AP 2 Module 4

Module 4A: Fire Optics
Module- 4 A
Fibre Optics
Lecture: 19
Learning objective: Learners will be able to understand the principle on which optical fibre
works, parts of optical fibre and also will be able to explain and distinguish different modes of
fibre
4.1 Motivation
Fibre optics is the communication technology that works by sending signals down hair like
thin strands of glass fibres or plastic fibres. It is a medium for carrying information from one
point to another in the form of light. Optical fibre systems have many advantages over metal
based communication system. Optical fibres have more bandwidth which enables much more
data transfer compared to copper cables. Optical Fibres are very lighter and thinner thus
transferring tremendous data through short space and the data transfer with this
communication system is Digital Data transfer. These and many more such advantages make
fibre optic communication technology more suitable in the current era.
4.2 Syllabus
Sr. Contents Duration Self
No Study
1. Introduction, total internal reflection, basic construction, 1 Lecture 2 hours

optical fibre as light guide and types of optical fibre;
2. Numerical Aperture and maximum angle of acceptance, 1 Lecture 2 hours
Numerical Aperture for graded index fibre;
3. V-number, Maximum number of possible orders; Losses 1 Lecture 2 hours
in optical fibre
4. Merits of optical fibre; Applications. 1 Lecture 2 hours
4.3 Weight age: 10-15 marks

4.4 Prerequisite
Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fiber on the basis of the
principal of total internal reflection. All the waves having angle of incidence more than
critical angle will be trapped within the fiber due to total internal reflection.
4.5 Learning Objectives –
1. The learners will be able to revise total internal reflection
2. The learners will be able to understand and differentiate types of optical fibre
3. The learners will be able to derive Numerical Aperture for step index and graded index
fibre.
4. The learners will be able to solve numericals based on numerical aperture and V number.
5. The learners will be able to explain applications and losses in optical fibre.
4.6 Key Notation
V - V number (Normalized frequency)
Nm - Number of modes available for light propagation through optical fibre
4.7 Key Definitions
Optical Fibre: Glass or plastic threads designed to propagate light. Their diameters vary from
100 micron to 1000micron depending on the type of fibre.
Numerical Aperture: Measure of amount of light that can be accepted by fibre.
Amplitude: The maximum value of a wave, measured from its equilibrium.
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Applied Physics Sem - II
Aperture: A small opening through which the electromagnetic radiation pass.

Attenuation: The decrease in radiation energy (power) as a beam passes through an
absorbing or scattering medium.
Beam Diameter: Defined as the diameter of a circular beam at a certain point where the
intensity drop to a fraction of its maximum value. The common definitions are 1/e (0.368) and
1/e2 (0.135) of the maximum value.
Beam Divergence: Angle of beam spread, measured in (milli) radians. Can be approximated
for small angle by the ratio of the beam diameter to the distance from the laser aperture.
4.8 Important Formula
1. NA= Numerical Aperture= sinθ= n12 − n22
n1 2Λ
n1 − n2
NA= where∆ =
n1
2Πa
2. V= n12 − n2 2
λ
a= radius of core
3. Maximum number of modes for SI fibre is
Nm ≅ V 2 / 2
For Graded fibre
V2
Nm ≅
4
Where V is normalized frequency.
4. Cut off wavelength of a fibre
λV
λc =
2.405
4.9 Course Content -

Introduction -
4.9.1 Principles of optical fibers (Based on 2nd chapter, 1st edition, page 697)
Light normally goes in straight lines, but optical fibers can guide it around corners. Light
follows inverse square law with respect to distance because of absorption of light in the
medium. To overcome this difficulty in the transmission of light to far off places
without appreciable attenuation and without appreciable divergence of beam of light a
new technique is developed. In this new technique a beam or pulse of light is made to
travel through a glass rod, or glass fibers not by simple transmission mode but by
using the phenomenon of total internal reflection When light enters one end of the
fiber, it undergoes successive total internal reflections from side walls and travels from
one end to the other end of the fiber which is known as fiber optics.
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Basic Parts of a fibre

Core : Core is a single le solid dielectric cylinder of small radius and large refractive index
n1. Itt is the innermost part of the optical fibre
fibre. The core of the optical fibre
re is the most dense
medium of the fibre.
Cladding (as a rarer medium)

The core is surrounded by a solid dielectric cladding having a refractive index n2 < n1 .
Cladding reduces the scattering losses due to dielectric discontinuities at the core cladding
boundary. It provides the mechanical strength to the fibre. The cladding is made up of
either glass or plastic materials.
Buffer/ Jacket/Sheath -
Most fibres are encapsulated in plastic covering. The encapsulating material is called buffer
coating or sheath. The buffer adds further mechanical strength to th
the fibre.. This also avoids
the random microscopic or sharp bends when the fibres are incorporated
corporated into cables or
when supported in some other structures.
4.9.2. Modes of propagation (Based
Based on 2nd chapter, 1st edition, page 702)
Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fiber.
All the waves having angle of incidence greater than critical angle will be trapped
within the fiber due to total internal reflection. But all such rays which satisfy the
condition of total internal reflection are not allowed to propagate through fiber. Only certain
ray directions are permissible through the fibre known as modes of the fiber.
Modes can be visualized as the possible number of paths path of light in an optical fiber. The
paths are all zigzag path except the axial direction. Accordingly, light rays traveling
through a fiber are classified as axial rays and nonaxial rays. (meridonial and skew mode)
Meridonial Mode – The propagation of light radiation inside the fibre where it takes tthe
zigzag path, also crossing the fibre axis as shown in figure below is meridonial mode.
Skew Mode - The propagation of light radiation inside the fibre where it takes the zigzag path
but does not cross the fibre axis at all is known as skew mode.
As the rays get repeatedly reflected from the walls of the fiber, phase shift occurs.
Consequently, the waves traveling along certain zigzag path will be in phase and
intensified
sified while the waves coursing along certain other paths will be out of phase
and diminish due to destructive interference. The zigzag path along which the waves
are in phase inside its fiber and constitute constructive interference are are the only paths
known modes available for data transfer
transfer.
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4.9.3 Types of optical fibres

There are two types of optical fibres on the basis of number of modes available in the fibre
1. Single mode fibre (SMF) - It has a smaller core diameter and can support only one
mode of propagation, generally axial mode.
2. Multimode fibre (MMF) - It has a larger core diameter and supports a large number of
modes.
Optical fibres are further distinguished on the basis of refractive index – profile as either
a step index (SI) fibre or graded index GRIN fibre .
Single mode fibre is usually a step index type and multimode fibre is step index or graded
index type.
Single mode step index fibre Multimode step index fibre Multimode graded index fibre
A single mode step index A multimode step index A graded index fibre is a
fibre has a very fine thin fibre is very much similar to multimode fibre with a core
core of uniform refractive the single mode step index consisting of concentric
index of a higher value fibre except that its core is layers of different refractive
which is surrounded by a of bigger diameter. indices. Since it supports many
cladding of lower refractive modes it exists as multimode
index. graded index fibre.
The refractive index changes The refractive index changes The refractive index of the
abruptly at the core cladding abruptly at the core cladding core decreases with distance
boundary because of which it boundary. from the fibre axis. It has
is known as step index fibre. high value at the center and
falls off with increasing
radial distance from the axis.
A typical SMF has a core A typical MMF fibre has a The fibre has a core
diameter of 4 µ m. core diameter of 100 µ m. diameter of 100 µ m.
Light travels in SMF along a Light follows zigzag path The most common refractive
single path i.e. along the inside the fibre. Many such index profile for a graded-
axis obviously it is zero zigzag paths of propagation index fiber is very nearly
order mode that is are permitted in a MMF. parabolic. The paraboli profile
supported by a SMF. results in continual refocusing
of the rays in the core, and
minimizes modal dispersion.
A SMF is characterized by a The NA of a MMF is larger
very small value of ∆ . It is as core diameter of the fibre The NA is bigger due to large
of the order of .002. is larger, it is of the order acceptance angle
of .3.
Due to irregularities at the core Attenuation is high The parabolic path supported
cladding interface the due to variation in refractive
attenuation is more in step index in core, the attenuation
index fibre is less as the path does not
change abruptly.
Bandwidth is of the order of Bandwidth ranges from200 to Bandwidth ranges from200 to
50MHz. 600MHz. 600MHz.
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Let’s check Take away from this Lecture

1. In single mode fibre the diameter of core is nearly equal to
a) 10 µm b) 100 µm
c) 50 µm d) 125 µm
2. The part of the optical fibre which protects the data is

a) core c) sheath
b) cladding d) All of the above
3. Total internal reflection

ction occurs only when the angle of incidence is
a) Independent of critical angle c) Lower than critical angle
b) Equal to critical angle d) Greater than critical angle
4. In graded index optical fibre, the refractive index of core is
a) non uniform
b) increases towards the axis of the core
c) same at core cladding interface
d) all of these
5. Flexible bundles of optical fibers can be used
a) To examine the inside of the stomach without surgery.
b) to examine the inside of the colon without surgery.
c). to illuminate hard-to-reach
reach machinery.
d) None of the above
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e) All of the above

