Module in GEE 102-Gender & Society

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GEE 102-Gender and Society
Module 1. Gender (Week 2)

Learning Outcomes
 To understand the meaning of gender and identify factors that influences gender
Indicative Content
 Definition of Gender
 Factors that influences gender
Introduction
Gender is hierarchical and produces inequalities that intersect with other social and
economic inequalities. Gender-based discrimination intersects with other factors of
discrimination, such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability, age, geographic location,
gender identity and sexual orientation, among others.
Gender influences people’s experience of and access to healthcare. The way that
health services are organized and provided can either limit or enable a person’s access to
healthcare information, support and services, and the outcome of those encounters. Health
services should be affordable, accessible and acceptable to all, and they should be provided
with quality, equity and dignity.
Activity
Study the picture below. Describe how they differ from each other. Identify what
factors influence their differences.
Discussion:
Gender – refers to the personal traits and social positions that members of a society
attach to being male and female. Gender is also a dimension of social organization, shaping
how we interact with others and how we think about ourselves (Maclones (2002).
Sexuality on the other hand is the state of being either male or female.
Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially
constructed. This includes norms, behaviors and roles associated with being a woman,
man, girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender
varies from society to society and can change over time.
Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

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Gender interacts with but is different from sex, which refers to the different
biological and physiological characteristics of females, males and intersex persons, such as
chromosomes, hormones and reproductive organs. Gender and sex are related to but
different from gender identity. Gender identity refers to a person’s deeply felt, internal and
individual experience of gender, which may or may not correspond to the person’s
physiology or designated sex at birth.
Factors that Influences on Gender
1. Biological Factors-it involves pubertal change and sexuality and an examination

of Freud’s and Erickson’s notions on anatomy and destiny.
a. Pubertal change influences gender behavior. Some studies show that sexual behavior is
related to hormonal changes in puberty. Robert Udry (1990), an adolescent sex researcher,
found out that boy’s increase sexual activity are related to rising androgen ( male hormones)
level, whereas, girls,’ increased sexual activity are strongly influenced by their peer groups.
b. Anatomy is destiny: Freud and Erickson. Sigmund Freud and Erik Erickson’s “anatomy is
destiny” theorizes that gender behavior is influenced by a person’s sex organ. According to
Freud, human behavior and history are directly related to reproductive processes. Erickson
agreed with Freud and further stressed that anatomical differences affect psychological
differences. He noted that male individuals are aggressive while females are passive.
2. Social Influences-during early years of development, parents are the most critical
and influential development agents of socialization. While other social influences are
culture, school, peers, and the media.
3. Parental Influences-parents influence their children’s gender development by their

examples and actions. Boys are given more independence while girls’ sexual vulnerability
causes parents to monitor them closely. Severe restrictions on adolescent boys disrupt their
development. Parents exhibit different expectations for their sons and daughters in different
areas.
The social learning theory of gender states that gender development of children and
adolescents occurs through observation of gender behavior, which are appropriate and
inappropriate, through the system of rewards and punishment.
4. Peers-also play a vital role in modelling and responding to gender behavior. In

adolescence, peer approval or disapproval is a powerful influence on gender attitudes and
behavior.
5. Schools- the pressure to achieve and to excel in academics is more likely to be

heaped on boys than on girls because they will grow up to be the breadwinners.
6. Media-social researchers assumed that mass media carry sexist messages.

Exposure to mass media by the sexes would inculcate stereotyped messages in them.
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7. Cognitive Influences-cognitive influences on gender stress that children organize

their world on the basis of their gender after identifying themselves as either male or female.
Exercises/Drills
Think of the famous people you admire, whether local or foreign, and choose the one
whom you admire most and who has influenced you in some way. Make a reflection on a
separate sheet of paper.
References
Textbook in General Sociology, Omas R.,et. al.

Trinitas Publishing Inc. Bulacan
Online resources
https://www.who.int/health-topics/gender
https://google.com.search.images+gender

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Module 2. Gender Stereotypes, Similarities and

Differences (Week 3)
Learning Outcomes
o To determine similarities and differences of gender

o To describe gender stereotypes.
Indicative Content
 Gender Stereotypes
 Gender Similarities
Activity
Observe male and female. Identify and enumerate gender similarities and differences
among them. Use the table below.
Gender Similarities Differences

1.Male
2.Female
Introduction
Gender stereotypes and role obligations influence career choice and commitment to
the occupational sphere. In consequence, there is a high gender segregation of the
workforce. The proportion of women is over 90 percent in some fields (e.g., secretary,
receptionist, kindergarten-teacher) and less than 5 percent in others (e.g., mechanic, airplane
pilot). Jobs that are considered women's work tend to offer fewer opportunities for
advancement, less prestige, and lower pay than jobs occupied primarily by men. Worldwide
the gender gap in average wage is 30–40 percent and it shows little sign of closing.
Worldwide the gender gap in average wage is 30–40 percent and it shows little sign
of closing. Top positions in economy, politics, and sciences are almost exclusively filled by
men, and part-time working is almost exclusively a female phenomenon. Both men and
women tend to hold negative attitudes towards females in authority. Women entering male
occupations are critically scrutinized, males entering female occupations (e.g., nursing) in
contrast easily win acceptance and promotion.
Discussion
Gender stereotypes- pertains to images, impressions and beliefs about males and
females. These vary in culture and in socioeconomic status. These largely negative in nature
and may be prejudiced and discriminatory.

