17CV833/ 15CV833: PAVEMENT

DESIGN

MODULE 1- Questions and Answers

Syllabus

Introduction: Desirable characteristics of pavement, Types and components, Difference

between Highway pavement and Air field pavement, Design strategies of variables, Functions
of sub grade, sub base, Base course, surface course, comparison between Rigid and flexible
pavement

Fundamentals of Design of Pavements: Stresses and deflections, Principle, Assumptions and

Limitations of Boussinesq’s theory, Burmister theory and problems on above

1. Critically compare flexible and rigid pavement.

S. N Particulars Flexible pavement Rigid pavement
1 Cross It consists of a series of layers It consists of one layer
section with the highest quality Portland cement concrete slab
materials at or near the surface or relatively high flexural
of pavement. strength.

2 Characterist It reflects the deformations It is able to bridge over

ic of subgrade and subsequent localized failures and area of
layers on the surface. inadequate support.
3 Load Its stability depends upon the Its structural strength is
transfer aggregate interlock, particle provided by the pavement
friction and cohesion or by slab itself by its beam action.
means of grain to grain
contact
4 Design Pavement design is greatly Flexural strength of
parameter influenced by the subgrade concrete is a major factor for
strength. design.
5 Distribution It functions by a way of load It distributes load over a wide
of load distribution through the area of subgrade because of
component layers its rigidity and high modulus
of elasticity.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 6 Distribution
of stresses

7 Design life 15-20 years 20-40 years

8 Temperatur No thermal stresses are Thermal stresses are more
e stresses induced as the pavement have vulnerable to be induced as
the ability to contract and the ability to contract and
expand freely expand is very less in
concrete
9 Deformatio Flexible pavements have self Any excessive deformations
ns healing properties. occurring due to heavier
Settlements due to heavier wheel loads are not
wheel loads are recoverable recoverable, i.e. settlements
to some extent. are permanent.
10 Overall cost Have low completion cost but Have low repairing cost but
repairing cost is high completion cost is high
11 Maintenanc Have low life span (High Life span is more as compare
e cost Maintenance Cost) to flexible (Low
Maintenance Cost)
12 Effect of oil Damaged by Oils and No Damage by Oils and
spills Certain Chemicals Greases
13 Curing Road can be used for traffic Road cannot be used until 14
period within 24 hours days of curing
14 Colour and Poor visibility at night due to Better visibility at night
visibility its black colour owed to its white/gray colour
15 Design CBR value Modulus of subgrade
parameter reaction (k)
of subgrade

2. Bring out the points of difference between highway and airport pavements.
S. N Particulars Highways Airfields
1 Load It’s very less. Maximum It is very high. Maximum
magnitude wheel load considered for a wheel load will be around
rigid pavement is 50 kN 3500 – 5000 kN.
2 Load It is measured in million Though the number of
repetition standard axle repetition of 80 repetitions are very less, the
kN load

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 load that is transferred in each
repetition is very high.
3 Pavement These pavements have 5-7 m These pavements have 45-
width width 150 m width such that
distresses get distributed over
a wider area
4 Surface Effect is not severe Speed during takeoff and
unevenness touch down is 150-250 kmph.
The surface unevenness
produce vibrations and cause
discomfort to passengers
5 Tyre Are very low Very high tyre pressures
pressures
6 Impact Low impact loading High impact loading
7 Speed humps Provision of speed humps to High surface finish and free
reduce speeds of speed humps
8 Surface Smoot wet surface can cause Smooth wet surface may lead
smoothness skidding to hydroplaning (a layer of
water between tyre and
pavement surface)
9 Fuel spillage Less chances of fuel spillage High temperature fuel
spillage may dissolve
pavement surface
10 Cost Not so costly in comparison Highly costly
to airfields
11 Maintenance Frequent maintenance can be Frequent maintenance is not
done acceptable because it may
interrupt air traffic