Exercise -
1. Define the terms ( Dec 2014)
a. Total internal reflection
b. Numerical aperture
c. Acceptance angle
2. What is the advantage of graded index fibre over step index fibre?
3. Explain with diagram, step index and graded index fibre. What is multimode optical fibre?
Obtain an expression for the numerical aperture of Step Index fibre.
Questions / Problems for practice -
1. Explain the signal transmission in different types of optical fibres and significance of cladding.
2. Differentiate between step index fibre and graded index fibre.
3. Explain refractive index profile of step index and graded index fibre (June 2011)
Learning From the topic-: Learners are able to understand the principle on which optical fibre
works, parts of optical fibre and also will be able to explain and distinguish different modes of
fibre
Lecture: 20
Learning objective: Learners will be able to define and derive numerical aperture of Step
Index and Graded Index Fibre. Also the learners will be able to define and understand
Acceptance angle.
4.9.4 Numerical Aperture of Step Index Fibre (Based on 2nd, chapter 24, 1st edition, page 699)
(May 2007, Dec 2008)
With the assumption of meridional launching of light into an optical fiber, let us consider
the figure below. The figure shows a cross-section of a core of refractive index n1 and a
cladding of refractive index n2 that surrounds the core glass. An incident ray AO is incident
from medium1 at the tip of the fiber making an angle α with the axis of the fiber, which is the
acceptance angle of the fibre. The refracted ray for this incident ray in the core then is incident
at the core-cladding interface at the critical angle θc of the core with respect to the cladding.
The angle of refraction for critical angle of incidence is 900 and the refracted ray thus grazes
along the core-cladding boundary along BC as shown in the figure. According Snell’s laws,
the incident and the refracted rays lie in the same meridional plane of the paper in this case.
Applying Snell’s law at the medium1-core interface we get:
n sinα = n1sinθ (3.1)
As
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From the figure it is clear that, θ = (Π/2 – θc) and so substituting this in equation (3.1), we
get:
n sinα = n1sinθ

sinα = sin(Π/2 – θc)

sinα = cos θc (3.3)
From the basic trigonometric ratios,
cos θc = 1− sin2 θC
Applying Snell’s law at the core-cladding interface we get:

= (3.4)
n22
Hence, cos θc = 1−
n12
Substituting equation (3.4) in equation (3.2) we get:
Sinα =
(n
2
1 − n22 ) (3.5)
n
Since the initial medium 1 from which the light is launched is air most of the times, n = 1. The
angle α is indicative of light accepting capability of the optical fiber. Greater the value of α,
more is the light accepted by the optical fiber. In other words, the optical fiber acts as some
kind of aperture that accepts only some amount of the total light energy incident on it. The
light accepting efficiency of this aperture is thus indicated by sin α and hence this quantity is
called as the numerical aperture (N.A.) of the optical fiber. Thus for an optical fiber in air, with
core refractive index n1 and cladding refractive index n2 and having an acceptance angle of α
is given by
(n12 − n22 )
sinα =
n
Numerical Aperture is one of the most fundamental quantities of an optical fiber. It indicates
the light collecting efficiency of an optical fiber. More the value of N.A. better is the fiber. For
greater values of N.A. the difference on the right hand side of equation 3.5 has to be
maximized. For maximizing the difference, either the refractive index of the core (n1) has to be
increased or the refractive index of the cladding (n2) has to be reduced. Since the core used is
always glass, the value of its refractive index n1 is thus fixed (approximately 1.5). The only
option thus available with us is to reduce the value of n2.
Numerical aperture alternate definition
The numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.
∴ NA = sin i m
NA = n12 − n2 2
n12 − n2 2 = ( n1 + n2 ) ( n1 − n2 )
 n +n   n −n 
=  1 2   1 2  . 2 n1
 2   n1 
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Applied Physics
n1 + n2
approximate ≈ n1
2
∴ ( n12 − n2 2 ) = 2 n12 ∆
 n −n 
∴ NA = n1 2 ∆ → ∆= 1 2
 n2 
∆ has to be +ve as n1 > n2 . In order to guide light rays effectively through a fibre
∆<<1. Typically ∆ is of the order of 0.01.
Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fiber. It is a measure
of the amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber. It’s value ranges from 0.13 to
0.50.
A large NA implies that a fiber will accept large amount of light from the source.
Acceptance angle (Based on 2nd, chapter 24, 1st edition, page 699)
We know that the maximum angle of incidence θ i (which is also called imax ) the total
internal reflection can occur is
sin im = n12 − n2 2
im = sin −1 n12 − n2 2 .
The angle im is called the acceptance angle of the fiber. Acceptance angle may be defined
as the maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and
propagate down the fiber.
Numerical aperture for Graded Index Fibre -
It is well known that cylindrical fibres with three types of radial refractive index variation
[discontinuous (step) with single mode and multimode propagation, and continuous
(gradient) with multimode propagation] are all capable of transmitting or guiding
electromagnetic energy. The transmission loss has been remarkably improved by the use of
silica fibre.
In a graded-index fiber the refractive index of the core changes as a function of the core
radius r as
nc2(r) = n02(r) [1- 2∆(r/a)α]
where a and no are the radius and refractive index at the center of the core, respectively.
Graded-index fibers are found in most applications for telecommunications because this
profile reduces the temporal broadening of a light pulse propagating through the fiber. In
graded-index fibers the total internal reflection is replaced by periodic refocusing.
The light is incident on one end of the graded index fiber, it will be guided through the
fibre, provided the semi angle of the core is less than im. This angle is a measure of the
light gathering power of the fiber and as such one defines the NA of the graded index
fiber by the following equation .
N. A. = √ n12(r) - n22
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1. Numerical Aperture is given by
(a) Sine of critical angle (b) Cos of acceptance angle (c) Sine of acceptance angle
(d) Acceptor cone
2. Numerical Aperture depends upon
(a) Material of core (b) Light source (c) Refractive indices of source and cladding
(d) Length of optical fibre cable
3. In an optical fiber, the concept of Numerical aperture is applicable in describing the
ability of
(a) Light Collection (b) Light Scattering (c) Light Dispersion (d) Light Polarization
4. Multimode step index fibers have a bandwidth of
a) 2 to 30 MHz km c) 10 to 40 MHz km
b) 6 to 50 MHz km d) 8 to 40 MHz km
5). Multimode step index fiber has
a) Large core diameter & large numerical aperture
b) Large core diameter and small numerical aperture
c) Small core diameter and large numerical aperture
d) Small core diameter & small numerical aperture
Solved Problem
1. Calculate the numerical aperture of a fibre with core index n1 = 1.65 and cladding index, n2 =
1.53
Solution: Given
n1= 1.65
n2 = 1.53
n12 − n2 2
2 2
NA = = 1.65 − 1.53
= 0.617
Exercise-
1. Calculate the numerical aperture of a fibre with core index n1 = 1.61 and cladding indexn2 =
1.55
2. Calculate the numerical aperture of a fibre with core index n1 = 1.65 and cladding index n2
= 1.53.
3. Calculate the acceptance angle for an optical fibre whose core R.I. is 2.48 and cladding R.I. is
1.39.
4. Calculate the numerical aperture of a fibre with core index n1=1.61 and cladding index
n2=1.53. (November 2013)
Questions/Problems from the topic –
1. Calculate the numerical aperture and hence the acceptance angle for an optical fibre given
that refractive indices of the core and the cladding are1.45 and 1.40 respectively. (May
2009,May 2008, Dec 2012)
2. Derive an expression for numerical aperture of step index optical fiber . What are the
advantages of using an optical fiber. ( May 2015)
3. An optical fibre has a numerical aperture of 0.20 and a refractive index of cladding is 1.59.
Determine the acceptance angle for the fibre in water which has a refractive index of
1.33.(Dec 2011, May 2010, June 2011, June 2017)
4. Differentiate between SI Fibre and GRIN fibre. Derive the expression for numerical aperture
for Step Index Fibre. ( May 2014, June 2017)
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Applied Physics
5. Derive the expression for numerical aperture for Step Index Fibre. The N A an optical fibre is
0.5. Given that refractive index of core is 1.54 and find refractive index of cladding. ( Dec
2014
6. Define1. Numerical aperature, 2. Total internal reflection, 3. Acceptance angle
Learning from the topic –: Learners are able to define and derive numerical aperture of Step Index
and Graded Index Fibre. Also the learners will be able to define and understand Acceptance angle.
Lecture: 21
Learning Objective –: The learners will be able to explain various losses in optical fibres. The
learners will be able to explain and solve the numerical based on V-number and the maximum
number of modes Nm. Also learners will be able to list some materials used in manufacturing
optical fibres.
4.9.6. Losses in Optical Fibre -

Fiber optic transmission has various advantages over other transmission methods like copper
or radio transmission. Optical fibre which is lighter, smaller and more flexible than copper can
transmit signals with faster speed over longer distance. However, many factors can influence
the performance of optical fiber. When a beam of light carrying signals travels through the
core of optical fiber, the strength of the light will become lower. Thus, the signal strength
becomes weaker. This loss of light power is generally called losses in optical fiber. These
losses in optical fibre are described in dB. The losses in optical fibre can be attributed to
following factors –
1. Attenuation
2. Dispersion
Attenuation- Attenuation can be Intrinsic or extrinsic. Attenuation results in decrease in
amplitude of the light signal.
1. Intrinsic Attenuation - Internal reasons of optical fiber loss caused by the optical fiber
itself, is usually called intrinsic attenuation. There are two main causes of intrinsic
attenuation. One is light absorption and the other one is scattering.
a) Light absorption is a major cause of fiber optic loss during optical transmission. The light
is absorbed in the fiber by the materials of optical fiber. Light absorption is also known as
material absorption. Actually the light is absorbed and transferred into other forms of
energy like heat. The material of optical fibre absorbs selective wavelengths of radiation. It
is impossible to manufacture materials that are total pure. Thus, fiber optic manufacturers
choose to dope germanium and other materials with pure silica to optimize the fiber optic
core performance
b) Scattering is another major cause for fiber optic loss. It refers to the scattering of light
caused by molecular level irregularities in the glass structure. When the scattering
happens, the light energy is scattered in all direction. To reduce fiber optic loss caused by
scattering, the imperfections of the fiber optic core should be removed, and the fiber optic
coating and extrusion should be carefully controlled.
2. External Attenuation - Extrinsic attenuation in optical fibre is also very important, which
is usually caused by improper handling of optical fiber and also because of bending losses.
Bending loss is one of the common problems that can be caused by improper fiber optic
handling or by bending loss. There are two basic types. One is micro bending, and the other
one is macro bending (shown in the picture below). Macro bending refers to a large bend in
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the fiber (with more than a 2 mm radius). To reduce fiber optic loss, the following causes of
bend loss should be noted:
• Fiber core deviate from the axis;
• Defects of manufacturing;
• Mechanical constraints during the fiber laying process;
• Environmental variations like the change of temperature, humidity or pressure.
Dispersion (Based on 2nd, chapter 24, ist edition, page 714)

