Ent-354 - Notes Cum Manual YTJ - F

INDEX
Course No.:- ENTO- 354 (New) Credit: - 1 + 1 = 2

Course Title:- Pests of Crops and Stored Grain and their Management
Ex. Exercise Title Pg. Date Sign

No. No.
1 Pests of Rice 1-7
2 Pests of Sorghum 8-12
3 Pests of Maize, Bajra, Wheat and Miner millets 13-15
4 Pests of Pigeon pea 16-18
5 Pests of Chickpea, Mung bean, Urd bean, Cowpea 19-20
and Pea
6 Pests of Groundnut 21-22
Field Visit
7 Pests of Castor and Sunflower 23-25
8 Pests of Safflower, Mustard, Linseed 26-28
9 Pests of Soybean, Sesamum and Niger 29-30
10 Pests of Cotton 31-37
11 Pests of Sunhemp and Mesta 38-39
Field Visit
12 Pests of Sugarcane 40-44
13 Non insect pests of field crops 45-48
14 Store grain pests 49-53
15 Non insect pests, mites, rodents, birds and 54-57
microorganisms associated with stored grain and
their management
16 Storage structure and methods of grain storage and 58-63
fundamental principles of grain store management
17 Preventive and curative methods of stored grain 64-65
pests
CertifiCate
This is to certify that Mr./Miss. _______________________________
Registration No. ____________has successfully completed all the practical exercises of
course no. ENTO-354 (Pests of Crops and Stored Grain and their Management) as
per the syllabus designed by Vth Dean Committee for B. Sc. (Agri.) students during Vth
semester of the academic year 2019 – 2020, as per prescribed by M.C.A.E.R., Pune.
Place:
Date: Course Instructor
EXERCISE No. I
PESTS OF RICE
More than 100 insect species are associated with the rice crop at one stage or the other
and 20 of these are pests of major economic significance.
Sr.No. Pest Name Scientific Name Family Order

1 Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas Pyralidae Lepidoptera
2 Stripped stem borer Chilo partellus Pyralidae Lepidoptera
3 Brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens Delphacidae Hemiptera
4 Green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens, Cicadellidae Hemiptera
N. nigropictus and
N. cincticeps
5 Gall midge/ Gall fly Orseolia oryzae Cecidomyiidae Diptera
6 Swarming Spodoptera mauritia Noctuidae Lepidoptera
caterpillar
7 Rice case worm Nymphula Pyraustidae Lepidopera
depunctalis
8 Rice skipper Pelopidas mathias Hesperiidae Lepidoptera
9 Spiny beetle / Rice Dicladispa armigera Chrysomelidae Coleoptera
hispa
Non Insect Pests
10 Land Crabs Paratelphusa quernii, Chrysomelidae Coleoptera
P. jacquemontii
11 Snail and Slugs: Snail: Helix spps., Gastropoda Mollusca
Slugs: Limax spp.
1) Stem Borer:
a) Yellow stem borer: Scirpophaga incertulas (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and Status: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, China, India, Sri
Lanka and Indonesia.
Host range: Rice
Life history:
Female moth has bright yellowish brown fore wings with a black spot and a tuft
of yellow anal hairs while male is smaller with pale yellow forewings without black spot.
Each female lays 170-200 eggs in a mass of 15-80 on the upper surface of leaf tips
covered with buff coloured hairs. The egg period 6-9 days; larva pale yellow with dark
brown head, swims in water and bores in to the stem near the node. The larva migrates to
other tillers also. Larval period 20-45 days, pupation in white silken cocoon. Pupa dark
brown in color, pupal period is 6-10 days.
Nature of damage:
Larva feeds on the stem and causes drying of the central shoot known as “dead
heart” in the young seedlings, and drying of the panicle in grown up plant called “white
ear”. Damage ranges from 30-80%.
Whitehead or dead panicles at reproductive stage (IRRI)
Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |1 |

