Chapter 1 Notes

CHEM 1411 General Chemistry Chemistry: A Molecular Approach by Nivaldo J. Tro

Matter, Measurement,
1 and Problem Solving
Chapter Objectives:
• learn the basic properties of matter and energy.
• learn to use and manipulate units, and convert from
one unit to another.
• learn to use the appropriate number of significant
figures in measurements and calculations.

Mr. Kevin A. Boudreaux

Angelo State University 1
www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea

What Is Chemistry?
• Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand
the composition, properties, and transformations
of matter by studying the behavior of atoms and
molecules.
• Chemistry is subdivided into different specialized
fields: organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry,
physical chemistry, biochemistry, analytical,
chemistry, environmental chemistry, etc.
• We study chemistry to provide ourselves with a
better understanding of the underlying workings of
nature, to learn how to make new materials with
useful properties that satisfy particular needs.
Chemistry intersects with other important fields,
such as biology, molecular biology and genetics,
medicine, physics, etc.
2
Chapter 1 Notes

Matter and Energy

The States of Matter

• Matter is anything that occupies space and has
mass. Matter is classified by its state and by its
composition:
• Solids have a fixed shape and volume that does not
conform to the container shape.
– The atoms or molecules vibrate, but don’t move
past each other, making solids rigid (more or less)
and incompressible.
– In crystalline solids, the atoms and molecules are
arranged with some kind of long-range, repeating
order, as in diamonds, ice, or salt
– In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order,
as in charcoal, glass, plastics.
4
Chapter 1 Notes

MOV:
The States
of Matter

5
p. 8

6
Figure 1.3
Chapter 1 Notes

The States of Matter

• Liquids have fixed volumes that conform to the
container shape (i.e., they form surfaces).
– The particles are packed closely, as in solids, but
are free to move past each other, making them
fluid and incompressible (more or less).
– e.g., liquid water
• Gases have no fixed shape or volume; they conform
to the container shape, but fill the entire volume (i.e.,
there is no surface).
– Gas particles are widely separated, making them
both fluid and compressible.
– e.g., steam
7

8
Figure 1.4
Chapter 1 Notes

The Composition of Matter

• Matter can be classified as either pure substances,
which have fixed compositions, or mixtures, which
have variable compositions.
– Pure substances (elements and compounds) are
unique materials with their own chemical and
physical properties, and are composed of only one
type of atom or molecule.
– Mixtures are simply random combinations of two
or more different types of atoms of molecules,
and retain the properties of the individual
substances. They can therefore be separated
(although sometimes with difficulty) by physical
means (such as boiling, distillation, melting,
crystallizing, magnetism, etc.).
9

The Composition of Matter — Pure Substances

• Pure Substances:
– An element is the simplest type of matter with
unique physical and chemical properties;
elements consist of only one kind of atom.
– A compound is a pure substance that is
composed of atoms or two or more different
elements. There are two major types of chemical
compounds: ionic compounds and molecular
compounds.
– Compounds cannot be broken down by physical
means, but can be broken down (although
sometimes with difficulty) by chemical reactions.

10
Chapter 1 Notes

The Composition of Matter — Mixtures

• Matter usually occurs as mixtures. A mixture is a
blend of two or more substances added together in
some random proportion without chemically
changing the individual substances themselves.
– Heterogeneous mixtures are those in which the
mixing is not uniform and which therefore have
regions of different compositions — i.e., there are
observable boundaries between the components
(e.g., ice-water, salad dressing, milk, dust in air).
– Homogeneous mixtures (or solutions) are those
in which the mixing is uniform and which
therefore have a constant composition
throughout; there are no observable boundaries
because the substances are intermingled on the
molecular level (e.g., salt water, sugar water, air).
11

The Composition of Matter

Matter

Pure physical separation

Mixtures
Substances

Heterogeneous Homogeneous
Elements Compounds
Mixtures Mixtures
chemical reactions

Ionic Molecular
Compounds Compounds 12
Chapter 1 Notes

13
p.9

Separation of Mixtures
• Since the components of a mixture are different
substances, with at least some physical properties
that are unique to each compound, mixtures can be
separated by physical means into their components
by techniques such as filtration, distillation,
chromatography, etc.