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An example of a masculine stereotype is growing facial hair while a female

stereotype is wearing lipstick.
Sexism is characterized by endorsement of traditional gender roles, differential
treatment for men and women, especially the stereotypes that females are less competent
than males.
Gender Similarities and Differences- there are marked biological differences
between males and females. Most women have the capacity to bear children, whereas men
do not.
As early as two years of age, a consistent differences in aggression appears in a
child’s development. Males are more active and aggressive than females. While both sexes
use the same facial expressions, adopt the same language and describe their emotional
experience similarly. The dilemma of whether sexes differ in their expectations of success at
various achievement tasks is not yet settled. Both sexes are physically capable of learning to
cook and sew, yet Western societies assigned these tasks to women. Both sexes are capable
of learning how to weld metal and fly airplanes but these assigned traditionally to men.
David. Buss (1995), an evolutionary psychologist, stressed that men and women
differ psychologically in in domains where they have encountered different problems.
Androgyny –androgyny is the presence of both masculine and feminine traits in a
person. An androgynous person maybe an assertive but nurturant male or a dominant but
sensitive female.
Exercises/Drills
Study the pictures below, spot the differences of male and female as to physical,
social, and cognitive differences.
References

Online Resources
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/socialsciences/gender-roles
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/gender+differences

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Module 3. Gender Roles (Week 4)
Learning Outcomes
 To identify gender roles in the society.
Indicative Content
 Gender Roles
Activity
Enumerate different roles a male and female played in the society. Write your answer
in the table below on a separate sheet.
Roles Male Female
Introduction
Gender roles are the behaviors men and women exhibit in the private and public realm. They
are the sociocultural expectations that apply to individuals on the basis of their assignment to a sex
category (male or female). Usually an individual’s sex is determined by how their genitalia look at
birth. Since the 1970s, when feminists in particular made a distinction between sex and gender, the
prescriptive nature of socially assigned gender roles has been challenged. More recently, the
prescriptive nature of socially assigned sex roles has also been contested.
Discussion
Gender roles or sex roles are aspects of gender that refer to a set of expectations prescribing
how male and females should act, think and feel(Santrock, 1998). They are the attitudes and
activities that a society links to each gender. In Philippine culture, society defines males as
ambitious and decisive. Females, on the other hand, are expected to be emotional, submissive or
supportive especially to their husbands. Wives are likewise considered as homemakers while
husbands are the family’s breadwinners.
In 1848, when slavery was legal in most parts of the Unitd States, women were subordinate
to men. Women could not own a property or keep their salaries if they were married. They could not
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draft a will and were barred from filing lawsuits in court including suits seeking custody of their
children. Women could not study in college and their husbands would beat them up using a stick no
thicker than a thumb, (the origin of the phrase “the rule of thumb”). Women could not exercise the
right to vote because people think they naturally lacked the required intelligence and political will.
They were seen as mere decorations in homes and were fitted for household chores. However, these
attitudes and practices only reflecte4d the “cultural conventions’ of that time and place.
Time have changed, Society has recognized the unique roles women play, complementing
men in terms of capability in running the affairs of the home, politics, career development or any
chosen professional field.
In athletics, for example, the inferiority tagged to women before was proven wrong when the
women routinely posted better times than the fastest men in the past, and the performance gap
between the two sexes has greatly narrowed. In Olympic competitions worldwide, women excel in
various fields just like their male counterparts. In politics, particularly in the Philippines, women
hold high political positions and are emulated as models of the youth and held in high esteem by the
elders.
In these modern times, diversity characterizes women’s roles. In the past, the roles that
women played were those that portrayed them. To be independent, nurturant and incapable of
holding power. But today’s women have entered traditionally male domains like the military, the
police and other occupations requiring physical strength and assertiveness.
The women in modern times display a positive and highly secure gender identity. They feel
very comfortable in being feminine while performing their duties and responsibilities, even those
perceived to be dominated by men. Women are no longer typecast in roles that paint them as soft,
submissive and emotional. They are now empowered, independent and principled. Women, like
men increasingly struggle to gain influence and change the worlds of business, politics, and
relationships with the opposite sex.
Rather than just being breadwinner and the disciplinarian in the family, today’s male has
stepped into the role of nurturer to his family. He is now active involved in his children’s
upbringing, spends quality time with his family and is more positive and highly secure of his gender
identity. He confidently does household works and other tasks previously relegated to women
without feeling ashamed or insecure of his masculinity.
Men is anchored in occupations outside the home. Almost all major institutions of our
society, including the armed forces, the media, universities, medical and business establishments,
are controlled by men. Yet, with the power that accompanies men, comes stress and responsibility.
The pressure to succeed and to remain on top is upon them and this can be intense. Power and
privilege do not guarantee men’s physical or mental well-being.

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Exercise/Drills
Interview a person around you, know what think about gender roles, ask these:
What does he/she think about gender roles. When men and women roles are equal?
Write your personal insights in a piece of paper.
References

Online Resources
https://www.youthdoit.org/themes/sexual-and-reproductive-healthand-rights-are-human-
rights/gender-and-gender-roles
https://www.google.com/search?
q=gender+roles&oq=gender+roles&aqs=chrome..69i57.14546j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=
UTF-8