3. What are the different types of pavement?

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two,
➢ flexible pavements and
➢ rigid pavements
➢ semi – rigid pavement
➢ composite pavement
➢ Interlocking Cement Concrete Block Pavement
In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the
aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less flexural
strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road). On the contrary, in rigid

pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural strength of the
pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads).
Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 • Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
• Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
• Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement: are plain cement concrete pavements constructed
with closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally
used for load transfer across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Although reinforcements do not improve the
structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to
30m. Dowel bars are required for load transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab
together even after cracks.
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Complete elimination of joints are
achieved by reinforcement.
Semi-rigid Pavement
➢ When bonded materials like the pozzolanic concrete, lean cement concrete, or soil-
cement are used in the base course or sub-base course layer, the pavement layer
has considerably higher flexural strength than the common flexible layers.
➢ However, these bonded materials do not possess as much flexural strength as
the cement concrete pavements. Therefore when this intermediate class of
materials is used in the base or sub-base course layer of the pavements are
either designed on experience, or by using a new design approach.
➢ These semi-rigid pavement materials have a low resistance to impact and abrasion
and therefore are usually provided with flexible pavement surface course.
A composite pavement consists of multiple structurally significant layers of different
heterogeneous compositions. A typical example is brick sandwiched concrete pavement.
The top and bottom layers are of cement concrete, which sandwiches a bricklayer in the
neutral axis zone.
Interlocking Cement Concrete Block Pavement comprises of interlocking
blocks which are used as a surface course. The joints are sealed and they rest upon a sub-
base course layer which are supported on subgrade.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
4. What are the different layers of pavements and what are its functions?
Typical layers of a flexible pavement
Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack
coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and
natural sub-grade
Seal Coat:
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.
Tack Coat:
Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water.
It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly
cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
Prime Coat:
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers.
Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a
water tight surface.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 Typical cross section of a flexible pavement
Surface course
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:
• It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will
prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying
base, sub-base and sub-grade,
• It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
• It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.
Binder course
This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure.
• It's chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course
• The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt and doesn't
require quality as high as the surface course
• Replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results in more
economical design.
Base course
• The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder
course. It provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface
drainage

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 • It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or
stabilized materials
Sub-Base course
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are
• To provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines
from the sub-grade in the pavement structure
• If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can
serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course
• A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement
constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features
offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be
provided.
Sub-grade
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the
layers above.
• It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed.
• It should be compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.
5. What are the assumptions and limitations of the following theories for determining stresses
and displacements? (i) Boussinesq’s theory (ii) Burmister’s theory
(i) Boussinesq’s theory assumptions and limitations:
➢ The soil mass is semi-infinite, homogeneous and isotropic. But soil mass is
never homogenous and isotropic
➢ The soil has a linear stress-strain relationship. Soil is non-linear with respect to
its properties.
➢ The soil is weightless. But in real time, soil has a specified density which cannot
be neglected
➢ Wheel load is assumed to be uniformly distributed over a circular area of radius
a. But wheel load is not uniform.
➢ The load acting will not be over a circular area. It will be elliptical in shape. But
for simplicity circular shape is assumed.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 ➢ The soil below the loading consists of only one layer with a uniform value of
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio. Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s
ratio will not remain constant throughout.
(ii) Burmister’s theory assumptions and limitations:
➢ The surface of soil is semi-infinite. The soil mass within a layer homogeneous
and isotropic. But soil mass is never homogenous and isotropic
➢ The soil has a linear stress-strain relationship. Soil is non-linear with respect to
its properties.
➢ The soil is weightless. But in real time, soil has a specified density which cannot
be neglected
➢ Wheel load is assumed to be uniformly distributed over a circular area of radius
a. But wheel load is not uniform.
➢ The load acting will not be over a circular area. It will be elliptical in shape. But
for simplicity circular shape is assumed.
➢ The soil below the loading consists of two layers such that top layer has a higher
modulus of elasticity in comparison to lower layer.
6. Explain frost action. What are the measures adopted to reduce its effects?
Frost action: Frost action can be quite detrimental to pavements and refers to two
separate but related processes:
➢ Frost heave. An upward movement of the subgrade resulting from the expansion
of accumulated soil moisture as it freezes.
➢ Thaw weakening. A weakened subgrade condition resulting from soil saturation
as ice within the soil melts.
Frost heave: Frost heaving of soil is caused by crystallization of ice within the larger
soil voids and usually a subsequent extension to form continuous ice lenses, layers,
veins, or other ice masses. An ice lens grows through capillary rise and thickens in the
direction of heat transfer until the water supply is depleted or until freezing conditions
at the freezing interface no longer support further crystallization. As the ice lens grows,
the overlying soil and pavement will “heave” up potentially resulting in a cracked,
rough pavement (see Figure 1). This problem occurs primarily in soils containing fine
particles (often termed “frost susceptible” soils), while clean sands and gravels (small
amounts of fine particles) are non-frost susceptible (NFS). Thus, the degree of frost
susceptibility is mainly a function of the percentage of fine particles within the soil.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 The three elements necessary for ice lenses and thus frost heave are:
➢ Frost susceptible soil.
➢ Subfreezing temperatures.
➢ Water.
Differential heave is more likely to occur at locations such as:
➢ Where subgrades change from clean not frost susceptible (NFS) sands to silty
frost susceptible materials.
➢ Abrupt transitions from cut to fill with groundwater close to the surface.
➢ Where excavation exposes water-bearing strata.
➢ Drains, culverts, etc., frequently result in abrupt differential heaving due to
different backfill material or compaction and the fact that open buried pipes
change the thermal conditions (i.e., remove heat resulting in more frozen soil).
➢ Ground water table
➢ Temperature gradient
➢ Mobility of water
Frost penetration: This indicates the formation of ice lenses in a subgrade. This makes
the subgrade strong during winter and weak during summer because of the melting of
ice lenses.
Freezing index: Severity of frost action can be expressed in terms of degree days. One
negative degree day defines one day with a mean air temperature of 1°C below
freezing. Similarly, one positive degree day is one day with a mean air temperature of
1°C above freezing.
Thaw Weakening

