Chapter 5 Limit Points

Advanced Calculus I
Accumulation Points
Andhee Jacobe
amjacobe1@up.edu.ph
Mathematics and Natural Sciences Department

College of Computing
Pangasinan State University - Urdaneta City
Second Semester, A.Y. 2021-2022

Overview
Accumulation Points: Definition and Examples
Accumulation Points and Closure
Neighborhoods
Connectedness
Andhee Jacobe Advanced Calculus I 2nd Semester 2021-22 2 / 10

Definition (Accumulation Point)

Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X . If for a point x ∈ X , every open set O 3 x
contains a different point of A, then x is called an accumulation point of A.
Remarks
1 Accumulation points are also called limit or cluster points.
2 The set A concerned need not be an open set. It could be any subset of X .
3 The point concerned need not be in A.
4 To show one is not an accumulation point, one simply needs to find an open set which
does not contain another element of A.
Example
Consider X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and its topology τ = {X , φ, {1}, {3, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4, 5}}.
Consider A = {1, 2, 3}. Then 2, 4, 5 are accumulation points of A.

Example
Let (X , τ ) be a discrete space. Then any subset of X has no accumulation point.
Example
Consider the Euclidean topology on R. If we set A = [a, b) where a, b ∈ R, then any y ∈ [a, b)
is an accumulation point of A.
Inquiry
Is b an accumulation point in the scenario above?
Example
Let (X , τ ) be the trivial topology with |X | ≥ 2. Any point in X is an accumulation point for
any subset of X .
Inquiry
What happens above if |X | = 1?
Theorem
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X . Then A is closed with respect to τ if and only if
A contains all of its accumulation points.
Example
In the Euclidean topology on R, the set [a, b) is not closed.
Example
In the Euclidean topology on R, the set [a, b] is closed.
Example
In the Euclidean topology on R, the set [a, ∞) is closed.
Inquiry
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ τ . Let A0 be set of all limit points of A.
Is A ∪ A0 closed?
Definition (Closure)
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ τ . Let A0 be set of all limit points of A. Then
A ∪ A0 = A is called the closure of A.
Example
Consider X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and its topology τ = {X , φ, {1}, {3, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4, 5}}.
Then {1} = {1}, {2, 3} = {2, 3, 4, 5}, {1, 5} = {1, 2, 5}.
Example
In the Euclidean topology on R, Q = R.
Inquiry
Suppose (X , τ ) is a topological space, A ⊆ X . Is A the intersection of all closed sets
containing A?

Remarks
1 A is the smallest closed set containing A.
2 If A = X , then A is called everywhere dense.
Theorem
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X . Then A is everywhere dense if and only if all
open sets in (X , τ ) has a non-empty intersection with A.

Neighborhoods
Definition (Neighborhood)
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space, N ⊆ X , and x ∈ N. N is referred to as a neighborhood of
x if there exists O ∈ τ such that x ∈ O ⊆ N.
Example
In the Euclidean topology on R
1 the point 1 has [0, 2] as a neighborhood.
2 [0, 2] is not a neighborhood for both 0 and 2.
3 R is a neighborhood for any point.
Example
For any topological space, if O ∈ τ , then O is a neighborhood for any x ∈ O.
Example
If N is a neighborhood of x, then S ⊇ N is also a neighborhood of x.
Neighborhoods
Theorem
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X . Then x ∈ X is an accumulation point of A if
and only if every neighborhood of x contains another element of A.
Corollary
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X . Then A is closed if and only if for each
x ∈ X \ A, there exists a neighborhood N of x such that N ⊆ X \ A.
Corollary
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and O ⊆ X . Then O ∈ τ if and only if for each x ∈ O, there
exists a neighborhood N of x such that N ⊆ O.
Corollary
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space and O ⊆ X .Then O ∈ τ if and only if for each x ∈ O there
exists T ∈ τ such that x ∈ T ⊆ O.

Connectedness
Theorem
Let (R, E ) be the Euclidean topological space. Let S ⊆ R is bounded above with sup S = p. If
S is closed, then p ∈ S.
Theorem
Under the Euclidean topology on R, if T ⊆ R is clopen, then either T = R or T = φ.
Definition (Connectedness)
Let (X , τ ) be a topological space. If X and φ are the only clopen sets, then X is said to be
connected.
Example
Any discrete space is not connected.
Example
Any indiscrete space is connected.

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Advanced Calculus I

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Department

Second Semester, A.Y. 2021-2022

Accumulation Points: Definition and Examples

Accumulation Points and Closure

Andhee Jacobe Advanced Calculus I 2nd Semester 2021-22 2 / 10

Definition (Accumulation Point)

Andhee Jacobe Advanced Calculus I 2nd Semester 2021-22 3 / 10

Andhee Jacobe Advanced Calculus I 2nd Semester 2021-22 6 / 10

Andhee Jacobe Advanced Calculus I 2nd Semester 2021-22 7 / 10

Andhee Jacobe Advanced Calculus I 2nd Semester 2021-22 9 / 10

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