A light pulse launched into a fibre shows decrease in its amplitude in the fibre. It also spreads
during its travel. The pulse received at the output is wider than input pulse as shown in the
figure. It means that the pulse becomes distorted as it is propagated through the fibre. Such a
distortion arises due to dispersion ef
effects.
fects. Dispersion is typically measured in nano seconds
per kilometer (ns/Km).
The three mechanisms which contribute to the dispersion of the light in a fibre. They are
a) Material dispersion
b) Wave guide dispersion
c) Inter modal dispersion
(a) Material Dispersion (b) Wave Guide dispersion (c) Intermodal dispersion
Light waves of different Wave guide dispersion arises A ray of light launched into a
wavelengths travel at from the guiding properties fibre follows different zigzag
different speeds in a of the fibre. The effective paths. When numerous
medium. The short refractive index for any modes are propagating in a
wavelength waves arises mode varies with fibre, they travel with
travel slower than long wavelength
wavelength, which causes different net velocities with
wavelength waves. the pulse spreading just like respect
spect to fibre axis. Parts of
Consequently narrow pulses the variation in refractive the waveve arrive at the output
of light tend to broaden as index does. This is known as before other parts leading to
they travel down the optical waveguide dispersion. the spread of the input pulse.
fibre. This is known as This is known as intermodal
material dispersion. dispersion.
The material dispersion is The amount of waveguide A light pulse from an ideal
given by the equation. disperssion is governed by monochromatic source
λ (dλ ) d n 2 an equation similar to above (∆λ=0) would still exhibit
Dm = L 2 equation of material spreading.
c dλ dispersion, with the material
Where, λ=the peak
refractive index being
wavelength
replaced by the effective
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Applied Physics
∆λ= the spectral width index.

L= length of the core
N= refractive index of the
core.
Material and waveguide All the three pulse spreading All the three pulse spreading
dispersions are more exists in MMF exists in MMF
prominent in SMF.
Wavelength dependence of the optical losses in a typical fiber
Ways to Reduce Losses in Optical Fiber -

1. Make sure to use the high-quality cables with all cables having same properties.
2. Connectors must be of high quality such that the insertion loss should be lower than 0.3dB
and the additional loss should be lower than 0.2dB.
3. Try to minimize the number of joints in the network.
4. To prevent the light leakage, the connecting joints must have excellent patch and closed
coupling.
5. The connectors must be kept clean and leakage free all the time.
4.9.7 FIBRE OPTIC MATERIALS (Based on 2nd, chapter 24,1st edition, page 706)
Any material that is used for the synthesis of an optical fibre must satisfy some important
qualities such as the following:
(i) The material must be transparent at a particular optical wavelength in order to guide
optical pulses along the fibre.
(ii) It should be possible to make thin, flexible and long fibres from the material.
(iii) It should be physically possible to produce core and cladding having a slight differences
in refractive indices by doping some impurities.
Among the various materials investigated for preparation of optical fibres, glass and plastics
seem to be highly competitive satisfying many requirements.
For producing glass optical fibres, silica is preferred as the basic material whose refractive
index is 1.458 (at 850nm). Using suitable dopants of fluorine or the other oxides such as B2O3,
GeO2 and P2O5, core materials with higher refractive indices can be produced. Silica is used
as the cladding for the core materials.
Thus, the common optical fibres made of glass materials are:
(i) P2O5-SiO2 core and SiO2 cladding
(ii) GeO2-SiO2 core and SiO2cladding.etc
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4.9.8 V-NUMBER (Based on 1ST, chapter 24, 1st edition, page704)

An optical fibre is characterized by an important parameter, V Number also known as
Normalized frequency of the fibre. It is given by the relation
2Πa
V= n12 − n2 2
λ
Where a is the radius of the core and λ is the free space wavelength.
We can also write
2Π a
V = ( NA)
λ
2Π A
andV = n1 2 ∆
λ
The maximum number of modes Nm for an SI fibre is
Nm ≅ V 2 / 2
For V<2.405, the fibre can support only one mode and is a SMF, But if V>2.405, the fibre can
support many modes simultaneously.
The wavelength corresponding to the value of V=2.405 is known as cut off wavelength λc of
the fibre.
V2
For graded fibre N m ≅
4
Solved Problems -
1. Consider a multimode step index fibre with n1= 1.53 and n2=1.50 and λ= 1µm. If the core
radius =50 µm then calculate the normalized frequency of fibre (V) and the number of guided
mode.
Solution:
2∏a
V= ( NA)
λ
= 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 10−6 × 1.532 − 1.502
= 94.72
= normalized frequency.
Total number of guided mode = M
V2
=
2
= 4486
3. Consider a multimode step index fibre with n1= 1.53 and n2=1.50 and λ= 1µm. If the core
radius =50 µm then calculate the normalized frequency of fibre (V) and the number of
guided mode.
Solution:
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Applied Physics
2∏a
V= ( NA)
λ
= 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 10−6 × 1.532 − 1.502
= 94.72
= normalized frequency.
Total number of guided mode = M
V2
=
2
= 4486
4. Relative R.I of a fibre is 0.055, when core R.I. is 1.48. Find N.A, cladding R.I, acceptance angle,
normalized frequency(V) and the number of guided modes, when wavelength of light
propagated is 1µm and radius of the core is 50µm. (Dec 2010)
Solution:
n1 − n2
∆≈ = 0.055
n1
n1 = 1.48
1.48 − n2
0.055 = = n2 = 1.398
1.48
Relative R.I= (i ) N . A = n1 2∆ = 0.49
(ii )n2 = 1.398
(iii )α = sin −1 ( NA) = 29.34°
2π a ( NA)
(iv)V = = 153.86
λ
2
(v) N = V / 2 = 11836

1. Pulse distortion is more in
(a) Step Index fibre (b) Graded Index fibre (c) Both (d) None of the above
2. Type of fiber that has the highest modal dispersion

(a) Step Index single mode (b) Step Index multimode
(c) Graded Index single mode (d) Graded Index multimode
Exercise
1. A step index fibre has a core diameter of 29 * 10-6m. The refractive indices of core and
cladding are 1.52 and 1.5189 respectively. If the light of wavelength 1.3 µm is transmitted
through the fibre, determine.
(i) Normalised frequency of the fibre.
(ii) The number of modes the fibre will support.
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2. The core diameter of multimode step index fibre is 50 µm. The numerical aperture is 0.25.
Calculate the number of guided modes at an operating wavelength of 0.75 µm? (June 2017)
Problem/ Questions for practice –
1. What is the dispersion in the optical fibre mention any three dispersions studied and
explain any one
2. What is N.A? Consider a multimode step index fibre with n1=1.53 and n2=1.50 and =1µm.
If the core radius = 50µm then calculate the normalized frequency of the fibre (V) and the
number of guided mode.
3. Compute the maximum radius allowed for a fibre having core refractive index 1.47 and
cladding refractive index 1.46. The fibre is to support only one mode at a wavelength of 1300
nm. (Dec 2009, June 2013)
4. Relative R.I of a fibre is 0.055, when core R.I. is 1.48. Find N.A, cladding R.I, acceptance angle,
normalized frequency(V) and the number of guided modes, when wavelength of light
propagated is 1µm and radius of the core is 50µm. (Dec 2010)
5. An Optical fibre of refractive index 1.50 is to be clad with another to ensure internal
reflection that will contain light travelling with in 50of the fibre axis. What maximum index
of refraction is allowed for the cladding? ( May 2014)
6. Calculate V number for an optical fiber having numerical aperture 0.25 and core diameter 20
µm if it is operated at 1.55 µm. (MAY 2015)
Learning from the topic –: The learners are able to explain various losses in optical fibres.
The learners will be able to explain and solve the numericals based on V-number and the
maximum number of modes Nm. Also learners will be able to list some materials used in
manufacturing optical fibres.
Lecture: 22
Learning objective: Students will be able to identify the applications of optical fibre in
different fields and advantages of optical fibres.
4.9.9 Advantages (Based on 2nd, chapter 24, 1st edition, page 711)
(i) Optical fibres are cheaper The optical fibres are made from silica (SiO2) which is one of the
most abundant materials on the earth.
(ii) Optical fibres are small in size, light in weight, flexible and mechanically strong.
The cross-section of an optical fibre is about a few hundred micrometers ( µ m ) whereas wires
are bigger in size and bulkier in weight. Typically, an RG-19/U coaxial cable weighs about
1100 kg/km whereas a PCS fibre cable weighs 6 kg/km only. Therefore, fibre cables are easier
to transport and install than metal cables. Fibres are quite flexible and strong.
(iii) Optical fibres are not hazardous. A wire communication link could, accidentally, short circuit
high voltage lines and the sparking occurring thereby could ignite combustible gases in the
area leading to a great damage. Such accidents cannot occur with fibre links because of their
insulating nature.
(iv) Optical fibres are immune to EMI and RFI. In optical fibres, information is carried by
photons. Photons are electrically neutral and cannot be disturbed by high-voltage fields,
lighting etc external influences so common to wire and wireless transmission. Fibre are
therefore immune to externally caused background noise generated through electromagnetic
inference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI) .
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Applied Physics
(v) Optical fibres reduce cross-talk possibility. The light waves propagating along the fibres are
completely trapped within the fibre and cannot leak out, Similarly, light cannot couple into
the fibre its sides. Because of this feature, cross-talk susceptibility is greatly reduced.
(vi) Optical fibres have a wider bandwidth. While a telephone cable composed of 900 pairs of
wire can handle 10,000 calls, 1 mm fibre cable can transmit 50,000 calls. Thus, fibres have
ability to carry large amounts of information.
(vii) Optical fibres have low loss per unit length.. The transmission low per unit length of an
optical fibre is about 4dB/km. Therefore, longer cable runs between repeaters are feasible. The
spacing of repeaters are about 2 km for copper cables whereas it can range from 30 km to 100
km in case of optical fibres.
A length of optical fibre serves as a transmission line that guides the message-carry light wave
to the receiver. The transmission of the light wave along the fibre suffers transmission
dispersion.
4.9.10 Fiber Optic Communication Kit (Based on 2nd, chapter 24, ist edition, page 717)
A basic communications system consists of a transmitter, a receiver and an information
channel. Normally, the information to be communicated is a nonelectrical message which is to
be converted first into an electrical form. A transducer performs this task. For example, a
microphone converts sound waves into currents and a video camera converts images into
currents. The electrical message thus obtained is of low frequency and is impressed onto a
carrier wave of very high frequency generated by an oscillator. The process of imposing
message signal on a carrier wave is called modulation. In analog modulation a continuous
wave carries the message. In digital modulation message is transmitted in discrete from using
binary digits (or bits). In this case, the sequence of on or off pulses constitutes a coded version
of the message. The message travels along the transmission channel and is received at the
receiver. The receiver demodulates the input wave, separates out the message and feeds it to a
transducer, such as a loudspeaker.
The number of message that can be simultaneously transmitted on an information channel is