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 Thawing is essentially the melting of ice contained within the subgrade. As the ice melts
and turns to liquid it cannot drain out of the soil fast enough and thus the subgrade
becomes substantially weaker (less stiff) and tends to lose bearing capacity. Therefore,
loading that would not normally damage a given pavement may be quite detrimental
during thaw periods (e.g., spring thaw).
Measures adopted to reduce damage due to water and frost action
➢ Install proper surface and sub-surface drainage system
➢ Construction of base, sub-base and top layer of subgrade. up to the desired
depth, by granular and non- frost susceptible material with good drainage
characteristics.
➢ Requirement of filter layer is as follows:
𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
≥5
𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒
𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
≤5
𝐷85 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒
To prevent entry of soil particles into the drainage layer:
𝐷50 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
≤ 25
𝐷50 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 ➢ Providing a suitable capillary cut off

➢ Reduce adverse effects of frost action by soil stabilization so that the soil will
be able to withstand the adverse climatic conditions of alternate wet – dry and
freeze – thaw cycles.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 ➢ Salts like calcium chloride or sodium chloride when mixed with subgrade soil
lowers the freezing temperature of the soil – water and hence temporarily
decreases the intensity of frost action.
7. Briefly explain the desirable characteristics of pavement.
Desirable Characteristics of a Pavement:
(a) It should be structurally sound to withstand the heavy loads imposed on it. (b) It
should have sufficient thickness and composition such that the vehicle loads are
distributed to a safe value on the embankment on which it rests.
(c) It should have a strong and wear-resistant surface.
(d) It should be dust-proof.
(e) It should have a smooth surface such that vehicles can travel at good speed
comfortably and the wear and tear of vehicles is minimum.
(f) It should have a texture which is sufficiently rough to prevent skidding of vehicles.
(g) It should not generate high levels of sound.
(h) It should be sufficiently impervious to water such that the water does not reach the
soil sub-grade.
(i) It should have a long life, and the cost of maintaining it should be low.
(j) It should be economical to construct.
8. What are the various climatic factors that affect the design and performance of pavement?
Explain briefly.
The different factors that influence pavement performance are
(i) Temperature
(ii) Variation in moisture condition
(iii) Precipitation and
(iv) Frost action
Temperature: the effect of temperature is different for different pavements. Asphalt
pavement design on Indian roads is done for a temperature of 35°C. Asphalt being a
visco-elastic material, its properties will change with temperature. However, for
concrete pavements, temperature variations will induce warping stresses. To relieve
such stresses, joints are provided with expansion and contraction joints.
Daily and seasonal variation in temperature has significant effect on pavement
performance. At high temperatures bituminous binders will become soft whereas at low
temperatures they become stiff. Hence there will be vast changes in fatigue
characteristics of the pavement material under repeated application of wheel loads.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 Though freezing temperatures are prevalent in winter such design parameters should be
considered during the design stage itself.