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Module 4. Gender Issues (Week 5)
Learning Outcomes
 To identify different gender issues in the society.
Indicative Content
 Women’s Issues
 Men’s Issues
Activity
Think and identify the famous people you admire, whether local or foreign, choose
the one you admire most and who has influenced you in some way. Write you’re your
answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Introduction
Gender issues include all aspects and concerns related to women's and men's lives
and situation in society, to the way they interrelate, their differences in access to and use of
resources, their activities, and how they react to changes, interventions and policies. The
Philippines has a number of women in especially difficult circumstances. These include (i)
women in armed conflict, (ii) women victims of domestic violence, (iii) women in
prostitution, (iv) women in prison, and (v) single women.
Discussion
Women’s Issues
Feminists advocates still believe that sexism is still rampant in these modern times.
Although a number of women have broken through male bastions in the past decades,
feminists argue that there is still much work to be done. Changes in the nation’s economies
globally have brought more opportunities for women to participate in the workplace.
A collection of research studies with a real-world applications, designed to help

people understand the similarities and differences of men and women, with regards to
personality, thinking ability, leadership, test scores, and depression.
Sexual Harassment
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What is Sexual harassment?
Sexual harassment occurs when an individual is unable to perform a task due to

behavior characterized by the making of unwelcome and inappropriate sexual remarks or
physical advances in a workplace or other professional or social situation.
-Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or
physical conduct of a sexual nature when: ·
Submission to such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an
individual's employment, or · Submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual is
used as a basis for employment decisions affecting such individual, or , such conduct has the
purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual's work performance or
creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. Unwelcome Behavior is
the critical word. Unwelcome does not mean "involuntary." A victim may consent or agree
to certain conduct and actively participate in it even though it is offensive and objectionable.
Therefore, sexual conduct is unwelcome whenever the person subjected to it considers it
unwelcome. Whether the person in fact welcomed a request for a date, sex-oriented
comment, or joke depends on all the circumstances.
Forms of Sexual Harassment
 Sexist Remarks
 Vulgar sexual language
 Covert physical conduct (deliberate or improper touching of private and sensitive
body parts, patting) specially in the workplace
The position, authority and influence of employers open opportunities for them o ask
sexual favors or make sexual advances on their women employees. A lot of stories have
been told about some employers imposing promotion and higher pay rates to their
chosen employee in exchange of sexual favors. While turning down these advances
would result to hostility and/or termination of work for the female employee.
Sexual harassment is also rampant in the academe. Some students are subjected to
sexual harassment from their professor who promises them higher grades and easier
assignment loads.
Low Wages
In every country in the world, women continue to be paid less for comparable work
than men, says the ILO, and the wage gap narrowed only slightly over the past decade. By
the year 2000, women will make up at least one-half of the work force in most countries, as
opposed to one-third in 1990. The massive entry of women into active economic life has
only rarely been matched by a corresponding improvement in their living or working
conditions, says the International Labour Organisation. Inequality of treatment marks
virtually all aspects of women's working lives, beginning with wages and employment
opportunities and extending to access to decision-making and managerial positions.

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"Women's progress in the workforce over the past 10

years has not meant greater access to quality jobs, nor has it
brought an end to discrimination", says Mary Chinery-
Hesse, ILO Deputy Director-General and leader of the ILO
delegation to the Fourth World Conference on Women
(Beijing, September 4-15). "Despite gains in some areas,
women earn an average of just two-thirds of men's wages,
and they are often denied access to opportunities leading to
the best jobs."
In addition, while more women work outside the home, a greater percentage of
women than ever before act as the sole breadwinners for their families, contributing to the
feminization of poverty. "This cycle of poverty cannot be broken until women receive fair
wages," says Ms. Chinery-Hesse.
Women's employment is primarily concentrated in a narrow range of sectors

(especially services, where access to jobs is easier but wages are often lower and job security
minimal). Even within those sectors, women find themselves clustered at the lower
echelons.
Women make up a greater percentage of workers in "informal" and other precarious
forms of employment, which tend to lie outside the purview of labour regulations and
inspection, and are therefore more prone to exploitation. In the industrialised countries,
between 65 and 90% of all part-time workers are women.
Women compose 90% of the part-time labour force in Germany and Belgium, 65%
in Italy, Greece and the United States, and 63% in the Netherlands.
A very high percentage of women in developing countries work in the informal
sector. These jobs do not provide the benefits of full-time work in the formal sector
including steady wages, adequate occupational health and safety conditions, job security and
social protection. In the absence of policy measures to improve earning and employment
opportunities for women, there is little evidence that the situation will improve soon.
The main reason that women hold part-time jobs: they cannot find full-time jobs.
Child care and work in the home are the other main factors.
Part-time or full-time, women's jobs are often the least secure. "Women still tend to
be the last to be hired and the first to be fired," says Ms. Chinery-
Hesse.
Gender discrimination remains responsible for sizable

differences in pay among sexes. In a number of workplaces, the
principle of “equal pay for equal work” is continuously being
resisted. Reasons for such gender discrimination include
unsubstantial scientific claims like women are weak, women are
emotionally unstable, women give birth frequently and go on leave
which have adversely affect their productivity.

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Equal work Opportunities and Promotions
What Is Equal Employment Opportunity?

