4

TABLE III
T HE COMPONENTS OF THE I O NT AND I O BNT NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

Components Description
Nano nodes are the simplest nano devices that perform tasks such as data sensing,
Nano-nodes
transmission, and computation.
Nano routers are more advanced devices than nano-nodes in terms of features
such as computing and storage. They are responsible for collecting information
Nano-routers
from nano nodes and controlling nano nodes with simple control commands
(on/off, sleep, read value, etc.).
Nano-micro interfaces are hybrid devices that can both communicate at nanoscale
Nano-micro and use classical communication paradigms in traditional communication networks.
interface device They are responsible for collecting information from nano routers and sending it to
micro-scale devices. This component is used in IoNT.
The bio-cyber interface is a hybrid device that converts the biochemical
Bio-cyber interface signal received from in-body nano-networks into electrical signal for processing
by external networks. This component is used in IoBNT.
Gateways are hybrid devices that can be used in both classical and nano networks
Gateways at micro and macro scales. These devices allow remote control of the designed IonT
and IoBNT networks via the Internet.
These devices are responsible for the storage, analysis, real-time monitoring of
Application-specific
information from nano-networks. They can be used in applications such as
servers
healthcare, medical, entertainment or multimedia.

Cloud/Remote
Servers

Electromagnetic / Teraherz
Molecular Communication Communication

Nano-nodes, films Nano Router

and implantable devices
Healthcare
Professionals
Micro Link
Nano Micro
Interface Nano Link

Bacteria
Gateway
Virus

Fig. 2. A typical IoNT and IoBNT network architecture for healthcare applications