Warping stresses in rigid pavements

Variation in moisture condition: Variation in moisture condition of subgrade is likely
to the following conditions:
➢ Variation in climate
➢ Soil type
➢ Ground water level
➢ Drainage conditions
➢ Type of pavement and shoulders
➢ Capillary action and vapour movement
Stability of the soil decreases with adverse moisture conditions. Presence of soil
fraction with high plasticity will result in variation in volume with change in water
content. There will be difference in moisture content in the subgrade below the centre
of the pavement and the pavement edges which can cause differential rise or fall in the
pavement. These damages are progressive and cumulative.
Precipitation: Precipitation otherwise referred to as rainfall will also influence the
pavement design. In the design of pavements, a minimum gradient has to be provided
to facilitate the easy flow of water. Excessive rainfall can influence both flexible and
rigid pavement design. If the joints are not sealed properly, water will enter the
pavement and will weaken the subgrade. This excessive water will make the subgrade
in the form of a slurry and rolling wheel loads, will cause the squeezing of slurry
through the joints. This is called as mud pumping. Provision of a base or sub-base layer
below a concrete pavement can help in the drainage of the percolated water and increase
the longevity of the pavement.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 In the case of asphalt pavements, the water may find its way through the pavement,
through the pores in open graded mix. However, the water that has entered can be easily
drained off through the granular sub-base layer.
Frost action: Frost action can be quite detrimental to pavements and refers to two
separate but related processes:
➢ Frost heave. An upward movement of the subgrade resulting from the expansion
of accumulated soil moisture as it freezes.
➢ Thaw weakening. A weakened subgrade condition resulting from soil saturation
as ice within the soil melts.
Frost heave: Frost heaving of soil is caused by crystallization of ice within the larger
soil voids and usually a subsequent extension to form continuous ice lenses, layers,
veins, or other ice masses. An ice lens grows through capillary rise and thickens in the
direction of heat transfer until the water supply is depleted or until freezing conditions
at the freezing interface no longer support further crystallization. As the ice lens grows,
the overlying soil and pavement will “heave” up potentially resulting in a cracked,
rough pavement (see Figure 1). This problem occurs primarily in soils containing fine
particles (often termed “frost susceptible” soils), while clean sands and gravels (small
amounts of fine particles) are non-frost susceptible (NFS). Thus, the degree of frost
susceptibility is mainly a function of the percentage of fine particles within the soil.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 The three elements necessary for ice lenses and thus frost heave are:
➢ Frost susceptible soil
This includes
• Grain size distribution
• Permeability
• Capillarity of soil
➢ Subfreezing temperatures
This includes
• Freezing point
• Duration of freezing temperature
• Depth to which frost action extends
➢ Water
Source of water will be
• Ground water due to capillary action
• Soil suction
➢ Cover
The rate of heat transfer depends upon
• Soil density and texture
• Moisture content