MOV:
Mixtures and Figure 1.5, 1.6 14
Compounds
Chapter 1 Notes

Physical and Chemical Changes

• A physical change occurs when a substance alters its
physical form, but not its composition — the atoms
and molecules in the sample retain their identities
during a physical change (e.g., ice melting into liquid
water, liquid water boiling to steam.)
MOV:
Changes
of State
H2O(s) → H2O(l)
• A chemical change is one that alters the composition
of matter — the atoms in the sample rearrange their
connections in a chemical reaction, transforming the
substance into a different substance (e.g., the rusting
of iron, the formation of water from hydrogen and
oxygen, etc.)
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) ⎯→ 2Fe2O3(s)
2H2(g) + O2(g) ⎯→ 2H2O(l)
15

Physical and Chemical Properties

• Physical properties are properties that do not
involve a change in a substance’s chemical makeup
(e.g., melting and boiling points, color, density,
odor, solubility, etc.).
• Chemical properties are properties that do involve
a change in chemical makeup (e.g., flammability,
corrosiveness, reactivity with acids, etc.).

Boiling of water
a physical change

Rusting of iron
a chemical change

16
Figure 1.7 Figure 1.8
Chapter 1 Notes

17
Figure 1.9

Physical and Chemical Properties of Copper

• Copper — Physical Properties
– reddish brown, metallic luster
– it is malleable (easily formed into thin
sheets) and ductile (easily drawn into
wires)
– good conductor of heat and electricity
– can be mixed with zinc to form brass or
with tin to form bronze
– density = 8.95 g/cm3
– melting point = 1083°C
– boiling point = 2570°C

• Copper — Chemical Properties

– slowly forms a green carbonate in moist
air
– reacts with nitric acid and sulfuric acid
– forms a deep blue solution in aqueous
ammonia
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Chapter 1 Notes

Examples: Physical and Chemical Changes

1. Which of the following processes are physical
changes, and which are chemical changes? (sim. to
Example 1.1)
a. the evaporation of rubbing alcohol
b. the burning of lamp oil
c. the bleaching of hair with hydrogen peroxide
d. the forming of frost on a cold night
e. the beating of a copper wire into a sheet
f. a nickel dissolving in acid to produce H2 gas
g. dry ice evaporating without melting
h. the burning of a log in a fireplace 19

Energy
• Energy is defined as the ability to do work.
• Work is done when a force is exerted through a
distance.
• The total energy possessed by an object is the sum of
its kinetic energy (energy of motion) and potential
energy (energy resulting from position).
• Energy is measured in Joules (J) or calories (cal).
• Energy may be converted from one form to another,
but it is neither created nor destroyed (conservation
of energy).
• In general, systems tend to move from situations of
high potential energy (less stable) to situations
having lower potential energy (more stable).
20
Chapter 1 Notes

Potential and Kinetic Energy

• Gravitational potential
energy decreases as the
weight falls, while the
kinetic energy of the
weight increases as it falls
faster and faster, but the
sum of the kinetic and
potential energies is
always the same.
• When the weight hits the
ground, the energy in
converted into thermal
energy, raising the
temperature of the
ground.
21
Figure 1.10

Chemical Energy
• The chemical potential energy of a substance
results from the relative positions and the attractions
and repulsions among all its particles. Under some
circumstances, this energy can be released, and can
be used to do work:

22
Figure 1.11
Chapter 1 Notes

Measurement and
Units

23

Units
• In science, the most commonly used set of units are
those of the International System of Units (the SI
System, for Système International d’Unités).
• There are seven fundamental units in the SI system.
The units for all other quantities (e.g., area, volume,
energy) are derived from these base units.
Physical Quantity Unit Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
24
Chapter 1 Notes

Larger and Smaller Units

• In many instances, decimal multipliers are used in
combination with the base or derived units, in cases
where numbers are inconveniently large or small:
– the diameter of a sodium atom:
• long-hand: 0.000 000 000 372 m
• scientific notation: 3.72 × 10-10 m
• prefix units: 0.372 nm or 372 pm
– the distance from the earth to the sun:
• long-hand: 150,000,000,000 m
• scientific notation: 1.50 × 1011 m
• prefix units: 150 Gm
25

26
Chapter 1 Notes

SI Prefix Multipliers — Large Units

Factor Prefix Symbol Example Scale
1024 yotta Y volume of earth ~ 1 YL
radius of Milky Way ~ 1
1021 zetta Z Zm
1018 exa E age of universe ~ 0.4 Es
1015 peta P 1 light-year ~ 9.5 Pm
distance from sun to Jupiter
1012 tera T ~ 0.8 Tm
Î 109 giga G 1 Gm = 109 m 1 light-second ~ 0.3 Gm
Î 106 mega M 1 Mm = 106 m 1 Ms ~ 11.6 days
Î 103 kilo k 1 kg = 1000 g
memorize!