determined by (i) the bandwidth requirement of the message and (ii) the bandwidth of the
carrier.
4.9.11 APPLICATIONS (Based on 1ST, chapter 24, ist edition, page 708)
1) Medical applications
One of the important applications of optical fibres is in the field of medicine. A bundle of
fibres (MMF) incorporated with incandescent bulb as light source is used to illuminate the
areas in human body which are otherwise inaccessible. A second bundle is used to collect the
reflected light. Such fiberoscopes are employed widely in endoscopic applications. In
ophthalmology, a laser beam guide by the fibres is used to reattach detached retinas and to
correct defects in vision.
2) Military applications
Use of fibres in place of copper wires reduces much weight and also maintains true
communication silence to the enemy. Fibre-guided missiles are pressed into service during
the recent wars. Sensors are mounted on the missile which transmit video information
94
through the fibre to a ground control van and receive commands from the van again. The
control van continuously monitors the course of the missile and if necessary corrects it to
ensure that the missile precisely hits the target.
3) Entertainment applications
A coherent optical fibre bundle is used to enlarge the image displayed on a TV screen.
Conventional optical projection system is bulky and expensive.
4) Optical fibre sensors
If the fibre is subjected to heating, the temperature causes a change in the refractive index of
the fibre. As temperature increases, the difference between the refractive indices of core and
cladding reduces, leading to the leakage of light into the cladding. Temperatures in the range
80° to 700° are measured using such a thermometer.
A smoke detector and pollution detector can be built using fibres. A beam of light radiating
from one end of a fibre can be collected by another fibre. If foreign particles are present, they
scatter light and the variation in intensity of the collected light reveals their presence.
A loop of fibre can be used to determine the level of liquid in a container. A part of the
cladding is scraped and the loop is suspended above the liquid level. Light is directed to pass
through the fibre and its intensity is measured at the output. A bare core loses more light
when it is immersed in liquid than when it is exposed to air. A sudden change of outcoming
light intensity indicates the liquid level.
5) Communications applications Optical fibre communications systems can be broadly

classified into two groups- (i) local and intermediate range systems where the distances
involved are small and (ii) long-haul systems where as cables span large distances.
Smaller systems cover communication networks in a small community, an industry or a bank
etc. In many organizations, a LAN distributes information to several stations within the
organization. A number of computer terminals are interconnected over a common channel to
keep track of the flow of the data and to process the data. An optical fibre data bus offers a
great reduction in cost and enormously increases information handling capacity compared to
a parallel multi wire data bus.
1. Optical fibre communication uses carrier wave as
(a) radio wave (b) laser wave (c) Ordinary light (d) Microwaves
2. Optical fibre communication is based on the phenomenon of
(a) refraction (b) total internal refraction (c) polarization (d) diffraction
Exercise
1.Write a note on the advantages of using optical fibre cable.
2.Write short note on Optical fibre and its uses.
Problems / Questions for practice
1. Why would you recommend use of optical fibre in communication system? (Dec 2012)
Learning from the topic: Students are able to identify the applications of optical fibre in different
fields and advantages of optical fibre over traditional communication system.
Beyond Syllabus -
Fiber optic technology has been proven to be a much better technology than metal wires. Signal loss
is less in optical fibre and they are unsusceptible to interference. Following are the areas that
are widey developed in the past decade:
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Applied Physics
(1) Material used in fabrication of fibre is silica, but now a day’s materials such as chalcogenide
glasses, fluoro aluminate crystalline materials, fluorozirionate materials are used that will give
larger infrared wavelength along with better transmission capability.
(2) Fiber optic sensor field has shown remarkable development in the past few decades. Better
sensor quality assures better reception of data.
(3) New developments are emerging in terms of technological aspects such as free- space
technology.
4.10 Short Answer Questions
1. What is optical fibre?
Ans. Glass or plastic threads designed to propagate light. Their diameters varies from 100 micronto
1000micron depending on the type of fibre.
2 What are the types of fibres?
Ans. Step and graded index fibres.
3 What is Step index fibre?
Ans. The step discontinuity of the index profile at core –cladding interface.
4 What is graded index fibre?
Ans. The refractive index of the core decreases radially from the centre to the core cladding
interface.
5 What is the advantage of graded index fibre over step index fibre?
Ans. Better Bandwith, low attenuation and less mode dispersion compared to step index.
6 What is the ‘modes of propagation’ ?
Ans. The possible number of path in the optical fibre.
7 What is single mode fibre?
Ans. Small core diameter supporting one mode of propagation.
8 What is multimode fibre?
Ans. Larger core diameter supporting many modes of propagation.
9 What is V number of an optical fibre?
Ans. A normalized frequency of fibre.
10 What are application of optical fibre?
Ans. Medical, military, entertainment, sensors and communication.
11 What are the common materials for optical fibres?
Ans. Glass(silica) , plastics, P2O5-SiO2 core with SiO2 cladding etc.
12 What are the types of dispersion in an optical fibre?
Ans. Material, Wave guide and inter modal dispersions.
13 What is attenuation in Optical fibre?
Ans. Ratio of optical output power from a fibre of length L to the input power.
4.11 References
1) A textbook of engineering physics by M.N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar 1st edition
2) Engineering physics by Hitendra K Malik and A. K. Singh
Self Assessment Test:

Q 1. Define Numerical aperture and V number of Optical Fibre.
Q 2. Differentiate between Step index Fibre and Graded Index Fibre
Q 3. Explain various applications of optical fibre.
Q 4. Describe losses in optical fibres.
Q 5. Calculate the numerical aperture of optical fibre with core index n1=1.61 and
cladding index n2=1.53.
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Module 4 B : Motion of Charged Particle in Electric & Magnetic Fields
Self Evaluation:
1. Can you define total internal reflection, Numerical Aperture and maximum angle of
acceptance, losses in optical fibre?
(a) Yes (b) No

2. Are you able to solve numericals based on optical fibres?
(a) Yes (b) No
3. Are you able to distinguish between Step Index and Graded Index fibre?
(a) Yes (b) No

4. Are you able to derive numerical aperture for step index fibre?
(a) Yes (b) No
5. Do you understand this module ?
(a) Yes, Completely (b) Partialy (c)No, Not at all
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Applied Physics
Module 4B
Motion of Charged Particle in Electric and Magnetic Fields
Lecture: 23
4.12 Motivation
Present chapter deals with the Electrostatic and Magnetostatic focusing. On the basis of
electrostatic and magnetostatic focussing, construction and working of Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO) is discussed in detail. Further, the chapter also highlights the applications
of CRO for measurements of a.c. voltage, d.c. voltage, phase and frequency etc.
4.13 Syllabus
Module Contents Duration Self-Study

Magnetostatic focusing system in both parallel and
1. 1 Lecture 2 hours
perpendicular fields
Electrostatic focusing system in both parallel and

2 1 Lecture 2 hours
perpendicular fields
Construction & working of CRT

Construction & working of CRO
Applications. of CRO in measuring voltage, frequency etc.
4.14 Weightage: 12 Marks