Equal employment opportunity is an employment practice where employers do not
engage in employment activities that are prohibited by law. It is illegal for employers to
discriminate against an applicant or employee on the basis of:
 Race
 Age
 Color
 Sex
 Religion
 National origin
Equal employment opportunity is a government policy that requires that employers do

not discriminate against employees and job applicants based upon certain characteristics,
such as age, race, color, creed, sex, religion, and disability.
Women oftentimes encounter attitudinal or organizational biases that prevent them from
reaching their full potentials in the workplace. They are often blocked from top management
positions in businesses and industries.
The gender mainstreaming strategy aims to change an organisation’s orientation and

modes of operation in such a way that the results and effects of the organisation’s activities
support the advancement of gender equality in all of an organisation’s fields of intervention
(output dimension as per the SPO model). However, promoting equal opportunities within
an organisation and its personnel is not least a question of internal and external credibility.
Sexist Advertising and Music

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The media has often criticized for the stereotyping of women and exploiting them via
sexy advertisements (portraying them skimpy swimsuits almost naked). They have been
portrayed either as sexy vamps out to seduce the male population in liquor, cigarette and
satisfying the male’s appetite for and libido. Their intellectual capabilities are undermined
and not accurately and justifiably portrayed in some advertisements. Media and advertising
present models of males and females greatly influence gender attitudes and behaviour.
A number of popular music today have lyrics of sexual overtones, most of which
pertain to women. These lyrics in some ways are shaping the minds of the listeners,
particularly the youth in the areas of sex, violence, drugs, and Satanism. MTVs are inclined
to promote sex rather than love, friendship, growing up, having fun and the like.
Domestic Violence
Battering, child abuse, verbal abuse, abuse of the elderly

and other forms of domestic violence are ugly realities of family
life in the Philippines. It can begin as early as the dating and
courtship stages. Victims are reluctant to share their unpleasant
experiences and typically confide in their peers rather than their
parents and authorities.
Domestic violence is a global problem and is harsher in

societies that devalue certain family members like children born
out of wedlock, stepchildren, disables children or women in
general. The oppressive situation of battered women is so
intolerable that it has compared to that of prison inmates. Like
inmates these battered women are confined to their homes, suffering from progressive loss
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of self-esteem, making them prone to repeated abuse. Some are

generally cut off from physical and emotional assistance and moral
support.
Filipino society condemn such violence which manifested in

physical forms like pushing, slapping, punching, hitting with a blunt
object, choking as well as psychological and emotional abuse.
An abusive family is a dangerous place not only for women but

also for children and the elderly. Domestic violence on children and
elderly takes the form of neglect, physical or verbal abuse.
Victims of domestic violence are in need of emotional support that will bolster their
self-esteem, assess their inner strengths and provide information about available resources.
Government officials have addressed domestic violence as a social policy issue through
increased funds for telephone hotlines to assist victims, shelters for battered women and
other social services that will reduce assaults within the family.
Feminist movements put increased pressure on the government to treat domestic

violence as a crime.
Working Mothers
Gone are the days when a woman’s place is in the house. The Filipina mother has
metamorphosed from a responsible loving homemaker to an empowered woman.
Maternal employment is a fact of modernity and a positive response to social change

that meets the needs not met by the ideal of a full-time mother and homemaker. The needs of
a growing child require his/her mother to loosen the hold on him/her. This would be easier
accomplished by a working mother whose career is an additional source of high self-esteem
and a confident gender self-identity.
With the increasing population of working mothers simultaneous improvements in

child care services and leave schemes, flexible working time arrangements, and access to
career training and development must be implemented.
Adolescent Pregnancy
Pregnant adolescents come from different ethnic groups and from

different places, but their circumstances have the same stressfulness. They
represent a flaw in society’s fabric. At present, even if society places less
stigma associated to an unmarried mother, the lives of most pregnant
adolescents are anything but rosy.

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Adolescents pregnancies create health risks for both mother and child. Moreover, adolescent
parents are more likely to have low-paying, low –status jobs or be unemployed than those
who delay childbearing.
They tend to be less desirable child rearing practices and less realistic expectations
for their babies’ development.
A sound sex education, family planning and accept to contraceptive methods alone
will not remedy an adolescent’s unwanted pregnancy. They have to have opportunities to
improve their academic and career related skills, job opportunities, lifelong consultations
and extensive mental health services. They also need a broad community involvement and
support.
Men’s Issues
The early beginnings of men’s movements date back to the ‘70s and ‘80s. a certain
Herbet Goldberg stressed that men cannot sense and articulate their problems and feelings.
His important message to men is to become attuned to their inner self and emotions and
work on developing more positive close relationships.
In the 1990s, Robert Bly, a poet, storyteller, translator, best-selling author and Carl
Jung’s discipline, stated that today’s males are “soft” as a result of absentee fathers and
strong attachment to their mothers.
Adolescent Fathers
Adolescent Fathers have lower incomes, are less educated and have more children.
As soon as they are out of school, they land low-paying jobs. Most adolescent fathers have
little notion of what a father’s role is.
Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment involving male victims is a reality, but very few cases are
reported. Prisons are vulnerable setting for sexual harassments. The absence of heterosexual
partners in prison cells make men turn to the same gender for sexual favors and release.
In workplaces, men like women are also unwilling or willing victims of sexual
harassments. Men are unwilling victims of sexual advances from either gay bosses or lady
executives proposing sexual favors in exchange of accelerated promotions in the corporate
ladder. Victim s are forced to reciprocate their advances to lessen their workload, to promote
them to higher ranks and/or to increase their pay or at times, to free them from certain
liabilities.
However, some men may are willing victims of sexual harassment in the work
places. They may even put up or open themselves to gay bosses and lady executives for
sexual advances in exchange for promotion, increased salaries, and lessened workload.

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.Source: Preventing Sexual Harassment (BNA Communications, Inc.) SDC IP .73
q=what+are+gender+issues&oq=what+are+gender+issues&aqs=chrome..69i57j0l2j0i22i30l
7.6304j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
https://www.apa.org/research/action/gender
https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/whatissh.pdf
https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_008091/lang--en/
index.htm
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-equal-employment-opportunity-definition-laws-
policies.html
https://eige.europa.eu/gender-mainstreaming/toolkits/gender-institutional-transformation/
step-

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Module 6. The Concept of Society & It’s Characteristics

(Week 14-15)
Learning Outcomes
 To determine different concepts of society.

