was ignited in Well TL 1-2 in September 1968, by spontaneous

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No problems with well burnout or premature bum-through were experienced in the

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sand. However, within 8 to 10 months, spontaneous ignition occurred in the vicinity of

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Table 2.11 — In-situ Combustion Pilot, May-Libby Reservoir

examination of various data created by laboratory and reservoir modeling techniques it

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