4.15 Learning Objective
1. Learner will be able to understand the Electrostatic Focusing and its application.
2. Learners will be able to understand longitudinal and transverse Magnetic field Focusing and
its application.
3. Learners will be able to understand the construction and working of Cathode Ray Tube.
4. Learners will be able to understand Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
5. Learners will be able to integrate application of CRO for measurement of frequency.
6. Learners will be able to integrate application of CRO for Phase measurement of AC signals
using Lissajous Figures.
4.16 Theoretical Background:
• An electron is treated to be a point mass particle and its motion in uniform electric field
and magnetic field is described through simple mathematical equations.
• In most of the practical cases, the electric field/ magnetic field used is nonuniform.
• The concept of focusing electrons using electric/magnetic field is similar to focusing the
light rays using lenses.
4.17 Key Notation:
1) y - deflection factor 8) P - Pitch of helix
2) S - deflection sensivity 9) T - Time period
3) m - mass of electron 10) f - frequency
4) e - Charge of electron 11) LH- Length on Horizontal scale
5) r - radius 12) Lv- Length on Vertical scale
6) B - magnetic field 13) θ - Angle
7) Vp - peak voltage 14) φ – Phase angle
98
4.18 Key Definitions:

1) Equipotential lines: Any charged particle moving along any of such lines has a constant
potential and it is not subjected to any force.
2) Cathode ray oscilloscope: The general purpose tool for analyzing measuring and comparing
periodic, low voltage signals.
3) Pitch: The pitch P is defined as the distance travelled by the particle along its axis in one
revolution.
4) Deflection sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection of the screen per unit deflection voltage.
5) Deflection factor: It is defined as reciprocal of deflection sensitivity.
4.19 Important Formulae:
1) Phase angle - Ȉ = sin -1 (A/B)
2) Unknown Frequency fy = fx [LH/LV]
1 D l
3) The deflection sensitivity‘s’ of a pair of plates is deflection y =
2 d VA
m 2Π m
4) Time period T- 2Π r / v sinθ = 2 Π r . =
Be Be
5) Pitch of the helix P = v Cosθ T
= v Cosθ (2Π m / Be)
6) V peak, Vp = Vp-p/2
7) rms Voltage , Vrms = Vp/√2
8) Average voltage, Vaverage = 0.636 Vp
Learning Objective – Students will be able to understand basic concept of longitudinal and
transverse magneto static focusing. Also, they will be able to comprehend the working of
magnetic lens.
4.20 Course Content:
Introduction - The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the electrically
heated cathode and accelerated towards the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode,
grid, focusing anode, and accelerating anode is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to
generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus the beam. Between the electron
gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metallic plates - one oriented to provide
horizontal deflection of the beam and another oriented to give vertical deflection of the beam.
These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination
of these two deflections allows the beam to reach the specified portion of the fluorescent
screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, by the method of fluorescence, light is
emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light energy allows us to
represent the electronic data in the form of light waveforms on an otherwise darkened screen.
4.20.1 Focusing by Magnetic and Electric Field:
Magnetic field focusing ( Dec 04,07)
(Based on 1, module 5, 16 edition, page 53)
th
An electron beam can be focused with the help of magnetic field. Depending on the nature of
magnetic field and the direction of its application different types of focusing are obtained.
Longitudinal magnetic field focusing
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Applied Physics
Fig. (1) Magnetic Focusing
It employs uniform magnetic field acting along the direction of motion of the electron beam.
The path of the electron in a uniform magnetic field would be a helix if the electrons enter the
field at an angle θ. The pitch of the helical path is given by
2πmvcosθ

Consider an electron of mass ‘m’ charge ‘e’ moving with velocity ‘v’ and entering a uniform
magnetic field of flux density B at an angle θ to the field. The velocity ‘v’ can be resolved into
two components, v cosθ along the field direction and v sinθ perpendicular to the field. If
electron has only v Cosθ component then it will move in straight line & if electron has only v
sinθ component then it will describe a circular path of radius ‘ r’ such that
mv2 /r (sin2 θ) = Be v sinθ
r = mv/Be

r = √
As mv2 = eV
Then the time taken by electron to complete one rotation of circular motion is
T= 2̟ r / v sinθ
m 2Π m
T= 2Π r . = -------------------------------(1)
Be Be
Above equation shows that T is independent of θ and a charged particle starting from point
O will reach at point ‘M’ such that OM - ‘P’This is called the pitch of the helix such that
P = v Cosθ T -----------------------------------------------------(2)
P = v Cosθ (2̟m / Be)---------------------------------------(3)
By varying the magnetic field strength the focal length of the magnetic lens can be changed.
Transverse Magnetic Field Focusing (1800 Focusing):

A transverse uniform magnetic field is employed to focus a beam of charged particles. The
focusing would be affected after the beam rotates through an angle of 1800. If a beam of
positively charged particles with the same velocity enter a transverse uniform magnetic field
and if the angular divergence is very small, it gets focused after completing a semicircle. The
radius of curvature is given by,

R=
Magnetic Lens: Magnetic fields which are symmetric along the axis (Longitudinal fields) have
a focusing effect on an electron beam passing through them. By encasing the coils in hollow
iron shields the magnetic fields are concentrated and improved focusing action is obtained.
Such solenoids are called as thin magnetic lenses. It is known that an electron travelling in a
non-uniform magnetic field describes a helical path. The radius of loop is given by
100

R=
If particles of same mass having sasame
me charge and same velocity enter a non-uniform
non field
then the radius of the loop (r) inversely depends on magnetic field B. Thus, if the electron
moves into stronger magnetic fields, the radius of the loops goes on decreasing. Thus in a
solenoid field, thee helical path of the electron is twisted into tighter loops and the turns
become smaller and smaller.
One form of magnetic lens is shown as in figure below
Fig. (2) Magnetic Lens

PQ is section of coil of the electron magnet the electromagnet coil is surrounded with an iron
shield except in region of gap a & b are small gaps in opposite position. The field lines are
symmetric about the axis 01 02 of the coil. The electron entering the lens at 01 gets focused at 02
the focal length of lens is very smal
smalll and can be altered by suitably changing the strength of
magnetic field. This type of magnetic lens is used to design advanced electron microscopes.
Learning from the topic – Students can understand basic concept of longitudinal and
transverse magneto static tic focusing. Also, they are able to comprehend the working of
magnetic lens.
Solved Problems-
−3
1. An electron beam passes through a magnetic field of 2.5 x 10 wb/m² and an electric field
4
of 5x 10 V/m both acting simultaneously at right angles to each other and to the path of
electron. If the electrons follow an undeviated path find the speed of electrons .MAY 2010
−3 4
Ans. B - 2.5 x 10 wb/m² ,E - 5 x 10 V /m
For the undeviated beam,
eE - Bev
4 −3 7
v- E/B - 5x10 /2.5 x 10 - 2x10 m/sec.
When the electric field is removed, the electron follows circular path in magnetic fields
The radius of the path is
R - mv/ Be
−31 7 −3 −19
R- (9.1x 10 x 2x10 )/ (2.5 x 10 x 1.6x 10 )
−2
R- 4.55 x 10 m
1. Lorentz forces experimented by charge q in magnetic B with velocity v is given by
(a) qv (b) q(vxB) (c) qB (d) none of the above
2. The magnetic force F = 0 when
(a) charge is moving (b) motion is charge is constant (c) charge is stationary
(d) none of the above
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Applied Physics
3. Displacement patterns traced by the superposition of two SHM at right angles to each
other are called
(a) loop figures (b) lissajous figures (c) phase angle figures
(d) none of the above
Exercise –
1. What is magneto static lens? State the types of magneto static lens.
2. What are the applications of magneto static lens?
3.. Describe the principle of magneto static focusing.
Questions/ Problems for practice –
1. Write a short note on magneto static focusing.
2. What are the types of magneto static focusing?
3. Explain the basic principles of magnetostatic focusing. An electron travels with a
Velocity of 2.5 * 106 m/s in vacuum in a uniform magnetic field strength of
0.94 * 10-4Wb/m2 such that velocity vector makes an angle of 300 with the field direction.( Dec
2008)
An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 5 kV & enters a uniform magnetic
field of 0.02 wb/m2 acting normal to the direction of electron motion. Determine the radius of
the path. (June 2017)
Lecture: 24
4.20.2 Electro Static focusing systems:
(May 04, 07, Dec 04, Jan04,09) (Based on 1, module 5, 16th edition, page 71)
Electron refraction Bethe’s Law: The electric field in the region is said to be non-
uniform, if it varies from point to point in the region. Electron motion in such fields is
better understood with the help of equipotential surfaces. The electron path is bent at
each equipotential surface in the same way as light ray is bent at an optical boundary. A
simple electrostatic lens consist of two coaxial metalic cylindrical tubes T1 and T2 separated
by small distance. They are held at different potential say V1 and V2 respectively.
Here V2>V1 .A nonuniform electric field is produced in the gap between the tubes as a result
of different potentials applied to the tubes. Figure below shows a schematic diagram of a
simple electrostatic lens where in electric field lines and equipotential surface are depicted.
Field lines are perpendicular to equipotential surface.
Fig. (4) Electron refraction
102
Consider beam of electrons moving from region T1 to T2. Electron labelled 1 on reaching
equipotential surface, experiences an electric force acting along the axis in forward direction.
The electron is therefore accelerated
lerated towards T2 without deviation from initial path. Electron
labelled 2, on reaching equipotential surface experiences a force acting at an angle to the
direction of motion. So, it can be resolved into two components.. F-parallel
F parallel acts parallel to the
axis
xis and accelerates the electron in forward direction while F-perpendicular
F perpendicular acts normal to the
axis.and deflects the electron towards the axis. Similarly, electron labelled 3 are deflected
upward and simultaneously accelerated forward. Thus, all the off off-axis
is electron tends to
converge toward axis. The first half of gap acts like convex lens and tends to converge and
second half acts like a concave lens which defocuses the ray. So, the net effect is to focus the
electron beam. Let the electron move with velocity v1 and v2 in the regions T1 and T2
respectively. If V2>V1 then v2> v1.
When the electron beam is incident along MM’ on the interface at angle of incidence ‘i’ it gets
refracted along OR in region T2 making a refracting angle ‘r’