 To describe characteristics of groups, its importance and classification.
Indicative Content
 The Concept of Society and Its characteristics.

 The Nature and Concept of Groups.
 Characteristics of Groups
 Importance, classification of Groups
Activity
Identify groups in the community you belong. Describe its importance in the
community.
Introduction
Man is by nature a social being. He does not live in isolation but has to relate with
other people. His relations with others results in the formation of a group that will help him
develop his personality. The impact of group influence will bear either a positive or negative
effect on him depending on what kind of people he is interacting with and how these people
will react to him and to his environment.
Discussion
The Concept of Society and Its Characteristics
“No man is an island” says a popular adage. Indeed, man cannot live by himself
alone. He has to associate with other people or even to at least one person. He has to belong

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and depend on other people as others depend on him on different aspects. Thus, he gradually
becomes a member of a group which exerts influence in shaping his personality.
Society in itself is a group of different personalities from identified and classified

groups. It has distinct characteristics as described by Denisoff (1983):
1. Society is largest among the groups because it has various types. A number of
small groupings may comprise a particular society. For example, a town, which
composed of barangays, barangays composed of puroks and so on and so forth.
2. Society has distinct culture shared by most or almost all of its members. A
pattern of behaviour, values and language exist among the members. A society
also composed of Ilokanos, Tausugs and Manobos differ in their customs and
traditions.
3. Membership comes from a reproductive source. When individuals are born, they
become members of the society while the old ones who passed away are replaced
by young individuals who are socialized according to the adopted culture.
4. Society lasts longer than its lifetime individual group members. This means that
if a member with a lifetime membership passes away, the society remains as
human race and still exists on this earth.
The concept of society is real and is characterized by its interrelationships among its
members. Urban and rural societies are composed of several families, business
organizations, educational institutions, political parties, and religious organizations. Each
group adopts its own rules and policies. Members have their own statuses and roles. They
are aware of their varied responsibilities to perform in the group. Any deviation from the
norms and standards make society’s members antisocial. Discipline is a must for member to
establish order.
The Nature and Concept of Groups
Social groups may have varied forms and maybe classified into several categories
depending on one’s perception. Some sociologists have identified groups as Christians and
non-Christians depending on their shown behaviour and practices in the society (Panopio &
Rolda, 1988). Other sociologists perceived social groupings into two level concepts: macro
and micro-social systems (Ronquillo, 1989). These concepts are very important in sociology
because they are the keys to the whats, whys, and hows of behaviour.
Fig.1-Dyad
YOU ME
Fig. 2- Triad
NAME 1

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NAME 2 NAME 3
The simplest social relationship is a pair of people, a dyad-interacting as father and

son or mother and daughter, etc.with their attached roles. It is characterized by a high
exchange of information and intimacy =because it allows the greatest opportunity for total
involvement between two persons. While a triad, is composed of three or more people
interacting as a group.
A collection of people such as families, athletic teams, universities and governments

are also given much attention in the society. Families and athletic teams are groups whom
sociologists define as two or more people interact with one another in patterned ways and
are identified as members of themselves and by others (Homan, 1950). Subgroup is simle=y
a group that is part of a larger group.
Groups maybe contrasted to social categories - which is set of people with one or
more social statuses (adolescents, university students, lawyers, college students and others)
in common. Being of similar status, members of social categories often become oriented
with similar cultural ideas, but do not usually identify themselves as units nor interact with
one another in a regular patterned way as members of a group do.
What is a Group?
A group is a unit of interacting personalities with an interdependence of roles and

statuses existing between the members (Cole, 963). It is a collective effort of behaviour in a
particular organization in society. The members usually shares the same beliefs, behaviour,
attitudes and actions and actions based on adopted norms and standards. Group members
should have common interests, aspirations, values, goals, visions and missions to
accomplish. It also refers to one or more people who identify and interact with one another
( Maciones, 2001).
Social group is referred to any system to social relationship in which members have a
culture that define the roles and statuses from whom members are differentiated from non-
members (Persell, 1984). Members are united by a sense of solidarity and by a common
purpose. Though members have their own varied traditions and practices, they from a group
because they a sense of belongingness between and among themselves.
Characteristics of Group
According to Denisoff (1983), social groups, regardless of what type and classification, are
characterized as follows:
1. Group members interact with each other over a period of time.

2. Each member identifies with the group and is recognized as part of the group by other
members.
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3. Each member is expected to accept responsibilities and duties and abide by certain
norms.
4. Members follow specialization in carrying out performances of their respective roles.
Importance of Groups
Group membership plays a vital role in the family, school, public and private
business firms and in government agencies. Individuals have to realize that there are things
they cannot achieve or accomplish by themselves alone but can only attained through their
memberships in groups. Some basic needs cannot be provided by an individual alone.
Everyone needs the help and support of his/her group members to procure these needs.
Groups are importance due to the following reasons (Salcedo, et.al., 2001):
1. The group is a transmitter of culture.