ETL:
2 egg masses/ m2
10% dead hearts - Vegetative stage
2% white ear - Flowering stage
b) Stripped stem borer: Chilo partellus (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)
Host range: Rice, sorghum, maize, sugarcane and wild grases.
Life history:
Each female lays 200 eggs. Larval period 15-26 days, pupation in stem, pupal
period is 3-5 days, Life cycle completed in 6-7 weeks.
Carryover: Pest hibernates as larva in stubbles in off season.
Seasonal occurrence: Pest active from July to November.
Nature of damage:
Larva feeds on the stem and causes drying of the central shoot known as “dead
heart” in the young seedlings, and drying of the panicle in grown up plant called “white
ear”. Damage ranges from 30-80%.
Management:
1. Grow resistant varieties viz., Ratna, Jaya, TKM 6, IR 20 and IR 26, Sayasree, Saket,
IET 3127, IET 2812, MTU 5849, PTB 12, PTB 20, PT 321, H 4.
2. Clip the seedling tips before transplanting to eliminate egg masses and collect &
destroy the egg masses in main field.
3. Avoid close planting and continuous water stagnation at early stages.
4. Clipping of the tips at time of transplant to destroy egg masses.
5. Collect and destroy the dead hearts and white ears.
6. Set up light traps to attract and kill the moths.
7. Install sex pheromone traps to monitor and mass trap.
8. Release the egg parasitoid, Trichogramma japonicum twice on 30 and 37 DAT @
50000 parasitoids/ ha.
9. Apply Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki and neem seed kernel extract in the
combination of 2.5 g/L and 1% to reduce the oviposition by the stem borer.
10. Apply carbofuran 3 G @ 25 kg or benfuracarb 3 G 33 kg or or chlorantraniliprole
0.4 G 10 kg or fipronil 0.3 G 17-25 kg.
11. Harvest the crop up to the ground level and disturb the stubbles with plough
immediately after the harvest.
2) Brown plant hopper: Nilaparvata lugens (Delphacidae: Hemiptera)
Distribution and status:
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal, Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab in India, South East Asia, China,
Japan, Korea
Host range: Rice, sugarcane, grasses
Life history
The brown plant hopper has a brown body and chestnut brown eyes. Adult
measures about 4 - 4.5 mm in length capable of flying a long distance drifting with the
wind. Adults are of two forms viz., macropterous (long winged) and brachypterous (short
winged). The female makes an incision in the leaf sheath and inserts 200-300 small eggs,
egg period -6 days; nymphal period - 15 days and adult longevity 18-20 days.
Nature of damage:
Nymphs and adults congregate at the base of the plant above the water level and
suck the sap from the tillers. The affected plant dries up and gives a scorched appearance
called “hopper burn”. Circular patches of drying and lodging of matured plants are
typical symptoms caused by this pest. It is the vector of grassy stunt, ragged stunt and
wilted stunt diseases.
ETL: 8-10 Nos./hill or 20 Nos./hill when spider is present at 1 No./hill
Management
1. Use resistant varieties like Aruna, Karnataka, Karthika, Krishnaveni, Makon, Abhey,
Asha, Divya, Py 3, Co 42, Co 46, PTB 21, Jyoti (PTB 29) and PTB 33,
Manasarowar, Bhadra, IET 7575, IET 6315, MTU 1249, R 650 - 1820, Shyraksha,
Arvindar, kartik, bharatidasan, neela, uday, sonasali, vajram, chaitanya, nagarrjuna
and chandana,
2. Avoid close planting and provide 30 cm rogue spacing at every 2.5 m to reduce the
pest incidence.
3. Avoid use of excessive nitrogenous fertilizers.
4. Control irrigation by intermittent draining.
5. Set up light traps to monitor and control pest population.
6. Release of natural enemies like wolf spider, Lycosa pseudoannulata and green mirid
bug Cyrtorrhinus lividipennis.
7. Avoid use of insecticides causing resurgence such as synthetic pyrethroids, methyl
parathion, fenthion and quinalphos.
8. Drain the water before the use of insecticides and direct the spray towards the base of
the plants.
9. Spray neem seed kernel extract 5% (25 kg/ha) (or) neem oil 2% (10 L/ha).
10. Spray imidacloprid 17.8 SL 125 ml or buprofezin 25 SC 325 ml or or acephate 75
SP 625 g or or /ha.
3) Paddy Jassids (Green leafhopper): Nephotettix virescens, N. nigropictus and N.
Cincticeps (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: India, South Japan to oriental region, west of south Africa,
Phillippines, Formosa, Sri Lanka.
Host range: Rice, millets, grasses.
Life history:
Adults green with black spot and black patch on wings, gravid female inserts
200-300 eggs in batches of 8-16 in midrib of leaf blade. Egg period 6-7 days, nymphs
undergo five instars and become adult in 25 days. Adult longevity 20-30 days. The
population normally increases from August onwards, reaches maximum during
September - October and declines from November.
Nature of damage:
Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves and cause “hopper burn” due to heavy
infestation. Yellowing of leaves from tip downwards is the typical symptom caused by
this pest. However, it is more important as a vector for rice tungro virus, rice yellow
dwarf and transitory yellowing diseases.
ETL: 60 Nos. / 25 sweeping – Nursery
10 Nos. / hill - Flowering stage
5 Nos. / hill - Vegetative stage
2 Nos. / hill - Tungro endemic area
Management
1. Use resistant varieties like IR 20, IR 50, CR 1009, Co 46, PTB 2, PTB 18, IET
7301, IET 7302, IET 7303 and Vani, Vikra marka, Lalit, Nidhi
2. Nursery should not be raised near the lamp posts.
3. Apply neem cake @ 12.5 kg/800 m2 nursery as basal dose.
4. Apply carbofuran 3 G @ 3.5 kg or phorate 10 G @ 1.0 kg or quinalphos 25 EC 80
ml or endosulfan 35 EC 80 ml per 800 m2 nursery. Maintain the water level at 2.5
cm for 3 days after granular application.
5. Spray any of the following insecticide in 500 L water/ha
Acephate 75 SP 666-1000 g Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 100 -125 ml
Endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml Quinalphos 25 EC 1000 ml
4) Paddy Grasshopper: Hieroglyphus banian (Acrididae: Orthoptera)
Life history:
Adults are green, larger with transverse black lines on pronotum. It lays eggs in
soil at a depth of 5 cm. Nymphal period is from 2.5 - 3.5 months
Nature of damage:
The nymphs and adults cause enormous loss to the crop by chewing and cutting
various plant portion viz., leaves, flowers and grains. They completely defoliate the plants
leaving only the mid ribs and the plant growth is affected.
Management:
1. Expose the eggs to be picked up by birds after ploughing and trimming the bunds
2. Egg parasitoids Cacallus spp., Barycomus spp. and Seelio spp., should be
encouraged.
3. Dust the crop with 5-10% BHC (or) methyl parathion 2% or lindane 2 D 25-30
kg/ha (or) malathion 5 D 20 kg/ha
4. Spray dichlorvos 76 EC 500 ml/ha (or) malathion 50 EC 2.5 lit/ha.
5) Paddy Gall midge or gall fly: Orseolia oryzae (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)
Distribution and Status: India, Burma, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia, Nigeria,
Sudan, Vietnam and Pakistan.
Host range:
Rice, wild species of Oryza and grasses like Paspalum scrobiculatum, Panicum
spp., Cyanodan dactylon and Eleucine indica.
Life history:
Orange coloured mosquito like fly is active during night and lays 100-300
reddish, elongate, tubular eggs just near the ligule of the leaf blade. Egg period 3-4 days,
maggot pale red during feeding and larval period 8-10 days. Maggot pupates at the base
of the gall and moves to tip of the gall and projects outside during emergence. Life cycle
lasts for 15-20 days.
Nature of damage:
The maggot feeds at the base of the growing shoot causing formation of a tube