102 hecto h 1 hm = 100 m

101 deka da 1 dag = 10 g
100 — — — —
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SI Prefix Multipliers — Small Units

Factor Prefix Symbol Example Scale
100 — — — —
Î 10-1 deci d 1 dm = 0.1 m
Î 10-2 centi c 1 cm = 0.01 m
Î 10 -3 milli m 1 mg = 0.001 g
Î 10-6 micro μ 1 μm = 10-6 m 1water
µL ~ a very tiny drop of

Î 10-9 nano n 1 ns = 10-9 s radius of Cl atom ~ 0.1 nm

Î 10-12 pico p 1 pm = 10-12 m mass

pg
of bacterial cell ~ 1
memorize!

10-15 femto f radius of a proton ~ 1 fm

time for light to cross an
10-18 atto a atom ~ 1 as
10-21 zepto z 1 zmol ~ 600 atoms
1.7 yg ~ mass of a proton
10-24 yocto y or neutron
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Chapter 1 Notes

Mass and Length

• Mass — the amount of matter in an object.
• In the SI system, mass is measured in kilograms, kg
(1 kg = 2.205 U.S. lb).
• More commonly, the gram (g), milligram (mg,) and
microgram (μg) are used in chemistry.
• The terms “mass” and “weight” are often used
interchangeably, but weight is actually a measure of
the pull of gravity on an object.
• In the SI system, length is measured in meters, m (1
m = 39.37 in)
• More commonly, the centimeter (cm, 2.54 cm =
1 in), millimeter (mm), micrometer (μm), nanometer
(nm) and picometer (pm) are used in chemistry.
29

Temperature
(Is It Hot In Here, Or Is It Me?)

• In the SI system,
temperature is measured
in kelvins, K, but often
the Celsius degree, °C, is
used instead.
• A kelvin is the same size
as a Celsius degree, but
with the zero point set at
the coldest possible
temperature, absolute
zero (-273.15°C).
• In most mathematical K = °C + 273.15
formulas, K must be used
instead of °C. °F = 95 °C + 32
°C = 95 (°F - 32 ) 30
Chapter 1 Notes

Time
• In the SI system, time is measured in seconds, s.
• A second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770
periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the caesium-133 atom.

Derived Units
• From the SI base units, we can derive other units,
such as those for area, volume, density, force, etc.
• Volume, the amount of space occupied by an object,
is measured in cubic meters (m3); more commonly,
the liter (L), cubic centimeter (cm3), and milliliter
(mL, 1 mL = 1 cm3) are used.
31

Density
• Density, the ratio of an object’s mass (m) to its
volume (V), is given by the formula:
m
d=
V
– Density has units of mass over
volume: g/mL, g/L, lb/gal, kg/m3,
lb/ft3, etc.
– Because volume changes with
temperature, density is temperature-
dependent.

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Chapter 1 Notes

Extensive and Intensive Properties

• Extensive properties depend on the size of the
sample (mass, volume, length, etc.).
• Intensive properties are independent of the size of
the sample (color, melting / boiling point, odor, etc.)
• Despite the fact that the mass and volume of a
sample are extensive properties, the density of a pure
substance is an intensive property.

33

More Derived Units

Quantity Definition Units
Area Length × width m2
Volume Length × width × height m3
Density Mass / volume kg/m3, g/cm3, g/mL
Speed Distance / time m s-1
Acceleration Change in speed / time m s-2
Frequency Event / time s-1
Force Mass × acceleration kg m s-2 (newton, N)
Pressure Force / area kg m-1 s-2 (pascal, Pa)
Energy Force × distance kg m2 s-2 (joule, J)
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Chapter 1 Notes

Accuracy,
Precision,
and
Significant Figures
35

Accuracy and Precision

• Accuracy refers to how close to the true value a
given measurement is.
• Precision refers to how well a number of
independent measurements agree with each other.
• In the following example, a lead block with a mass
of 10.00 g has been measured by three students:

36
Chapter 1 Notes

Significant Figures
• The total number of digits in a measurement is
called the number of significant figures.
• The greater the number of significant figures, the
greater the certainty of the measurement.
• When reading a scale, the value you record should
use all of the digits you are sure of, plus one
additional digit that you estimate. This last
estimated digit is the last significant figure in your
reading. (On a digital readout, the last number on
the screen is usually the last significant figure.)