The process of socialization carries a strong influence in the dissemination of
information within the group.
2. The group is a means of social control.
Social control is the process which induces a person to comply with the collective
standards of action and belief. It includes the imposition of rules by the leader of the
group in order for the members to conform to acceptable standards of the group.
3. The group socializes the individual.
The full development of a person starts from where he/she belongs - the group. This
is shown clearly in the family. Family as the basic social unit, develop it members to
become productive members of the community.
4. The group is the source of fundamental ideas.
The daily interactions of the group’s members influence their thinking, feelings, and
even their behaviour and actions. It has been noted that a member of a group has
his/her own personal biases and prejudices because he/she is unique individual.
5. The group trains the individual to communicate.
The group is a source of information through communication of the members.
Though not all members react to situations or circumstances presented to them in an
equal manner, the more active members share available information with other
passive member of the group. The group is considered the “communication network”
(Merrill , 1969).
Classification s of Group
Accdg.to Social Boundaries and Adherence to a Special Set of Norms (Zulueta, 2002)
1. Categorical Group-this refers to a social grouping where members tend to share

certain characteristics and interests and are aware of their similarities with other
members in their own social category (e.g. students, senior citizens, fish vendors
farmers, teachers).

21
2. Aggregate Group- this group denotes a social grouping whose members stay in
one place, but do not necessarily interact with each other. Members of this group
are concerned only with their own feelings and attitudes. Example, are people
forming single line in Araneta Center to buy tickets for the basketball games.
3. Collective Group- refers to a crowd whose members are not governed with laws
or norms, but share the same beliefs that motivates them to action. Examples are
the EDSA People Power, mass demonstration for a common cause and others.
4. Associational Group-is composed of a group of people who organize themselves
to pursue a common interest with formal organizational structure such as the
Philippine Association of State Colleges and Universities (PASUC), Philippine
Basketball Association (PBA), Philippine Association of Teacher Education
(PAFTE) and many others.
According to Interaction and Relationship
1. Primary Group-refers to a small, informal group of people who interact in a more

personal, intimate manner and who always have direct and face to face
communication with other. It includes the family, neighbourhood and play
groups. This group is also characterized by Cooley as the nursery of human
nature because it is the group where the child is socialized, acquires and
experiences love, affection, sympathy, kindness, tolerance, fairness, loyalty and
justice. The individual learns the meaning of personal worth and dignity of a
person (Zulueta, 2002).
2. Secondary Group-involves indirect, impersonal interaction where members are
forced to interact because of business transactions and the like. Examples,
medical representatives who go to drugstores for the specific purpose of selling
his/her product or sales man who visits a department store to deliver goods and
do other business transactions.
According to Membership
1. In-group- refers to a group of people whose sense of belongingness is strong. The

members have a strong “we-feeling”, share common orientation, come from the
same background, roots and origin and adhere to the ideology. Examples, alumni,
organizations of student batches, religious organizations, and university
graduates. It is further characterized by a feeling of companionship and a great
sense of loyalty.
2. Out-Group- is exactly the opposite of the in-group. This group is made up of
people whose feelings are antagonistic to the group itself. There is physical
membership but in mind and heart, the members dislike the group because of the
concept that another group is superior to their group. An out-group is a stereotype
where members of the group have specialized trademarks. Examples,
fraternities and sororities in the university levels. Members of fraternities and

22
sororities have antagonistic feelings to their groups as a result of initiation rites

and other rituals conducted for group approval and acceptance.
3. Reference Group-is a group people identify themselves physically and
psychologically to which other people refer in evaluating their behaviour and
actions. The group becomes the individual’s frame of reference in relation to
his/her motivations, aspirations, experiences, attitudes and social affiliations.
Oftentimes, reference group tends to give an impression to a particular person as
to his/her social, economic and even political status in the community. Example,
a graduate of the University of the Philippines will be accorded higher regard
than a graduate of a college in the province.
4. Peer Group-refers to a small kind of grouping whose members have the same
level, interests and economic standing in the community. This is exemplified in
school among students. Consciously and unconsciously, the members group
themselves because they share the same interests and talents and perhaps their
parents also share the same. There is also a sense of belongingness, sympathy
and loyalty among themselves. Example, peer group of Grade lll pupils.
5. Voluntary Association-as the name suggests, is an organization where
membership is free and voluntary. Though, voluntary in nature, members follow
some sets of rules or policies. Example, are civic –oriented groups, whose
primary purpose is to deliver some social benefits to the deprived, depressed and
underserved (DDU) sectors of the society.
Voluntary associations are found in some relatively simple societies

composed of members with varied and competing interests.
Here are some voluntary associations (Ember, 1981)
1. Military Associations- are non-commercial societies whose goals are to unite members
through their common experiences. Example, warriors who glorify the activities of war.
2. Secret Societies- characterized principally by limited membership and by secret rituals
generally to increase the supernatural powers of its members.
3. Regional Associations- these are clubs that bring together migrants from common
geographical backgrounds. Example, Filipinos in Saudi Arabia who tend to group among
themselves for general purposes.
Regional groupings actually gives rise to out-groups, particularly when in a foreign
milieu.

23
According to Their Nature, Form, Objectives and Interaction
1. Informal Group-is the most common type of grouping based on nature, form, objectives
and interaction. It occurs when two or more people interact with each other on issue
affecting their welfare. An informal group could be a product of an impulsive act but
later on grows into a partnership endeavour with the constant sharing of emotions and
sentiments of the members. The group ensures cooperation from each member because
of their sense of belongingness and self-confidence.
2. Formal Group- is an organization where the specific organizational structure is
constructed to achieve specific goals and objectives. This group has to fulfil a variety of
specialized social and personal needs that influence one’s personality. Regardless of its
nature, a formal organization has an established philosophy, mission, vision and goals as
its guiding premises in the discharge of its functions. It is in this concern that formal
organizations meet their fundamental needs and continue their collaborative efforts to
attain these aspirations in a highly complex, industrial and business society.
A formal organization plays an important role in social interaction because of the
following reasons:
a. It enables people to work harmoniously to achieve a common goal.
b. It defines the specific functions of each personnel in the organization.
c. It creates a level of authority as to the channelling of communication and follows the
proper protocol in communication.
Drill/Exercises
References