like gall similar to “onion needle” or “silver-shoot”. Infested tillers produce no panicles.
Silver shoots affected tillers (IRRI)
ETL: 10% silver shoots.
Management:
1. Encourage early planting of the crop with quick growing varieties to escape
infestation.
2. Use resistant varieties like MDU-3, Shakthi, Vikram, Sureka, IR 36, Kkatiya,
Dhanaya Lakshmi, Phalguna, Kunti, Shamlei, Asha, Rajendran, Shrakasha, Erra
mallelu, Kavya, Orugallu and R 650 -1820.
3. Plough immediately after crop harvest.
4. Remove the alternate host.
5. Apply fertilizers in balanced manner.
6. Set up light trap @ 1 / ha as a monitoring device. Infra red light trap attracts gall
midge effectively.
7. Release larval parasitoid, Platygaster oryzae through parasitized galls @ 1 per 10
m2 in the main field at 10 days after transplanting (DAT).
8. The is an effectivhe predator.
9. Conserve predatory spiders like Tetragnatha, Argiope catenulata and carabid beetle
(Ophionia indica) in rice ecosystem.
10. Apply carbofuran 3G @ 25 kg or fipronil 0.3 G 16.7 - 25.0 kg or spray endosulfan
35 EC 1.0 L or quinalphos 25 EC 1.0 L or fipronil 5 SC 1.0 -1.5 kg or lambda-
cyhalothrin 2.5 EC 500 ml / 5 EC 250 ml or thiamethoxam 25 WG 100 g in 500 L
water/ha.
6) Swarming caterpillar: Spodoptera mauritia (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Host range: Rice, maize, jowar, wheat, barley and sugarcane
Distribution and status: India, South East Asia, USA, Australia, Africa
Life history:
Adult moth is medium sized stoutly built, dark brown with a conspicuous
triangular spot on fore wings. Eggs are laid in masses on leaves and covered with grey
hairs. The egg period is 7 days. Caterpillar is cylindrical, dark to pale green with lateral
lines along the body. The larval period is 20-25 days. It pupates in an earthern cocoon in
soil for 10-15 days.
Nature of damage:
This is a sporadic pest but causes very serious damage to young crops when it
appears in large numbers. The caterpillars feed at night and hide during the day.
Damaged leaf blades and Panicles cut off from the base (IRRI)
Larvae cut the seedlings in large scale and appears as if grazed by cattle by its
nocturnal feeding. Peduncles of ears are bitten through in maturing crop. They feed
gregariously and march from field to field. The damage is severe in July - September. It
breeds on a variety of grasses. Yield loss ranges from 10-20%.
Management:
1. Conserve larval parasitoids viz., Apanteles ruficrus, Meteorus sp., Charops bicolor,
C. dominans, Euplectrus euplexiae, E. spodopterae and a parasitic nematode
(Hexamermis sp.)
2. Conserve pupal parasitoids viz., Netelia sp., Actias sp., Drino sp. and Isomera
cinerascens
3. Protect vertebrate predators of the larvae viz., House Crow Corvus splendens, Jungle
Crow C. macrorhynchos, Cattle Egret Bubulcus coromandus, Indian pond heron or
Paddy bird Ardeola grayi, white breasted water hen Amaurovius phoenicocurus,
Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis.
4. Flood the nursery to expose the hiding larvae to the surface for birds to pick them up.
5. Kerosenate water during irrigation to suffocate and kill the larvae.
6. Allow ducks into the field to feed on the larvae.
7. Drain water from nursery and spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC 80 ml (or) endosulfan 35
EC 80 ml during late evening.
7) Rice case worm: Nymphula depunctalis (Pyraustidae: Lepidopera)
Distribution and Status: India, South East Asia, Australia
Host plant: Rice
Life history:
Adult is a delicate white moth with pale brown wavy markings. Eggs are laid on
leaves. Egg period is 2-6 days. Larva is pale translucent green with orange head. Larva
constructs a case. Larval period is 14-20 days. Larva has filamentous gills on the sides of
the body that helps to lead a semi aquatic life. It pupates in case it self for 4-7 days. The
total life cycle occupies 19-37 days.
Nature of damage:
The caterpillars feed on green tissues of the leaves and form tubular cases around
them by cutting the apical portion of leaves, which forms floating leaf cases on water.
Several tubes are also seen hanging from the plants. In case of severe infestation plants
are unable to grow. They damage leaf tips. The apical portion of cut leaves bear whitish
papery areas since the chlorophyll is scrapped.
Management:
1. Conserve larval parasitoids viz., Elasmus sp., Apanteles sp., Bracon sp.,
2. Conserve pupal parasitoids viz., Pediobius sp., Apsilops sp., Eupteromalus parnarae
3. Drain water from the field
4. Dislodge the cases by running a rope over the young crop.
5. Spray endosulfan 35 EC or monocrotophos 36 SL 1.0 L or phenthoate 50 EC 1.0 L in
500 L water/ha.
8) Rice skipper: Pelopidas mathias (Hesperiidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India, South East Asia, China, Africa
Host range: Rice, Sugarcane
Life history:
Adult butterfly has brown coloured wings and curved antennae. Eggs are laid
singly on the leaf blades. Larva is pale green with constricted neck.
Nature of damage:
Larva feed on edges of the leaves are fastened with webbing. Backward rolling of
leaves, feeding from margin inwards are symptoms of damage.
9) Spiny beetle / Rice hispa: Dicladispa armigera (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera)
Distribution and status: Bangladesh, Burma, Southern China, India, West Malaysia,
Nepal, Pakistan, Sumatra, Thailand, West Iran.
Host range: Rice
Life history
Adult is blue - black shiny beetle with spines on the thorax and elytra. It lays eggs
singly on the leaf tip. Grub is minute, flat and yellow. It mines between the epidermal
layers of leaf and pupates in leaf mines. Egg period: 4-5 days; Larval period: 7-12 days;
Pupal period: 3-5 days. There are six generations / year.
Nature of damage:
Adults feed on chlorophyll by scraping and cause white parallel streaks (or) white
patches along the long axis of leaf. Grubs mine into the leaves and make blister near leaf
tips.
Management:
1. The leaf tips containing blotch mines should be plucked and destroyed.
2. Manual collection and killing of beetles with hand nets may help in reducing the
population of the pest.
3. Dust the crop with 10% BHC dust @ 30 kg/ha at least two times at an interval of 40
days.
4. Spray endosulfan 1.0 L or lambda-cyhalothrin 2.5 EC 500 ml / EC 250 ml in 500 L
water/ha.
10) Non Insect Pests:
a) Land Crabs: Paratelphusa quernii, P. jacquemontii (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera)
Distribution and status: Thane, Ratnagiri, Raigad and Maval tract.
Nature of damage:
The crabs cut seedlings at ground level into small bits and carry them to the holes
for feeding. The crabs are active at nights. Beside they prepare a series of burrow in the
bunds of paddy field which causes heavy water losses.
Management
Poison baits with 5% a.i. of insecticides viz. acephate 75 WP in boiled rice
and 20g of poison bait be placed in each of open burrow.
b) Snail and Slugs: Snail: Helix spps., Slugs: Limax spp.: Gastropoda: Mollusca
Mark of Identification: Thane, Ratnagiri, Raigad and Maval tract.
Snail: has thin spiral protection shell, head bears two pairs of tentancles, posterior pair is
large and bears the eyes, 3cm in length.
Slugs: has no shell, head bears two pairs of retractile tentancles, posterior pair possesses
small black eyes at the tip. They are hermaphrodite (bisexual).
Management
1) Collection and destruction of snail and slugs.
2) Use of metaldehyde poison bait.
3) Pesticide like phorate is reported to possess mollucides property.
4) Dust 15% metaldehyde dust or spray 20% metaldehyde liquid or sprinkle 5%
metaldehyde pellets around infested fields.
Integrated Pest Management in Paddy