igation of infectious diseases. For instance, cystic fibrosis network to be developed, insulin and glucose concentration
disease is a genetic disease that can be seen in organs and values can be transmitted directly to healthcare providers. In
systems such as lungs, pancreas, intestines, sweat glands. It this way, besides monitoring the health status, pump life can be
develops in waves and causes the death of patients. In [19], extended by ensuring that the insulin cartridge lasts longer. In
Akyıldız et al. proposed an IoBNT network called PANACEA, addition, thanks to such smart systems, the body is protected
which provides an end-to-end solution to infectious diseases. from the side effects of excess insulin. On the other hand,
In this network, a submillimeter implantable bio-electronic preventive health services can be provided by methods such
device that senses communication within body cells is used as pre-illness therapy with a holistic approach to physical and
to determine the level of infection. psychological diseases. In this context, it is predicted that
healthy living conditions can be created by making changes
Another common disease today is diabetes. Abbasi et al.
in people’s lifestyles with IoBNT [28].
[27] focused on modeling IoBNT applications that will im-
prove the diagnosis, management and treatment practices of Since IoNT and IoBNT are emerging network paradigms,
the insulin-glucose system for this disease. Through an IoBNT the developed applications in these networks are also at the
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beginner level. Moreover, the integration of nanomachines implants, films, environmental sensors, non-injectable sensors,
into the human body, their architectural design, and efficient edible and biodegradable sensors, films, and disposable de-
operation (communication, computing, storage, etc.) of these vices [32], [33]. Biodegradable and editable electronics work
devices within the heterogeneous network structure are among for a period of time and are then lost by hydrolysis or biochem-
the main challenges. Therefore, there is an increasing number ical reactions. Intelligent forms of these devices can be used in
of research efforts aimed at eliminating existing and potential a wide variety of fields such as food packaging, drug delivery,
challenges. Al-Turjman proposed an energy efficient frame- tissue engineering, and medical equipment manufacturing [32].
work focusing on data delivery in nanonetworks. With this The structure of biodegradable devices/sensors can compose of
framework, it is aimed to realize data distribution with energy metals, polymers, silicon and their composites [34]. Moreover,
sensitive routing protocols by considering the shortest path edible and digestible devices can be swallowed by patients
[16]. daily in pill form or consumed with food. In addition to
It is clear that IoNT has different architectural requirements being suitable for ingestion, edible devices are fully digested
for different network models and applications. In these net- in the body and can be safely released into the environment.
works, communication model design is also another challenge. Thanks to these features, the device can transmit patient health
In [8], Ali et al. investigated the structure of communication data to healthcare professionals in real time. In addition,
models in the IoNT network that developed for drug delivery it can eliminate the complications (bleeding, perforation of
and disease detection. In the study, they evaluated the advan- the colon, severe pain in the abdomen) that may arise from
tages and disadvantages of these two models by establishing routine scanning and imaging techniques such as endoscopy
non-additive and single-layer communication models. In [29], and colonoscopy [10].
Stelzner et al. introduced a new concept of function-centered Thanks to the advances in biochemistry, materials and en-
Nano-network (FCNN) focusing on intra-body communication gineering, it has become possible to use the above-mentioned
scenarios. FCNN aims to minimize memory requirements different forms of electronic and biomaterials for the benefit
by combining the location and function capabilities of nano of the environment and human beings. At this point, IoBDT
machines. In another study, Canovas-Carrasco et al. [30] and IoIT networks emerge as specific types of IoBNT. These
emphasized that the development of optimal transmission networks can be developed based on IoNT and IoBNT specific
policies to be used in nano-networks, reducing implementation components and architectures. However, these networks differ
costs and in vivo monitoring of nano-sensors depend on the in terms of edge device/sensor and consist of application-
generation of smart policies. For this reason, the authors specific edible, digestible and biodegradable sensors or de-
proposed the Markov decision process model, which enables vices. An example system/network model of IoBDT and IoIT
the derivation of smart policies. is given in Fig 3.
From the network architecture perspective,, Galal and Hes-
selbach [31] presented a multi-layered architectural model in
A. IoBDT and IoIT Applications
nano networking that combines software-defined networking
(SDN), network function virtualization (NFV) and IoT tech- It is seen that degradable, digestible and edible devices are
nologies. In the study, the authors proposed a number of widely used in the digestive and circulatory systems. In this
functionalities and usage scenarios that could be implemented context, in [40] the authors stated that edible electronic devices
for nanodevices. In addition, significant challenges and gaps can be used to monitor the physical and chemical parameters
in implementing the proposed functions with nano-technology of the gastrointestinal system such as pH, temperature and
are discussed. In [6], the usage possibilities, architecture, peritalsis, as well as various potagens and disorders in the
communication models, advantages and challenges of nano gastrointestinal system. In another study, Steiger et al. [10]
technology through nanobiosensors and IoNT in modern showed that capsule endoscopes can be used to detect bleeding
health care were determined. It has been emphasized that the in the gastrointestinal tract and detect inflammatory bowel
concept of placing nanoscale devices in the human body has diseases. In [41], an example IoIT network design is presented,
the potential to be used in all health and medical applications where information about the patient’s stomach can be trans-
that exist today. mitted to doctors over the cloud via swallowable tablets. In
the study [38], Becker et al. explained that edible smart pills
can be used for digital monitoring of chronic patients’ drug
III. I NTERNET OF B IODEGRADABLE AND I NGESTIBLE
intake, targeted drug delivery, drug release rate, drug intake
T HINGS
time and place.
Today, the world is faced with a serious waste load due to On the other hand, various studies have been conducted to
global warming, climate change and environmental pollution. reveal the state of intestinal health and disorders, the effect of
Therefore, the biological and technological needs for the foods, medicinal supplements and environmental changes on
correct disposal of the generated waste are increasing day by the gastrointestinal tract. The main purpose of these studies is
day [9]. The ability to recycle biodegradable, compostable and to detect and monitor intestinal structure and functions using
soluble materials to eliminate the negative effects attracts the ingestible sensing capsule technology [11].
attention of scientists and the public more than ever before. In [36], Kalantar-Zadeh et al. conducted a pilot trial in a
Recent advances in synthetic chemistry and engineering have real human body of an ingestible electronic capsule containing
enabled the development of many materials such as medical thermally conductive and semiconductor sensors that detect