Online Resources

24
https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+society&sxsrf
q=images+of+society&oq=images+of+society&aqs=chrome..69i57j0i22i30l9.5185j
0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
sxsrf=ALeKk02AKcSzPB9I8gG5tgQ_my5WBsiREw:1622097077607&q=images+
of+groups&tbm=isch&chips=q:images
Module 7. Socialization (Week 16-17)
Learning Outcomes
 To define socialization
 Enumerate the agencies of socialization
 Describe the self
Indicative Content
 Definition
 Types of Socialization
 Agencies of socialization
Activity
Identify agencies in your community and describe how they influence your
personality at present.
Introduction
25
Socialization is a process that introduces people to social norms and customs. This
process helps individuals function well in society, and, in turn, helps society run smoothly.
Family members, teachers, religious leaders, and peers all play roles in a
person's socialization.
Discussion
Maciones (2002) defines socialization as a

lifelong social experiences by which individuals
develop human potentials and learn culture.
Individuals need social experiences to learn their
culture and survive. Socialization shapes an
individual’s self-image and is the foundation of
personality.
Anticipatory socialization is a process where

in members of a culture make themselves acquinted with the norms, values and behaviour
associated with specific social position before assuming a status, occupation and social
relationship. This type of socialization happens during adulthood and adolescence.
Anticipatory socialization is seen when heirs of rich and prominent families prepare to
assume their parents’ position, occupation, and social relationship.
The Self and Socialization

Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead, pioneers of the interactionist
approach, describes how individual develops and modifies the sense of self as a result of
social interaction.
The self is an individual person as the object of its own reflective consciousness. ...
The sense of having a self—or self-hood—should, however, not be confused with
subjectivity itself. Ostensibly, this sense is directed outward from the subject to refer inward,
back to its "self" (or itself).
The Social Self
George Herbert Mead (1863-931) developed the Theory of Behaviorism to explain

how social experiences creates individual personality (as cited by Maciones). His model is
related to John B. Watson’s Behaviorism. Both recognized the environment as a powerful

26
influencing factor in shaping a person’s personality. The difference is that Watson dwell on
inward behavior while Mead focused on outward behaviour.
Mead’s central concept is the self, the part of an individual’s personality composed
of self-awareness and self- image. He saw the self as the product of social experiences. It is
not part of the body and does not exist at birth. He rejected Freud’s assertion that personality
is guided by biological drives. Likewise, he negates Piaget’s claim of biological maturation.
Mead also stressed that social experience is the exchange of symbols. Only human
beings communicate by words or signals to create meaning, animals do not. Human beings
find meanings in action and respond according to their purpose or intention.
People emphatize using symbols. His way, they can anticipate how others will react
to a given situation. Social interaction then, according to Mead, is taking raking the role of
the other, which involves seeing the self as others see it.
Mead’s next point is that by taking the role of the other, we become self-aware. The
self then has two parts: as subject, called I which is the active side, and as object, called Me.
All experiences have both components of the self and then the action is continued based on
how others respond.
Development of the Self
Infants take the role of the other initiation without understanding the underlying
intentions, so they have no self. As they learn to use language and other symbols, the self
emerges through play which involves taking on the roles of significant others. Playing the
role of adults helps young children imagine the world from the adults’ points of view.
Gradually, children move from initiation, simple play to games to complex games
involving others in team sports. Mead called this generalized other to refer to widespread
cultural norms and values we use as references in evaluating ourselves.
As life goes on, the self continues to change along the social experiences. However,
no matter how much events and circumstances affect people, they remain creative beings.
Thus, Mead concluded, people play a key role in their own socialization.
Looking Glass Self
Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) expounded on the looking glass self- a

development of the self through the use of language. An individual acquire a social self
when he/she has already developed the ability to take hold of the attitudes and roles of others
and see how others see him/her.
The process of developing a self- concept or self –identity has three phases: (1) our
imagination on how we present ourselves to others, (2) our imagination of how we are
evaluated by others, and (3) our own feelings about ourselves as we are seen by others.

27
The looking glass –self refers to the self-image based on how people think others see
them. This means that people can see themselves according to how others see them.
Example, if they think others see them as bright and clever, they will think the same way of
themselves-that they are bright and clever.
Theories of Socialization
1. Interpersonal Theory- developed by Harry Stack Sullivan who believes that
people develop their personality through their interpersonal relationships.
2. Object Relations Theory- by Melanie Klein who assumed that the mother-child
relationship during the first four or five
months is the most critical time for
personality development. He also believed
that an important part of any relationship is
the internal psychic representations of
early significant objects, such as mother’s
breast or the father’s penis. Infants absorb
these psychic representations into their own
psychic structure and then project them into
an external object-the other person. These
internal pictures are not accurate
representations of the other person but are remnants of earlier interpersonal
experiences.
Agencies of Socialization
1. Family- it is the most influential agent of socialization and plays a pivotal role in
shaping the personality of children.
It is in the family where parents who are the primary educators of children are
entrusted the noble task of educating their children in values, in developing in them
the virtues or habits of excellence, in forming their correct and true conscience so
that children will become not only productive members of the society, but also
individuals imbued with the virtues of righteous living worthy to be called true
children of God. Parents must teach their children how to love, how to be morally
good with clear understanding of their true human nature, how to understand the
meaning of freedom or independence along with personal integrity. They can do this
delicate task of personality formation by inculcating values and role modelling.
2. The School- is the second home of children where teachers, by principles of loco
parentis, are their second parents. Schooling broadens the children’s social milieu
and expands their interactions with others. In school, they learn to adjust with people
of different personality traits, and learn the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes
expected of them and will prepare them for life ahead. Though, family is an
imperfect society, the school is there to reinforce what is missing in the family.
28
3. The Church/Religion-church is a social institution entrusted with the task of