A. Cultural method
1. Remove / destroy stubbles after harvest and keep the field free from weeds.
2. Trim and plaster the bunds of rice field to expose the eggs of grasshoppers and to
eliminate the bug breeding in grasses.
3. Form the bunds narrow and short to reduce the damage by rodents.
4. Use resistant varieties wherever available.
5. Provide effective drainage wherever there is problem of BPH.
6. Clip the tip of seedlings before transplanting to prevent the carry over of egg masses
of rice yellow stem borer from nursery to mainfield.
7. Organise synchronized planting wherever possible.
8. Leave 30 cm rogue space at every 2.5 m to reduce damage by BPH and rodents.
9. Avoid use of excessive nitrogenous fertilizers.
10. Use irrigation water judiciously (Alternative wetting and drying reduce BPH and
case worm).
11. Remove the egg masses of stem borer in the main field.
B. Mechanical methods
1. Dig out the rat burrows and destroy the rats and young ones at the beginning of the
season.
2. Set up light traps to monitor and control pests.
3. Set up-bow traps to kill rodents.
C. Biological methods
1. Release Trichogramma japonicum twice on 30 and 37 DAT @ 5 cc/ha/release
against stem borer.
2. Release Trichogramma chilonis on 37, 44 and 51 DAT (thrice) @ 5 cc/ha/release
against leaf folder.
3. Release of Platygaster oryzae parasitized galls @ 1 per 10 m2 in the mainfield on
10 DAT against gall midge.
4. Set up owl perches to reduce rat damage.
D. Plant products
1. Spray neem seed kernel extract 5% (25 kg/ha), neem oil 3% (15 lit/ha) to control
brown planthopper.
2. Spray botanicals viz., NSKE, Vitex negundo (Notchi), Prosopis juliflora and
Ipomoea carnea leaf extract 5% to control earhead bug and black bug.
E. Chemical methods
1. In BPH prone area / season avoid use of synthetic pyrethroids, methyl parathion
and quinalphos and use recommended chemical at recommended doses.
2. Use insecticides based on ETL.