37

Measured Numbers vs. Exact Numbers

• All measured numbers will have some limit to how
precisely they are known, and there is a limit to the
number of significant digits contained in the
number.
– This must be taken into account when doing
calculations with those numbers!
• Exact numbers are relationships that are arrived at
by counting discrete objects (3 atoms = 3.00000…
atoms) or that are true by definition: 12 inches = 1
foot, 60 s = 1 min, 5280 feet = 1 mile, 100 cm = 1
m, 2.54 cm = 1 inch, etc.
– There is no uncertainty in these numbers, and
they have an infinite number of significant figures
(i.e., they do not affect the number of significant
figures in the result of a calculation). 38
Chapter 1 Notes

Counting Significant Figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures:
• All nonzero digits are significant. (42 has 2 sf’s.)
• Zeros in the middle of a number are significant.
(4.803 cm has 4 sf’s.)
• Leading zeros are not significant; they are there to
locate the decimal point. (0.00123 g has three sf’s.)
• Trailing zeros are significant if the number contains
a decimal point. (55.220 K has five sf’s; 50.0 mg
has three sf’s, 5.100 × 10-3 has four sf’s.)
• Trailing zeros are not significant if the number does
not contain a decimal. (34,200 m has three sf’s.)
– Because trailing zeros can be ambiguous, it is a good
practice to avoid these by reporting the number in
scientific notation.
39

Manipulating Significant Figures

• The results of calculations are only as reliable as the
least precise measurement.
Miles 278 mi
Mileage = = = 23.760683760684 ... mi/gal
Gallons 11.70 gal

Rules for Calculating Numbers involving sig. figs.:

• During multiplication or division, the result has the
same number of sf’s as the factor with the fewest
sf’s.
• During addition or subtraction, the result has the
same number of decimal places as the quantity with
the fewest decimal places.
• The final answer is then rounded off appropriately. 40
Chapter 1 Notes

Manipulating Significant Figures

41

Examples: Significant Figures

2. Report the volume on the graduated cylinder shown
below (which is read at the bottom of the meniscus)
to the correct number of significant figures.
(Example 1.4) Report the temperature on the
thermometer shown below to the correct number of
significant figures. (For Practice 1.4)

42
Chapter 1 Notes

Examples: Significant Figures

3. How many significant figures are in each of the
following? (sim. to Example 1.5)
a. 0.04450 m
b. 1000 m = 1 km
c. 0.00002 g
d. 5.0003 km
e. 1.000×10-3 mL
f. 10,000 m
g. 4080 kg
h. 1.4500 L
i. 2.54 cm = 1 in
j. 0.000304 s
43

Examples: Significant Figures

4. Perform the following calculations to the correct
number of significant figures. (Example 1.6)
a. 1.10 × 0.5120 × 4.0015 ÷ 3.4555 = 0.652

b. 0.355 + 105.1 – 100.5820 = 4.9

c. 4.562 × 3.99870 ÷ (452.6755 – 452.33) = 53

d. (14.84 × 0.55) – 8.02 0.1

44
Chapter 1 Notes

Examples: Conversions and Significant Figs.

5. A bar of aluminum has a mass of 1210 g. What is
its mass in kilograms (kg)?
1 kg = ? g
1 kg = 1000 g

1000 g g2
1210 g × =
1 kg kg

1 kg
1210 g × = kg
1000 g
45

Examples: Conversions and Significant Figs.

6. The radius of a copper atom is 0.1280 nanometers
(nm). What is its radius in picometers (pm)?

Answer: 128.0 pm

46
Chapter 1 Notes

Examples: Conversions and Significant Figs.

7. What is the volume in liters of a sample of acetone
having a mass of 925 g? (The density of acetone is
0.788 g/mL)
m
d=
V

d g/mL
V= V= = mL-1
m g

m g
V= V= = mL
d g/mL
Answer: 1.17 L
47

Examples: Conversions and Significant Figs.

8. What is the mass in grams of a sample of acetone
that has a volume of 1.180 L? The density of
acetone is 0.788 g/mL.

Answer: 930. g
48
Chapter 1 Notes

Examples: Conversions and Significant Figs.

9. Convert 40.00°C to K and °F. (Example 1.2)

Answer: 104.00°F, 313.15 K

49

Examples: Conversions and Significant Figs.

10. A small hole in the heat shield of the space shuttle
requires a 32.70 cm2 patch. If the patching
material costs NASA $2.75/in2, what is the cost of
the patch?

Answer: $13.94
50
Chapter 1 Notes

Examples: Conversions and Significant Figs.

11. Many of the German autobahns have no speed
limit, and it’s not unusual to see a Porsche or
Mercedes flash by at 190 km/hr. What is this
speed in miles per hour?

Answer: 120 mi/hr

51

Examples: Conversions and Significant Figs.

12. To leave the surface of the Earth, an object must
attain an escape velocity of 11,200 m/s. What is
this speed in units of miles per hour?

Answer: 25,000 mi/hr (or 2.50×104 mi/hr)

52