teaching morality to individuals and group. In church, individuals reach out to
others and learn their obligations toward self, family, church, society and God.
Social philosophers recognized the church as the conscience formators of people.
In democratic society like the Philippines, there is freedom of religion.
Ecumenism is encouraged, that is, different religions strongly encouraged to be
friendly and tolerant with one another for they share the same task of directing
people towards God and others in the society.
Religion refers to a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature and purpose of the
universe.
4. Government/Politics- government and politics exist in all human organizations

groups or societies, but in form, both have different dimensions. Politics refer to the
processes in the society; the way people manage their affairs and activities in society.
On the other hand, government is the organization through which the state expresses
enforces its will. A government exists for the good of its constituents. Its role is to
protect its people from harm, ensure safety and security, as well as promote their
economic, cultural, moral and social well-being.
5. Mass Media- whether print or broadcast, mass media plays an important role in
the socialization process. Maciones defined mass media as an impersonal
communication aimed at a vast audience. The term media comes from the Latin
word middle, suggesting that media serves to link or connect people of different
races and religious affiliations. Mass media means technology that is intended to
reach a mass audience. It is the primary means of communication used to reach the
vast majority of the general public. The most common platforms for mass media are
newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet.
6. Peer Group-is a social group whose members have common interests, social
position and age. The peer group has a unique understanding of how to behave and
trying to escape direct supervision from adults. Peer pressure exists such that a child
or a teenager must conform his or her behaviour with the behaviour of his or her
peers in order to belong and be accepted in the peer group. Parental guidance is still
encouraged for children and youngsters who belong to a peer group to serve as a
check and balance of the powerful influence the group may have.
Peer group arises from the individual’s need to belong and recognized. Vigor
is built into man’s nature as a social being; hence, the common saying, “no man is an
island” and “no man can stand alone.” To avoid negative influences on its members,
the peer group needs adult guidance to direct its members’ potentials and activities
toward wholesome endeavors.
7. Health Sector- “Health is wealth” maybe clichéd, but it is true nonetheless

Health affects the way a person behaves and interacts with others. That is why health sector
providing health services also affects the socialization process of the individual.
8. Community Organization-this refers to government organizations GOs), non-

government organizations (NGOs), and People’s Organizations (POs). people in the
community organize themselves to undertake developmental activities for the common good.

29
They aspire for development, but present conditions reveal that genuine or authentic
development is still to be achieved.
Drill/Exercises
References

Online Resources
q=what+is+socialization&oq=what+is+socialization&aqs=chrome..69i57j0l9.10108j1j15&s
ourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
https://www.google.com/search?q=all+about+socialization
https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+self&oq=what+is+self
https://www.google.com/search?q=mass+media&oq=mass+&aqs

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1

GEE 102-Gender and Society

Module 1. Gender (Week 2)

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Factors that Influences on Gender

1. Biological Factors-it involves pubertal change and sexuality and an examination

3. Parental Influences-parents influence their children’s gender development by their

4. Peers-also play a vital role in modelling and responding to gender behavior. In

5. Schools- the pressure to achieve and to excel in academics is more likely to be

6. Media-social researchers assumed that mass media carry sexist messages.

7. Cognitive Influences-cognitive influences on gender stress that children organize

Textbook in General Sociology, Omas R.,et. al.

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Module 2. Gender Stereotypes, Similarities and

o To determine similarities and differences of gender

Gender Similarities Differences

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

An example of a masculine stereotype is growing facial hair while a female

Textbook in General Sociology, Omas R.,et. al.

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Module 3. Gender Roles (Week 4)

 To identify gender roles in the society.

Roles Male Female

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Textbook in General Sociology, Omas R.,et. al.

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Module 4. Gender Issues (Week 5)

 To identify different gender issues in the society.

A collection of research studies with a real-world applications, designed to help

What is Sexual harassment?

Sexual harassment occurs when an individual is unable to perform a task due to

Forms of Sexual Harassment

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

"Women's progress in the workforce over the past 10

Women's employment is primarily concentrated in a narrow range of sectors

Gender discrimination remains responsible for sizable

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Equal work Opportunities and Promotions

What Is Equal Employment Opportunity?

Equal employment opportunity is a government policy that requires that employers do

The gender mainstreaming strategy aims to change an organisation’s orientation and

Sexist Advertising and Music

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Battering, child abuse, verbal abuse, abuse of the elderly

Domestic violence is a global problem and is harsher in

of self-esteem, making them prone to repeated abuse. Some are

Filipino society condemn such violence which manifested in

An abusive family is a dangerous place not only for women but

Feminist movements put increased pressure on the government to treat domestic

Maternal employment is a fact of modernity and a positive response to social change

With the increasing population of working mothers simultaneous improvements in

Pregnant adolescents come from different ethnic groups and from

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Textbook in General Sociology, Omas R.,et. al.

.Source: Preventing Sexual Harassment (BNA Communications, Inc.) SDC IP .73

Bachelor in Elementary Education/Bachelor of Secondary Education

Module 6. The Concept of Society & It’s Characteristics

 To determine different concepts of society.