EXERCISE No. II
PESTS OF SORGHUM
More than 150 species of insects have been reported to damage sorghum.
However over a dozen species are very serious and constitute a major constraint in
sorghum production. Shoot fly, stem borers, shoot and ear head bug and aphids are
serious pests that bring reduction in the yield.

1 Sorghum Stem borer Chilo partellus Pyralidae Lepidoptera
2 Sorghum Shootfly Atherigona soccata Anthomyidae Diptera
3 Sorghum midge Contarinia Cecidomyiidae Diptera
sorghicola
4 Aphids Rhopalosiphum maidis, Aphididae Hemiptera
Aphis sacchari
5 Delphacids Peregrinus maidis Delphacidae Hemiptera
6 Earhead caterpillar Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae Lepidoptera
7 Wingless Colemania Acrididae Orthoptera
grasshopper sphenaroides
8 Mites Oligonycus indicus Tetranchidae Acarina
1) Sorghum Stem borer: Chilo partellus (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)

Distribution and status: India, Pakistan, SriLanka, Indonesia, Iraq, Japan, Uganda,
Taiwan, Sudan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Thailand.
Host range: Maize, sugarcane, bajra, rice, finger millet, etc.
Life history:
The adult moth is medium in size and straw coloured. It lays about 300
scalelike flat oval eggs in batches on the under surface of leaf near the midrib. The
incubation period is 2-5 days. The larva is yellowish brown with a brown head and
the prothoracic shield measures about 25 mm long. The larval period is 28 - 50 days
with seven instars. It pupates inside the stem and emerges in 7-10 days through the
larvae's entry holesas as adult. The total life cycle is completed in 30 to 40 days.
Carry over: Pest hibernates as larva in stubbles.
Seasonal occurrence: July to November
Nature of damage:
It infests the crop a month after sowing and the damage persists upto
emergence of ear heads. Central shoot withering leading to “dead heart” is the
typical damage symptom. Bore holes are visible on the stem near the nodes. Young
larva crawls and feeds on tender folded leaves causing typical “shot hole” symptom.
Affected parts of stem may show internally tunneling caterpillars.
Bore holes and tunneling by caterpillars
ETL: 10% dead heart
Management:
1. The stubbles should be ploughed up during winter and burnt to destroy the
hibernating larvae.
2. Grow resistant cultivars like E 302, E 303, IS 2205, ICSV 700
3. Dead hearts should be pulled out and used as fodder or buried in manure pits.
4. Sow Dolichos as an intercrop in the ratio of 4:1 to minimise the stem borer
damage.
5. Set up light trap till midnight to attract and kill the stem borer moths.
6. Bio-control agents viz.,Trichogramma chilonis (egg parasitoids) minutum, Bracon
chinensis and Apanteles flavipes, (larval parasitoids) should be encouraged.
7. Mix any one of the following insecticides with sand to make up the total quantity
of 50 kg and apply in the leaf whorls. Phorate - 10 G 8 kg, carbofuran 3 G 17 kg,
endosulfan 4D 25 kg or spray endosulfan 35 EC 750 ml (or) carbaryl 50 WP 1 kg
(500 L spray fluid/ha).
2) Sorghum Shootfly: Atherigona soccata (Muscidae/ Anthomyidae : Diptera)
Distribution and status: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
Host range: Maize, ragi, bajra, rice, wheat and grasses
Life history:
Adult, a whitish grey female fly lays white, cigar-shaped eggs on the lower
surface of leaf blades mostly during morning hours. The egg is white, cylindrical,
distal end somewhat flattened. The incubation period varies from 2-3 days. Maggot is
dirty white and apodous. Mature larvae are yellow and about 6 mm long. The larval
period is 8-10 days and has four larval instars. It pupates at the base of the stem or in
soil for 8-10 days. The life cycle is completed in 17-21 days.
Carry over: Pest over winters in adult stage on grasses.
Seasonal occurrence: July to October.
Nature of damage:
The maggot on hatching migrates to the upper surface of leaf and enters
between the leaf sheath and stem. After reaching the soil level, the maggot bores
inside the stem and cuts the growing point resulting in “dead heart” symptom. The
infested plant produces side tillers and pland gets bushy apperance. The attack is more
severe during summer than kharif season
ETL: 10% dead hearts or 1 egg / plant
Management:
1. Use resistant varieties like Co-1, CSH 15R, Maldandi and Hagari, M35-1, Swati,
SPV 491, IS - 18551, 5566, 5285, 5613, ICSV 700, ICSV 705, Phule Yashoda,
CSH 7, CSH 8
2. Sow sorghum immediately at the onset of monsoon rains to minimise shootfly
damage.
3. Use higher seed rate (12.5 kg/ha) and remove the shoot fly damaged seedlings at
the time of thinning or raise nursery and transplant only healthy seedlings.
4. Pull out and destroy plants showing dead hearts at the time of thinning.
5. Set up hanging type of plastic fishmeal trap @ 12/ha till the crop is 30 days old.
6. Treat 100 kg seeds with chlorpyriphos 20 EC 400 ml or quinalphos 25 EC 400 ml
or imidacloprid 48 FS 1.2 L or imidacloprid 70 WS 1.0 kg or thiomethoxam 30
FS 1.0 L
7. Granular application of phorate 10 G or carbofuran 3 G to the furrow at the time
of sowing at 2.5 kg a.i./ha.
8. Spray endosulfan 35 EC @18 ml, dimethoate 30 EC @ 12 ml and methyl demeton
25 EC @12 ml for an area of 120 m2 nursery.
9. Spray any one of the following insecticides in the mainfield - endosulfan 35 EC
500 ml, dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml (250 L of spray fluid/ha).
3) Sorghum midge fly: Contarinia sorghicola (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)
Distribution and status: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, West Iran, Sri Lanka, Sudan,
Java, Africa, South East Asia, South China, South America, West Indies, USA
and Italy.
Hosts: Wild grasses species as Sudan grass, Johnson grass, Pankanis etc.
Life history:
The adult fly is small, fragile with a bright orange abdomen and a pair of
transparent wings. It lays eggs singly in developing florets resulting in pollen
shedding. A female lays about 30-35 eggs at the rate of 6-10 in each floret. The
incubation period is 3-4 days. The maggot has four instars with duration of 8-10 days.
Larvae are colorless, but, when fully grown, they are dark orange. Larval period 9 -
11 days. The larval stage undergoes diapause in a cocoon during December - January
within a spikelet. Pupates beneath the glume. The pupal period 3 days. When the
adult emerges the white pupal skin remains at the tip of the spikelet. A generation is
completed in 14-16 days. The insect's rapid developmental cycle permits 9-12
generations.
Carry over: Pest hibernates as larva in soil debris or in husk or kutar..
Seasonal occurrence: August to October.
Nature of damage:
A maggot feeds on the developing grains and pupates there. White pupal cases
protruding out from the grains and chaffy grains with holes are the Nature of damage.
Management:
1. Adopt zonal system: of sowing one variety in a group of 8-10 villages as early
as possible within a week. If possible hybrid variety should be sown from 20th
to 30th July.
2. Grow resistant cultivars like DJ 6541, AF 28, ICSV 197, ICSV 745, ICSV
88032.
3. Conserve larval parasitoids - Apanteles sp., Eupelones popa; Larval and pupal
parasitoid - Tetrastichus spp.; Predators – Orius albidipennis; Tapinoma
indicum.
4. Give first application at nearly 90% earhead emergence and repeat after 4 or 5
days. The insecticides recommended are spray endosulfan 35 EC 1.0 L (or)
malathion 50 EC 1.0 L (or) carbaryl 50 WP 2 kg/ha or endosulfan 4 D or
malathion 5 D or carbaryl 10 D or quinalphos 1.5 D at 25 kg/ha .
4) Aphids: Rhopalosiphum maidis, Aphis sacchari (Aphididae:Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: All sorghum-growing areas of the world.
Host range: Sorghum, maize, ragi
Life history:
Rhopalosiphum maidis:
The aphid is dark bluish-green and somewhat ovate. It is 2 mm long, with
black legs, cornicles, and antennae. Winged and wingless forms occur. Females give
birth to living young without mating and a generation requires only a week or so. The
adult is yellow coloured with dark green legs.
Aphis sacchari:
The sugarcane aphid is yellow to buff. Numbers increase rapidly during dry
spells or at the end of the rainy season. The female of the wingless form deposits 60-
100 nymphs within its reproductive period of 13-20 days. The winged form produces
slightly fewer nymphs. The life cycle is completed in 5.5-7.0 days during the dry
season.
Nature of damage:
Colonies of aphids are seen in central leaf whorl, stems, or in panicles. The
nymph and adults suck the plant juice. This frequently causes yellowish mottling of
the leaves and marginal leaf necrosis. The aphid produces an abundance of honeydew
on which molds grow. In panicles, honeydew may hinder harvesting. The aphid also
transmits maize dwarf mosaic virus.