In region (1)
mv12 = eV1 --------- (4)

In region (2)
mv22 = eV2 --------- (5)
V1
From (4) & (5) we can write v12/ v22= -------------------------------(6)
V2
V1
v1/v2 = ----------------------
----------------------(7)
V2
But AB is an equipotential surface then the component of velocities parallel to AB does not
change.
V1 sin i = v2 sin r
sin i v2
= --------------- (8)
sin r v1
From equation 3 &4 we can write
V1
sin i / sin r = v2 /v1 = -------------------------------(9)
V2
If v2 > v1 , the electron gets accelerated in the medium and is deflected toward
towards the normal
while if v1 > v2 than it gets decelerated and is deflected away from the normal.
Fig (5)) Equipotential surfaces
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Applied Physics
Electro Static Lens

• An electron lens consists of two coaxial metallic cylinders A and B separated by some
distance. The cylinders A and B are maintained at different positive potentials V1 and
V2 respectively such that V2>V1. These positively charged cylinders are called
Cylindrical anodes as shown in Fig. 5.10 (a).
• In Fig. 5.10 (b), the equipotential surfaces of the two cylinders are shown. The electron
beam undergoes bending at each equipotential surface and finally it is focused at the
point F. The gradual bending of the electron beam is illustrated in Fig. 5.10 (c).
• Consider the electron travelling with velocity vo along the axis of the system. The
electric force fo acting perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces drags the electron
along the axis to the point P.
• A more deflected electron travelling with a velocity v1 is bent by the perpendicular
electric forces f1 at the first equipotential surface S1,f2 at the second surface and so on.
At every equipotential surface the electron changes its direction.
Fig (6) Electrostatic Focussing

Solved Problem -
5
1) An electron is projected at an angle 37° to the horizontal at an initial speed of 4.5 x 10 m/
sec. in a region of uniform electric field of intensity 200 N/C oriented vertically upward.
A] Find the time taken by the electron to return to its initial height
B] Find the maximum height reached by the electron.
C] Find the horizontal displacement when it reaches its maximum height
5
Ans. v - 4.5 x 10 m/ sec.
θ - 37°
E - 200 N/C
A] The time taken by the electron to return to its initial height is
T - 2 v sin θ / a
a - acceleration
a - e/m. E
1.6 ×10−19 × 200
a=
9.1×10−31
= 3.51×1013 m / sec2 .
5 13
T- (2v sinθ) /a - (2x 4.5 x 10 x sin37)/ (3.51x 10 )
−8
T- 1.543x10 sec.
104
B] The maximum height reached by the electron is

2 2
ymax - v sin θ / 2a
5 13
- (4.5x 10 ) x ( sin 37° )/2 x 3.51 x 10
−3
- 1.044 x 10 m
C] The horizontal displacement of electron when it reaches the maximum height is half the
range ‘R’
S - R/2 - v² sin 2θ / 2a
5 13
S - (4.5x 10 ) x sin 74/ 2 x 3.51 x 10
−3
S- 2.772 x 10 m
2) Calculate the velocity of an electron accelerated through P.D. 1 kV.
−19
Ans. e - 1.6 x 10 c
−31
me - 9.1×10 kg.
The velocity of the charged particle is
Ve = √2eV/ me
−19 −31
= √2x 1.6x 10 x10³ / 9.1 x10
7
= 1.875 x 10 m/sec.
Let’s check Take away from this Lecture1/1E1.
1. Electrostatic focusing is based on
(a) Gausse’s Law (b) Amperes Circuital law (c) Bathe’s law (d) Faraday’s law
2. The Equipotanial surfaces used in CRO for electrostatic focusing are
(a) Convex (b) Circular (c) Concave (d) Plane
Exercise:
1. Explain electrostatic focusing. (June2007, Dec 2013, June 2017)
2. Describe the principle of electrostatic focusing.
3. Define equipotential surface.
4. Write formula for snell’s law.
5. What is electrostatic lens?
Questions/Problems for Practice:
1. What are the applications of electrostatic lens?
2. An electron enters a uniform magnetic field B - 0.23 wb/m2 at 450 angles to B. Determine
radius and pitch of helical path. Assuming electron speed to be 3 * 107 m/s. (Ans : 466.32 m,
pitch 40 )
Learning from the topic – Learners are able to understand basic concept of Bathe’s law,
electrostatic focusing. Also they are able to comprehend the working of electrostatic lens.
Lecture: 25
Learning Objective – Students will be able to understand basic construction and working of
CRT and its various parts.
4.21 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): Being the heart of CRO, it produces a visual representation of
electrical effects at extremely high speeds because of light mass of electrons.
A.C.R.T consist of
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Applied Physics
a) Electron Gun assembly: its function is to produce a sharply focused beam of high intensity in
the form of luminous spot on the screen.
It has following parts.
Fig. (7) Cathode ray tube
i] Cathode K : It is a source of electrons: It is in the form of a small platinum pin welded to the
U shaped filament which is electrically heated. The filament is enclosed inside the cathode.
The front face of the cathode is coated with thoriated tungsten or barium and strontium
oxides. The coating helps thermionic emission of electrons at temperatures of about 7000C to
9000C.
ii] The Control Grid: It helps in controlling the electron current density. It is in the form of
cylinder around the cathode with an aperture at the centre. It is at a low negative potential
with respect to cathode.
iii] Accelerating anode (A1) : . Anodes A1 and A2 are kept beyond the grid. Both are short metal
cylinders kept at positive potential having central apertures. Anode A2 is at a higher potential
than A1.This whole assembly is kept in an evacuated space. A power supply provides the
necessary voltages to the electrodes. A1 and A2 are used for accelerating the electrons.
iv] Focusing anodes: These anodes are used for focusing the electron beams In this arrangement,
two electron lenses are used. The first lens consists of cathode, control grid and pre
accelerating anode A1. The second lens is made up of the focusing anode A2 in the form of a
cylinder and the disc type accelerating anode A3. Potential of A3 is either same as that of A1 or
more than A1. The focusing anode A2 is at a lower potential than that of A3 but is always
positive with respect to cathode. The electron beam passing through such system suffers
acceleration by A1, than deceleration by A2 and than further acceleration by A3. Such as
electron lens system converge the beam under A1 and than diverges under A3. By changing
the potential of anode A2, the focal point of the beam can be changed.
Fig. (8) Equipontential surfaces in electrostatic lens

b) Deflection system:
Deflection System is a device which creates the deflection of the electron beam. There are two
types of deflection system, electro Static and magneto static. A CRO usually uses the electro
106
static deflection system. It consists of two pairs of deflection plate placed next to the focusing
system. The deflection plates mounted in the vertical plane, producing horizontal deflection
are called as XX’ plates. A similar pair of plates, mounted in the horizontal plane, producing
vertical deflection is called as YY’ plates.
1 D l
The deflection sensitivity‘s’ of a pair of plates is deflection y -
2 d VA
Solved Problems. –
1. An electro static cathode ray tube has a final anode voltage of 600 volts. The deflection
plates are 3.5 cm long and .8 cm. apart. The screen is at a distance of 20 cm from the centre
of the plates. A voltage of 20 volts is applied to the deflection plate calculate
i] Velocity of electron on reaching the field
ii] Acceleration due to the deflection field.
iii] Final velocity attained due to the deflection field.
iv] Angle of deflection.
v] Deflection produced on the screen in cm
vi] Deflection sensitivity in cm / volt.
Ans. VA - 600 volts.
d - .8 cm.
V - 20 volts.
l - 3.5 cm.
D - 20 cm.
i] ½ m v² x = eVA
vx =√2eVA /m = 2 × 1.6 × 10 −19 × 600 / 9.1 × 10 −31
7
vx = 1.45 x 10 m /s
e V
. =1.6 ×10−19 × 20 / 9.1×10−31 × .8 ×10−2
ii] ay = m d
= 4.39 ×1014 m / sec.2
iii] Final velocity
vy = ay t = ay l/vx
14 −2 +7
vy = 4.39 ×10 × 3.5 ×10 /1.45 ×10
5
vy = 10.59 x 10 m / sec.
iv] Deflection θ = tan (vy /vx )
5 7
= tan ( 10.59 x 10 )/1.45x 10
= tan (0.073 )
θ = 4011'
v] Deflection on screen is y - D tanθ - 20x 0.073 - 1.46 cm.
vi] Deflection sensitivity is
S = y/V = 1.46/20 = 0.073 cm./V
2. In a CRT employing magnetic deflection the length of the field is equal to 3 cm., along the
−4
tube axis and the flux density is 10 wb/m². The distance from the centre of the field to
the screen is 20 cm. The final anode voltage is 800 volts. Calculate the deflection of an
electron in cm. Also find the displacement of a charged particle of charge twice that of the
electron and mass 7344 times as large.
Ans. The deflection produced on the screen is
y- D.l Be/ mv
And v - √2eV/m
107
Applied Physics
e m
y = D.l.B .
m 2eV
e
y = D.l.B.
2mV
∴ For the electron, we have deflection,
−4
−2 −2 11
Y=- 20x 10 x 3 x10 x 10 x √(1.76x 10 ) /(2x800)
−3
= 6.29x 10 m
= 0.629 cm
ii) For the other charged particle, deflection is given by,
−4
−2 −2 11
y =- 20x 10 x 3 x 10 x10 x √(1.76 x 10 x2)/ (7344x 2x800)
y = 0 .629 x √2/7344
y = 0.0104 cm