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 • Proportion of frozen moisture in the soil
• Type and colour of the cover affects the heat transfer from the
atmosphere to the soil beneath the cover. For instance, black topped
pavement will have higher temperature than a black topped pavement.
Differential heave is more likely to occur at locations such as:
➢ Where subgrades change from clean not frost susceptible (NFS) sands to silty
frost susceptible materials.
➢ Abrupt transitions from cut to fill with groundwater close to the surface.
➢ Where excavation exposes water-bearing strata.
➢ Drains, culverts, etc., frequently result in abrupt differential heaving due to
different backfill material or compaction and the fact that open buried pipes
change the thermal conditions (i.e., remove heat resulting in more frozen soil).
➢ Ground water table
➢ Temperature gradient
➢ Mobility of water
Frost penetration: This indicates the formation of ice lenses in a subgrade. This makes
the subgrade strong during winter and weak during summer because of the melting of
ice lenses.
Freezing index: Severity of frost action can be expressed in terms of degree days. One
negative degree day defines one day with a mean air temperature of 1°C below
freezing. Similarly, one positive degree day is one day with a mean air temperature of
1°C above freezing.
Thaw Weakening
Thawing is essentially the melting of ice contained within the subgrade. As the ice melts
and turns to liquid it cannot drain out of the soil fast enough and thus the subgrade
becomes substantially weaker (less stiff) and tends to lose bearing capacity. Therefore,
loading that would not normally damage a given pavement may be quite detrimental
during thaw periods (e.g., spring thaw).
9. Define ESWL. How ESWL is determined for dual wheel load assembly using equal stress
and deflection criteria. Explain briefly.
Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel load having the same contact
pressure, which produces same value of maximum stress, deflection, tensile stress or
contact pressure at the desired depth. The procedure of finding the ESWL for equal

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 stress criteria is provided below. This is a semi-rational method, known as Boyd and
Foster method, based on the following assumptions:
➢ Equivalency concept is based on equal stress;
➢ Contact area is circular;
➢ Influence angle is 45°; and
➢ Soil medium is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic half space.
ESWL can be estimated by three ways
(i) By equivalent vertical stress criteria
(ii) By equivalent deflection criterion
By equivalent vertical stress criteria: Boyd and Foster developed a semirational method
for determining ESWL. Here it is assumed the ESWL varies with pavement thickness.
For thickness smaller than half the clearance between the wheels, ESWL is equal to one
half of the total load. For thickness greater than twice the centre to centre spacing of
tires, ESWL is equal to the total load indicating the stresses overlap completely. By
assuming a straight line relationship between pavement thickness and wheel load on
logarithmic scales, the ESWL for any intermediate pavement thickness can be
estimated.

Foster and Ahlvin’s chart can also be used to determine the ESWL based on
Boussinesq’s theory based on the concept of equivalent vertical stresses. Here we
compute the vertical stresses developed at three critical points using the charts and the
procedure is as follows:
[𝝈𝒛 ]𝑬𝑺𝑾𝑳 = [𝝈𝒛 ]𝑫𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 𝝈𝒛 𝝈𝒛
[[ ] × 𝒒𝒔 ] = [[ ] × 𝒒𝒅 ]
𝒒𝒔 𝒒𝒅
𝑬𝑺𝑾𝑳 𝑫𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍

Since area remains constant,

𝝈𝒛 𝝈𝒛
[[ ] × 𝑷𝒔 ] = [[ ] × 𝑷𝒅 ]
𝒒𝒔 𝒒𝒅
𝑬𝑺𝑾𝑳 𝑫𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍

Or
𝑷𝒔 𝝈𝒛 ⁄𝒒𝒅
=
𝑷𝒅 𝝈𝒛 ⁄𝒒𝒔
Foster and Ahlvin’s chart can also be used to determine the ESWL based on
Boussinesq’s theory based on the concept of equivalent deflection criteria. Here we
compute the deflections developed at three critical points using the charts and the
procedure is as follows:
𝒒𝒔 𝒂𝑭𝒔
𝒘𝒔 =
𝑬
And
𝒒𝒅 𝒂𝑭𝒅
𝒘𝒅 =
𝑬
Since a, E and total deflection remains constant,
𝒘𝒔 = 𝒘𝒅
Or
𝒒𝒔 𝑭𝒔= 𝒒𝒅 𝑭𝒅
Critical positions for vertical stresses and deflections