Management:
Spray the base of attacked plants with a contact (or) systemic insecticide like
dimethoate 30 EC or methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml in 500 L of water
5) Delphacids: Peregrinus maidis (Delphacidae, Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh
Host range: Sorghum, maize, rice, millets.
Life history:
The adult is yellowish brown to dark brown with translucent wings. The
brachypterous female is yellowish while macropterous female is yellowish brown and
male dark brown. It lays eggs in groups of 1-4 inside the leaf tissue and covered with a
white waxy substance. The fecundity of the bug is 97 eggs / female. The egg period
lasts for seven days. The nymphal stage undergoes five instars in 16 days. The total
life cycle is completed in 18-31 days.
Nature of damage:
Adults and nymphs suck sap from plants. The attacked plants become
unhealthy stunted and yellow. The leaves wither from top downwards. Panicle
formation is inhibited and the plants die if attack is severe. Honeydew secreted by the
bug causes growth of sooty mould on leaves. The midribs of the leaves turn red due to
egg-laying and may dry up subsequently.
Management:
1. Conserve egg parasitoids viz., Paranagrus optabilis, Octetrastichus indicus and
Predators - Coccinella septumpunctatum, Menochilus sexmaculatus, Geocoris
tricolor
2. Spray dimethoate or methyl demeton 500 ml in 500 L of water.
6) Earhead caterpillar: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: World wide. It is major on cotton, lablab, chillies, tomato,
pulses, maize and minor on sorghum.
Host range: Cotton, sorghum, soybean, pea, safflower, chillies, tomato, groundnut,
tobacco, gram, okra, maize etc.
Life history:
Adult is brown coloured moth with a ‘V’ shaped speck on forewings and dull
black border on the hind wing. Larva is green with dark broken grey lines and dark
pale bands. It shows colour variation of greenish to brown.
Nature of damage:
Larvae hide within the ear heads and feeds on the grains. Earheads are
partially eaten and appear chalky. Feacal pellets are visible within the ear head.
Management:
1) Collection and destruction of larvae.
2) Spraying with 0.2% carbaryl or 0.05% quinalphos.
7) Wingless grasshopper: Colemania sphenaroides (Acrididae: Orthoptera)
Host range: Sorghum, , maize, bajra, ragi, bean, groundnut etc.
Life history:
The adult grasshopper is wingless, greenish yellow with blue-black antennae
with purple band behind the eye and laterally on thorax. It lays eggs in batches in the
soil at a depth of 6 cm during October and November. The eggs hatch in the
following June and July during monsoon rain.
Carry over: Pest hibernates through egg stage in soil during winter.
Seasonal occurrence: August to September.
Nature of damage:
Nymphs feed on growing plants and adult feeds on florets, ears and defoliate.
Management:
1) Deep ploughing after harvesting to kill hibernating eggs.
2) Digging trenches along the bunds to prevent migration of hoppers to main
plot.
3) Dusting with methyl parathion 2D @ 2 kg/ ha as soon as incidence is noticed.
Integrated Pest Management in Sorghum