1.Y plates in deflection system of CRT is
(a) parallel to Y axis (b) parallel to X axis (c) parallel to Z axis (d) none of the
above
2. Which part is called as heart of CRO?
(a). CRT (b). Sweep generator (c). Trigger circuit (d). Amplifier
3. What determines light intensity in a CRT?
a) voltage
b) current
c) momentum of electrons
d) fluorescent screen
1
Exercise –
1. Draw the diagram of CRT and explain all its parts in detail. (June2007, Dec 2008, June
2015, Dec 2015)
2. State explain important parts of CRT?
3. What is the function of electron gun?
Questions/Problems for practice -

1. What is the function of grid?
2. What is deflection sensitivity and deflection factor of CRT?
3. What is the Unit of deflection sensitivity of CRT?
4. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 18 kV in a color TV cathode
ray tube. Calculate the kinetic energy & the speed of the electron. (June 2017)
Learning from the topic – Students are able to understand basic construction and working
of , CRT and its various parts.
108
Lecture: 26
4.22 Description of CRO, its constituents and its function as a tool:
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope: (June01, 02, 04, May 07, 06, 07, Dec 2010)
(Based on 1, module 5, 16th edition, page 73-82)
CRO is a widely used tool in a variety of electronic & electrical investigation It is used
for the display of waveforms their measurement & analysis It’s main constituents are :
1) cathode ray tube 2) time base circuit

3) Trigger circuit 4) vertical circuit
5) Horizontal circuit 6) power supplies
7) Aquadag coating and
8) Fluorescent screen
Figure 9.Block Diagram of CRO
1. CRT- Cathode Ray Tube with electrostatic focusing forms the central part of a CRO
Electrostatic focusing refers to a technique for modifying the path of a stream of
charged particles by the use of an electric field applied transverse to the path of the
particles. The technique is called electro
electrostatic focusing because the strength and
direction of the electron
n beam is controlled by applied electric field.
High potential to various electrodes of CRT is provided by the high voltage power
supply. CRT generates the electron beam, focuses it and accelerates it towards the
fluorescent screen. Vertical motion of the electron beam results when message is
applied to vertical (Y) plate
plates so that vertical polarities changes as per the input signal
causing upward and downward motion. As phosphorus continues to glow and due to
persistence of vision, the path of beam on screen
screen is seen as vertical line called as “ trace
“ It gives peak to peak voltage Vpp. Horizontal motion of the electron beam results
due to the applied ac voltage to XX- plate which varies as a function of time.
2) Time Base circuit:

An alternating voltage wh
when
en applied externally to the Y plates of CRO produces the
vertical motion of the spot on the screen. In order to get the actual display of the
applied voltage, X motion should be given to the spot which records the variation in
time. This is achieved by ap
applying
plying periodic voltage that varies linearly with time and
is known as the time base voltage or saw tooth voltage. It is applied to X plates. The
109
Applied Physics
alternating voltage whose waveform is to be studied is applied simultaneously to the

Y plates.
Fig. (10) Time Base Circuit
3) Trigger circuit
To display a stationary wave pattern on screen synchronization is required. For this
purpose trigger circuit is used. A part of output obtained from vertical amplifier is fed
to the trigger generator. Trigger generator is sensitive to the voltage level applied to its
input. When this voltage reaches a predetermined value, the trigger generator
produces a pulse of voltage that acts as a start command for time base generator and it
starts one sweep cycle of the time base circuit.
4) Vertical Deflection circuit
It mainly consists of attenuator and voltage amplifier. Signal to be tested is first given
to attenuator where its amplitude is decreased or increased and then is applied to Y
plates. Further it is fed to voltage amplifier so that adequate deflection can be obtained
on the screen
5) Horizontal Deflection circuit
The sweep generator output is initially amplified and then used to drive the horizontal
plates (X-plates). Horizontal circuit mainly consists of voltage amplifier. Voltage to X
plates can be applied by internal source (INT) or external source (EXT) that can be
selected by (INT or EXT) switch. When switch is in EXT mode, plates are disconnected
from the internal source, beam is stationary as a spot at the center of the screen. When
it is on INT mode waveform will appear on the screen.
6) Power Supply- In CRO, both high voltage and low voltage power supply are required
for the various parts of the device.
High voltage power supply provides voltage to the accelerating and focusing
electrodes in electron gun assembly. It supplies voltage of the order of 1600 to 22200
volts.
Low voltage power supply It supplies power to amplifier, trigger generator, time base
generator. Voltage of the order of few tens or hundreds of volts is provided by these
power supplies.
7) Aquadag Coating: Electrons impinging on the screen tend to charge it negatively and
hence causing repelling of electrons coming afterwards. This will result in decrease of
electrons reaching the screen and hence the brightness of the glow reduces. The
electrons striking the screen not only cause emission of light but also produce
secondary emission of electrons. The cathode gradually assumes a positive charge as
electrons are emitted from it in large numbers. Hence, the aquadag coating is used to
remove the excess electrons and returned to the cathode via ground.
110
8) The fluorescent screen: The electron beam is focused on it to create a well defined
spot. When a beam of highly energetic electron strikes a screen a luminous spot is
produced there.
1. CRO can measure
(a) electrical signals only (b) electric signals as well as non electrical signals
(c) only non electrical signals (d) none of the above (d) all of the above
3. Electron beam is deflected in
a) 1 direction
b) 4 directions
c) 3 directions
d) 2 directions
4. Typically oscilloscope represents
a) current and time
b) resistance and time
c) voltage and time
d) power and time
5. For luminous effects the interior surface of CRO screen is coated with
(a) nickel (b) bronze (c) phosphor (d) none
6) A Sweep voltage in a CRO applied to time base circuit in
(a) horizontal deflection plates (b) Vertical deflection plates
(c) Both the deflection plates (d) None of the above
Questions
1. Explain the working of C.R.O.

2. What is fluorescence?
3. What is phosphorescence?
4. Explain the construction of C.R.O. Describe its various parts along with their functions.
(June 2001,Dec 2006, Dec 2010)
2. Problem For Practice -

3. A CRT has anode voltage of 1.6 kV and parallel deflection plates are 1.8 cm long and
4.2 mm apart. The screen is at 2.8 cm from the centre of deflecting plate. Find the input
voltage required to deflect the beam by 1.5 cm. The input voltage is applied to the
deflection plates through the amplifiers having overall gain of 60 .
(Ans : 0.066 volt )
Learning from the topic – Students are able to understand basic construction and
working of CRO and its various parts.
Lecture: 27
Learning Objective – Students will be able to comprehend and relate tremendous
applications of CRO.
4.23 Uses of CRO: ( Dec 02,07,08,09, May 10)

(Based on 1, module 5, 16th edition, page 85)
CRO is used for many applications:
1] Study of waveforms
2] Measurement of DC voltages.
111
Applied Physics
3] Measurement of AC Voltage.
4] Measurement of frequency, phase angle, peak voltages of alternating currents.
1) To study the wave forms: CRO is widely used to study waveforms from different
electronic circuits. The signal under study is applied at the Y-input while X-plates are
internally connected to the time base
Generator. The wave form is displayed on the screen.
2) Measurement of DC Voltage: Initially the line is adjusted at the centre of the screen.
The DC voltage to be measured is applied at the y input of CRO. The line gets
deflected upward or downward depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. The
deflection is noted in the screen. This when multiplied by the deflection factor
(Volts/Div) gives the magnitude of the unknown voltage.
Fig. (11) Measurement of dc voltage
3) Measurement of AC voltage:
After the spot is adjusted to the centre, the AC Voltage under study is applied at Y
input. The peak to peak distance of the waveform displayed on the screen is measured
and on multiplying it with the deflection factor (Volt/Div) Vp–p is obtained.
Fig.(12) Measurement of ac voltage
The r.m.s. and average value of voltage are calculated using formula:
Vp = Vp-p/2
Vrms =Vp/√2
Vaverage = 0.636 Vp --------------------------(10)
4) Measurement of frequency:
i) A sinusoidal signal whose frequency is to be determined is applied to Y input. The
time base control is adjusted to obtain 2 or 3 cycles of signal on the screen. The
horizontal spread of one cycle is noted. By multiplying it with the time base
sensitivity, the time period of the signal is obtained. The reciprocal of the time
period gives the frequency of the signal.
112
Fig. (13) Measurement of frequency
ii) Lissajous Figures: Lissajous figures can be generated to find the unknown
frequency. The Lissajous figures are result of superposition of two sine waves
acting mutually perpendicular. The form of resultant depends upon the ratio act
of frequency of the two voltage.
If the two waves applied to X and Y plates of CRO are of different frequencies, closed
loop patterns us are displayed on the screen.
The frequency of the unknown signal is calculated using formula:
fy = fx [LH/LV] ------------------------------(11)
Where LH represents the number of contact points on the horizontal tangents and LV is
the number of contact point on the vertical tangent. Hence fy the unknown frequency
can be calculated.
Fig. (14) Lissajours Figures
iii) Measurement of phase difference :
Two sinusoidal voltages of equal amplitude and frequency are applied to the X and Y
input of CRO, the resultant wave form is an ellipse obtained.
If V is the amplitude ω the angular frequency and φ is the phase difference between
the alternating voltage then voltages as applied to X and Y plate at time t are
Vx = V sin ωt -----------------------------(12)
Vy = V sin ( ωt+φ) -----------------------(13)
At t = 0, we have Vx= 0 -----------------(14)
And Vy = V sinφ----------------------------(15)
We have A = 2 Vsin φ
B = 2V
Sin φ = A/B ---------------------------------- (16)
On phase angle φ = sin -1 (A/B) --------------------------------
(17)
Hence measuring A and B on Screen the phase difference φ can be calculated.
113
Applied Physics
Fig. (15) Measuring phase difference
The recent development of electron spectroscopy makes it possible to reveal the