10. A total load of 90 kN was applied on the surface of a two layer system through a rigid plate
of 300 mm in diameter. Layer-I has a thickness of 200 mm and Layer -2 has an elastic
modulus of 44.2 MPa. Both the layers are incompressible with a poisson’s ratio of µ = 0.5.
If the deflection of the plate is 2.5 mm, determine the elastic modulus of Layer- 1. Use
Chart 2 given.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 Since the plate is rigid, it is assumed as a rigid pavement
E of subgrade= 44.2 MPa
𝒂 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒎
Permissible deflection = 2.5 mm
𝟗𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟑
Pressure exerted = 𝝅 = 1.273MPa
⁄𝟒×(𝟎.𝟑𝟎)𝟐
𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝒑𝒂
∆= ×𝑭
𝑬𝟐
𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝒑𝒂
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = ×𝑭
𝑬𝟐
𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = ×𝑭
𝟒𝟒. 𝟐
F= 0.49
Assume 200/150 = 1.33
For F=0.49 and h/a = 1.33, E1/E2=7
Or E2 = 7×44.2 = 309.4 MPa
Modulus of elasticity of Layer 1 is 309.4 MPa.
11. A dual wheel assembly has 50 kN load on each wheel with a contact pressure of 0.6 N/mm2.
If the clear gap between the two wheels is 300 mm, using the stress chart and determine the
vertical stress values at a depth of 0.60 m due to dual wheel loads is 300 mm, using the
stress chart determine the vertical stress at a depth of 0.60 m due to dual wheel loads at
stress points as follows:
➢ Vertically below the centre of dual wheel load assembly
➢ Vertically below the centre of left wheel
➢ At radial distance of 0.60 m and 0.90 m from centre of left wheel towards other
wheel. Use Chart.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟑
Pressure exerted = 𝝅 𝟐
= 0.6×106
⁄𝟒 ×(𝟐𝒂)

Or a = 0.163 m
Centre to center distance = 0.163+0.3+0.163=0.626 m

0.3 m

0.626 m

Given z = 0.6 m
z/a = 0.6/0.163=3.68
Case 1: r = 0.626×0.5 = 0.313 m
r/a = 0.313/0.163 = 1.92
𝝈𝒛
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝒒
Or 𝝈𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = 𝟑𝟎𝒌𝑷𝒂
Case 2: r = 0
𝝈𝒛
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎
𝒒
Or 𝝈𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = 𝟔𝟎𝒌𝑷𝒂
Case 3:
For left wheel For right wheel

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 r = 0.6 m r = 0.626-0.6 = 0.026 m
r/a = 0.6/0.163 = 3.68 r/a = 0.026/0.163 = 0.1595
𝝈𝒛 𝝈𝒛
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗
𝒒 𝒒
Or 𝝈𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = Or 𝝈𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 =
𝟏𝟐𝒌𝑷𝒂 𝟓𝟒𝒌𝑷𝒂
Total stress = 12+54 = 66 kPa

Case 4:
For left wheel For right wheel
r = 0.9 m r = 0.9-0.626 = 0.274 m
r/a = 0.9/0.163 = 5.52 r/a = 0.274/0.163 = 1.68
𝝈𝒛 𝝈𝒛
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝒒 𝒒
Or Or 𝝈𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 =
𝝈𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔 × 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟑𝟔𝒌𝑷𝒂
= 𝟑. 𝟔𝒌𝑷𝒂
Total stress = 3.6+36 = 39.6 kPa

12. Determine the deflection values under a wheel load of 60 kN and contact pressure 0.7
N/mm2 in a homogenous mass of soil at a depth of z=2.5a upto a radial distance of r=5a.
Take modulus of elasticity of subgrade as 8N/mm2. Sketch the deflection curve. Use the
chart below.

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 Here, the deflection equation is
𝒒𝒂𝑭
𝒘=
𝑬
q = 0.7 N/mm2
E = 8 N/mm2
𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝝅𝒂𝟐 = = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟕𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝟎. 𝟕
𝒐𝒓 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓. 𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝒎

To compute the same, the following tabulations are used.