A. Cultural methods:
1. Complete the sowing of sorghum in a short time to avoid continuous flowering,
which favours grain midge and earhead bug multiplication.
2. Sow Sorghum: lablab/cowpea (4:1) as an intercrop to minimize stem borer
damage.
3. Take up early sowing of sorghum immediately after the receipt of South West or
North East Monsoon to minimize the shoot fly incidence.
4. Use increased seed rate upto 12.5 kg per hectare and remove the shoot fly
damaged seedlings at the time of thinning in case of direct sowing or raise
nursery and transplant only healthy seedlings.
5. Plough soon after the harvest, remove and destroy the stubbles.
B. Mechanical method:
1. Set up light traps till mid night to monitor, attract and kill adults of stemborer,
grain midge and earhead caterpillars.
2. Set up sex pheromone trap at 12/ha to attract male moths Helicoverpa sp. from
flowering to grain hardening.
3. Set up the TNAU low cost fishmeal traps @ 12/ha till the crop is 30 days old.
C. Biological methods:
1. Take up two applications of NPV at 10 days interval at 250 LE/ha along with
crude sugar 2.5 kg + cotton seed kernel powder 250 g on the ear heads to reduce
the larval population of Helicoverpa sp.
D. Chemical methods:
1. Use seeds pelleted with insecticides.
2. Arpocarb fishmeal formulation is more effective in attracting the shoot fly adults
especially the females.
E. Preparation of Arpocarb fishmeal:
Fishmeal powder is to be sprayed first with 2% starch dissolved in hot water as a
sticking agent. The insecticide Arpocarb should then be sprayed at 50 ml/kg of
fishmeal powder. The resultant mixture is shade dried and can be used at 50 g/trap.
The formulated product should be moistened well before placing in the trap. The
formulation can be changed once in 10-14 days depending upon the smell.

EXERCISE No. III
PESTS OF MAIZE, BAJRA, WHEAT AND MINER MILLETS
More than 130 insects have been recorded causing damage to maize in
India. Among these, about half a dozen pests are of economic importance. Shoot
fly, borers, shoot bug and aphid, polyphagous pest like cornworm cause
considerable yield reduction in maize.

Pests of Maize and Ragi
1 Maize Stem borer Chilo partellus Pyralidae Lepidoptera
2 Leaf eating Spodoptera litura Noctuidae Lepidoptera
caterpillar
3 Swarming Mythimna separate Noctuidae Lepidoptera
caterpillar (Walker)
Pests of Bajra/ Pearl Millet
1 Shoot fly Atherigona Muscidae Diptera
approximata
2 Pink stem borer Sesamia inferens Noctuidae Lepidoptera
3 Grain midge Geromyia penniseti Cecidomyiidae Diptera
4 Stink bug Nezara viridula Pentatomidae Hemiptera
Pests of Wheat
1 Pink Stem borer Sesamia inferens Noctuidae Lepidoptera
2 Wheat Aphid Macrosiphum Aphididae Hemiptera
miscanthi
3 Rodents Rattus rattus Muridae Class-

Rattus norvegicus Rodentia
Mus musculus Phylum-
Bandicota bengalensis Mammalia
Bandicota indica
1) Stem borer: (Details given under pest of Sorghum)

2) Leaf eating caterpillar: (Details given under pest of )
3) Aphid: (Details given under pest of Sorghum)
4) Bajra Shoot fly: Atherigona approximate (Muscidae: Diptera)

Life cycle:
Adult is greyish white fly. The egg-stage of the fly lasts 37-48 hours, larval
stage 7-9 days and pupal stage 6 days.
Nature of damage:
A serious pest on pearl millet all over India in Tamil Nadu during cold weather
season; it attacks the crop both in seedlings and boot leaf stage. It causes dead hearts
in young plants and chaffy grains in the mature crop.