electronic structures of molecules. Although this is mainly accomplished by electron
analysers, electrostatic lenses also play a significant role in the development of electron
spectroscopy. Since electron spectroscopy detects several physical phenomena from
the electrons emitted from samples, it is necessary to transport the electrons to the
electron analyser. Electrostatic lenses satisfy the general properties of lenses.
Learning from the topic – Students are able to comprehend and relate tremendous
applications of CRO.
Soled Problems:
1. X and Y plates are connected to unequal voltages of equal frequencies with phase shift
of 900.. the Lissajous figure on screen will be
(a) Circle (b) Ellipse, (c) ) Straight Line (d) Figure of 8
2. Lissajous figures are used for
(a) measurement of frequency (b) measurement of pressure
(c) measurement of voltage (d) none of the above
3. The unknown frequency by lissajous figures is given by
(a) fy-fx[Lh/Lv] (b) fx-fy[Lh/Lv] (c) fy-fx[Lv/Lh] (d) none of the above
4. CRO is used in radar for
a) studying the pattern of flights
b) visualizing a target
c) measuring voltage
d) determining the distance between source and destination
Exercise -
1. What are Lissajous figure and explain its applications? (Dec 2008)
2. How Lissajous pattern is obtained? ( Dec 2013)
3. Explain the working of C.R.O. Explain the frequency and phase angle measurement in
C.R.O. Explain how the phase difference between two frequencies is measured, using
C.R.O.Write short on:
a)CRO and its uses in measurement. (June 2005, June 2006, Dec 2007, June 2009
b)Electrostatic and magnetic focusing. (June 2004, Dec 2004, Dec 2007, June 2009).
4. Explain the construction of CRO and discuss how A.C., D.C ,voltage , frequency and phase
angle between two A.C voltage measured by C.R.O. ( Dec 2002, June 2005, June 2007, Dec 2007,
Dec 2009, June 2010, Dec 2010, June 2015, Dec 2015 )
5. Write a short note on applications of C.R.O. (May 2006)
Questions/ Problems for Practice :
1. What are the uses of CRO?
114
2. In phase measurement by Lissajous pattern ellipse is obtained with major axis of 2cm and
minor axis of 0.8 cm . Estimate the phase angle. (Ans : 23.570 )
3. What are Lissajous figures? Explain how they are used to measure unknown frequency. An
electron travels with a velocity of 2.5 * 106 m/s in a uniform magnetic field strength of 0.94 * 10-4
wb/m2 , such that velocity vector makes (Ans : 466.32 m,)
(May 2010)
Beyond Syllabus –
A television uses a CRT to form images. Its basic principle is similar to that of a CRO, but with some
marked differences. As an example, Black and White TV has only one Electron Gun and Colored TV
has three Electron Guns, each one for red, green and blue colors.
CROs are used to perform an investigation and gather first-hand information to observe the
occurrence of different striation patterns for different pressures in discharge tubes. Different color
streamers are observed for different air pressures. As an example, slightly pink color streamers are
observed for low air pressure.
4.22 Short Answer Questions:
1) What is an electron optics?

Ans: Extension of concepts of geometrical optics to electron motion is known as electron
optics.
2) Define electric field intensity.
Ans: E = V/d
3) What is pitch?
Ans: The pitch P is defined as the distance traveled by the particle along its axis in one
revolution.
4) What is Aquadag?
Ans: When fast moving electrons strike the screen, secondary electrons are released. These
secondary electrons are collected by an aqueous solution of graphite called acquadag which is
connected to the second anode.
5) What are the applications of Lissajous figures?
Ans: It is used to find the phase and frequency.
6) What is CRO?
Ans: CRO is an important instrument in any laboratory where different current and voltage
signals are studied. Even non electrical quantities once converted to electrical equivalent
using transducers can be visualized using CRO.
7) What are the Applications of CRO?
Ans: Measurement of D.C. Voltage. Measurement of A.C.Voltage. Measurement of Phase
difference.
4.24 Practice for Chapter No.4 Motion of charged particle in electric & Magnetic field
(Based on University Patterns)
1. Attempt any five (15)
(a) Write short note on equipotential surfaces
(b) Explain magneto static focusing
(c) Explain electrostatic focusing.
(d) Explain the function of deflection plates in C.R.T.
(e) Explain the phase measurement by using C.R.O
(f) In phase measurement by Lissajous pattern ellipse is obtained with major axis of 2cm
115
Applied Physics
and minor axis of 0.8 cm . Estimate the phase angle.

2. (a) Explain construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. Explain simple time base circuit
(b) How Lissajous figures can be obtained on CRO Screen ? (7)
3. (a) Explain the construction of CRO and discuss how A.C., D.C ,voltage , frequency and phase
angle between two A.C voltage measured by C.R.O. (8)
(b) Draw the diagram of CRT and explain all parts in detail. (7)
4. (a) Explain the basic principles of magneto static focusing. An electron travels with a velocity
of 2.5 x 106 m/s in vacuum in a uniform magnetic field strength of 0.94 x 10-4 Wb/m2 such
that velocity vector makes an angle of 300 with the field direction. Determine the distance
covered along the magnetic induction line in five such revolutions.
(b) Explain in detail about Snells law in electron optics . (8)
5. (a) Explain in detail about C.R.T. screen . (8)
(b) An electro static cathode ray tube has a final anode voltage of 300 volts. The deflection
plates are 3.5 cm long and .12 cm. apart. The screen is at a distance of 24 cm from the centre of
the plates. A voltage of 23 volts is applied to the deflection plate calculate
i] Velocity of electron on reaching the field
ii] Acceleration due to the deflection field.
iii] Final velocity attained due to the deflection field.
iv] Angle of deflection.
v] Deflection produced on the screen in cm
vi] Deflection sensitivity in cm / volt. (7)
4.26. Reference:
1) A textbook of Engineering Physics- Avadhanulu & Kshirsagar, 16th edition
2) Engineering Physics- Avadhanulu & Muljakar, 1st edition
3) Engineering Physics by gaur& gupta, 8th edn,
Self-assessment
1. State three Applications of CRO. Level 1
2. Write a short note on electrostatic focussing. Level 2
3. Explain the application of CRO in phase measurement. Level 3
4. Explain with neat diagram construction and working of CRT. Level 4
5. Explain the construction and working of CRO. Level 5
116
Self Evaluation
1. Do you know, the various applications of CRO?
(a) Yes (b) No
2. Do you understand the construction and working of CRO?
(a) Yes (b) No
3. Are you able to explain electrostatic focussing?
(a) Yes (b) No
4. Are you able to explain magnetostaic focussing?
(a) Yes (b) No
5. Do you understand the module ?
(a) Yes, Completely (b) Partialy (c) No, Not at all.
117

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Module 4A: Fire Optics

1. Introduction, total internal reflection, basic construction, 1 Lecture 2 hours

4. Merits of optical fibre; Applications. 1 Lecture 2 hours

4.3 Weight age: 10-15 marks

Aperture: A small opening through which the electromagnetic radiation pass.

3. Maximum number of modes for SI fibre is

For Graded fibre

4. Cut off wavelength of a fibre

4.9 Course Content -

Basic Parts of a fibre

Cladding (as a rarer medium)

4.9.3 Types of optical fibres

Let’s check Take away from this Lecture

2. The part of the optical fibre which protects the data is

3. Total internal reflection

e) All of the above

Let’s check Take away from this Lecture

4.9.6. Losses in Optical Fibre -

Dispersion (Based on 2nd, chapter 24, ist edition, page 714)

∆λ= the spectral width index.

Wavelength dependence of the optical losses in a typical fiber

Ways to Reduce Losses in Optical Fiber -

4.9.8 V-NUMBER (Based on 1ST, chapter 24, 1st edition, page704)

= 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 10−6 × 1.532 − 1.502

Total number of guided mode = M

= 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 10−6 × 1.532 − 1.502

Let’s check Take away from this Lecture

2. Type of fiber that has the highest modal dispersion

The number of message that can be simultaneously transmitted on an information channel is

5) Communications applications Optical fibre communications systems can be broadly

Self Assessment Test:

(a) Yes (b) No

(a) Yes (b) No

Module Contents Duration Self-Study

Electrostatic focusing system in both parallel and

Construction & working of CRT

4.14 Weightage: 12 Marks

4.18 Key Definitions:

Fig. (1) Magnetic Focusing

mv2 /r (sin2 θ) = Be v sinθ

P = v Cosθ (2̟m / Be)---------------------------------------(3)

Transverse Magnetic Field Focusing (1800 Focusing):

Fig. (2) Magnetic Lens

Fig. (4) Electron refraction

Fig (5)) Equipotential surfaces

Electro Static Lens

Fig (6) Electrostatic Focussing

B] The maximum height reached by the electron is

Fig. (7) Cathode ray tube

Fig. (8) Equipontential surfaces in electrostatic lens

Let’s check Take away from this Lecture

Questions/Problems for practice -

1) cathode ray tube 2) time base circuit

Figure 9.Block Diagram of CRO

2) Time Base circuit:

alternating voltage whose waveform is to be studied is applied simultaneously to the

Fig. (10) Time Base Circuit

1. Explain the working of C.R.O.

2. Problem For Practice -