SN z/a r/a F from chart w
1 2.5a/a =2.5 0/a=0 0.54 7.8 mm
2 2.5a/a =2.5 1a/a=1 0.49 7.08 mm
3 2.5a/a =2.5 2a/a=2 0.36 5.20 mm
4 2.5a/a =2.5 3a/a=3 0.27 3.90 mm
5 2.5a/a =2.5 4a/a=4 0.21 3.04 mm
6 2.5a/a =2.5 5a/a=5 0.17 2.46 mm

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
13. A plate load test was carried out on subgrade using 300 mm diameter plate and
corresponding to a deflection of 5 mm, the load sustained on the plate per unit area was
0.08N/mm2. The test was repeated on the base course of thickness 300 mm and unit load
sustained was 0.45 N/mm2 at the same deflection. Find
(i) Elastic modulus of subgrade and the ratio Ep/Es
(ii) What should be the thickness of the base course as to sustain wheel load of 50 kN
and contact pressure of 0.6 N/mm2 so that maximum deflection does not exceed
5mm. Use Chart below.

Step 1: E value of subgrade

𝑭𝒘 × 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝒑𝒂
∆=
𝑬𝟐
Given :
Assume Fw =1
Δ = 5 mm

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
 p = 0.08 N/mm2 = 0.08 ×106 N/m2
a = 0.15 m
𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝒑𝒂 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
∆= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟐
𝒐𝒓 𝑬𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
Step 2: E value of base course
𝑭𝒘 × 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝒑𝒂
∆=
𝑬𝟐
Given :
Δ = 5 mm
p = 0.45 N/mm2 = 0.45 ×106 N/m2
a = 0.15 m
h =300 mm
𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝒑𝒂 𝑭𝒘 × 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
∆= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑬𝟐 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟖
h/a= 300/150 = 2
From the graph, for Fw= 0.178 and h/a = 2, E1/E2 = 48
Hence E of base course = 48×2.83×106 = 135.84 ×106 N/m2
Step 3: Design of flexible pavement
Contact area determination
𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝝅𝒂𝟐 = = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝟎. 𝟔
Or a = 162.86 mm
𝟏. 𝟓𝒑𝒂
∆= × 𝑭𝒘
𝑬𝟐
𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟑
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 = × 𝑭𝒘
𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟔
For Fw= 0.096 and E1/E2 = 48, h/a = 7 (approximately on extrapolation)
Or h = 1.141 m
This is a very huge value. To limit the thickness, the allowable deflection should be relaxed
to a higher value of say 8 mm or so
If its 8 mm, Fw= 0.154 and h/a will be 2.5 or h= 0.41 m

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
14. Plate bearing tests were conducted with a 75 cm diameter plate on soil subgrade and a
granular base. The stress noticed, when the deflection was 0.25 cm on the subgrade soil
was 0.07 MN/m2. On the base course, the same plate yielded 0.25 cm deflection under a
stress of 0.14 MN/m2. Design the pavement for an allowable deflection of 0.5 cm under a
load of 40 kN and a tyre pressure of 0.5MN/m2.
Refer class notes
Two steps: Determination of E value for different layers
Determination of pavement thickness
15. Plate bearing tests were conducted with 30 cm plate diameter on soil subgrade and over 15
cm base course. The pressure yielded at 0.5 cm deflection are 1.25 kg/cm2 and 4 kg/cm2
respectively. Deign the pavement section for 4100 kg wheel load with tyre pressure of 5
kg/cm2 for an allowable deflection of 0.5 cm using Burmister approach.
Refer class notes
Two steps: Determination of E value for different layers
Determination of pavement thickness
16. A set of dual tires has a total load of 40 kN and a contact radius of 114 mm with a centre
to centre tyre spacing of 343 mm. Determine the ESWL by Foster and Boyd’s method,
equivalent stress criterion and equivalent deflection criterion method for a 343 mm
pavement.
Refer class notes
Two steps: Determination of E value for different layers
Determination of pavement thickness

Prepared by Dr. Asha M Nair, Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology, Bengaluru