Management:
a. Use resistant varieties like Co-1, CSH 15R, Maldandi and Hagari, M35-1, Swati,
SPV 491, IS - 18551, 5566, 5285, 5613, ICSV 700, ICSV 705, Phule Yashoda,
CSH 7, CSH 8.
b. Sow sorghum immediately at the onset of monsoon rains to minimise shootfly
damage.
c. Use higher seed rate (12.5 kg/ha) and remove the shoot fly damaged seedlings at
the time of thinning or raise nursery and transplant only healthy seedlings.
d. Pull out and destroy plants showing dead hearts at the time of thinning.
e. Set up hanging type of plastic fishmeal trap @ 12/ha till the crop is 30 days old.
f. Treat 100 kg seeds with chlorpyriphos 20 EC 400 ml or quinalphos 25 EC 400
ml or imidacloprid 48 FS 1.2 L or imidacloprid 70 WS 1.0 kg or thiomethoxam
30 FS 1.0 L
g. Granular application of phorate 10 G or carbofuran 3 G to the furrow at the time
of sowing at 2.5 kg a.i./ha.
h. Spray endosulfan 35 EC @18 ml, dimethoate 30 EC @ 12 ml and methyl
demeton 25 EC @12 ml for an area of 120 m2 nursery.
i. Spray any one of the following insecticides in the mainfield - endosulfan 35 EC
500 ml, dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml (250 L of spray fluid/ha).
5) Rodents/ Rats: Muridae: Rodentia: Mammalia
Economic Importance: showing variable role in problems of human food and
health. The damaging role is increasingly realized all over the world due to its heavy
losses, contamination of food, spread and transmit of many serious diseases. They
cause a damage of 5-25% to field crops.
a) House Rat: Rattus rattus
Slender, sharp muzzle, ears long and can cover eyes when turned forward, tail
longer than the body, such rat found near houses. Weight: 120-125g; Length: 35-
38cm; Mummery glands: 5 pairs; Maximum embryos in uterus: 8.
b) Home Rat: Mus musculus
Miniature of Rattus rattus. Weight: 23-26g; Length: 15-20cm; Mummery
glands: 4 pairs; Maximum embryos in uterus: 4.
c) Drain/ Brown Rat: Rattus norvegicus
Longer with sharp snout, opaque small ears, bristly brownish fur, hairy
bicoloured tail, such rat found near well developed drainage system. Weight: 142-
146g; Length: 35-41cm; Mummery glands: 6 pairs; Maximum embryos in uterus: 8.
d) Field Rat: Bandicota bengalensis
Heavily built with short stummy face like a pig, opaque small ears, tough
bristly fur, hairy short tail. Weight: 234-237g; Length: 36-41cm; Mummery glands: 9
pairs; Maximum embryos in uterus: 10.
e) Large Bandicot: Bandicota indica
Very ferocious, heavily built with long face like a pig, short opaque ears, grey
fur with long spines. Weight: 370-410g; Length: 38-45cm; Mummery glands: 10
pairs; Maximum embryos in uterus: 12.
Host: Polyphagous besides wheat feed on rice, maize, sugarcane, groundnut, stored
grains etc.
Life cycle:
Start breeding at the age of 3 to 4 months and then breed throughout the year.
Single female can liter as many as 10 young ones at a time with frequency of 10-12
times during favourable conditions i.e., 800 young ones/ year. Newly born young
ones is blind and without hairs. It take 20 days for eyes to develop and a coat of hairs
to form till that date feeds upon milk of the mother developing rapidly @ one gram a
day.
Nature of damage:
They damage the earheads and feed upon the developing grains of standing
crop by carrying grains to their burrows @ 5 to 25 %. The damage is serious on
threshing yards and godowns consuming @ og 10g to 15g of food grain/ day.
Management:
I) Mechanical Control:
i) Hunting: using of trained dogs or cat to trap the rats.
ii) Trapping: is one the oldest method and needs placing of traps at right angle
along walls or between objects to avoid developing trap shyness for which
attractive food are laid near their burrows.
iii) Flooding: burrows with water used to force the rats out during day time when
they can be killed mechanically.
iv) Electronic rodent deterrent: such as ultrasonic sounds@ 20 Khz used for
repelling and preventing the rats from feeding and reproducing.
II) Chemical Control:
Chemical used to control the rodents are called as rodenticides such as;
a) Zinc phosphide (Stomach poison) @ 1 kg bait for treating 200 burrows
b) Warfarin (Anticoagulant) under trade name Rodafarin ‘C’.
c) Bromadiolone (Anticoagulant) single dose sufficient to kill the rats.
d) Aluminium phosphide (Fumigant) under trade name ‘Celphos’ half tablet of 3g
per burrow.

EXERCISE No. IV
PESTS OF PIGEON PEA / TUR

1 Gram pod borer Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae Lepidoptera
2 Tur Plume moth Exelastis atomosa Pterophoridae Lepidoptera
3 Tur Pod fly Melanagromyza Agromyzidae Diptera
obtusa
4 Sunhemp Hairy Utethesia pulchella Arctiidae Lepidoptera
caterpillar
1) Gram pod borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae: Lepidotera)

Distribution and status: World wide
Host range:
Cotton, sorghum, lablab, pea, chillies, groundnut, tobacco, okra, maize,
tomato, soybean, safflower, gram, etc.
Life history:
Adult moth is greenish to brown with a ‘V’ shaped speck on forewings and
dull black border on the hind wing. Eggs are laid on the host plants singly. The egg
period is 7 days. Full grown larva is 2” long, greenish with dark brown gray lines and
dark and pale bands. It shows colour variation from greenish to brown. The larval
duration is 14 days. It pupates in soil for 10 days. One generation is completed in 28
days under favorable conditions.
Nature of damage:
It is a polyphagous species and is an important pest on pulses. Caterpillar first
feeds on foliage; later bores into pods and feeds on seeds. Larva is seen feeding with
the head alone thrust inside the parts and the rest of the body hanging out. Boreholes
on pods, absence of seeds on pods and defoliation in early stages are the symptoms of
attack.
ETL: One larva per five plants in the pod initiation stage
Management:
1. Grow Helicoverpa resistant varieties like,
Red gram: T 21, Bori, BDN 2, ICPL 332, ICPL 88039, PPE 45-2, ICP 7035,
MA 2, Pant A1, BSMR 1, JG 315 and JG 74.
Chickpea:
ICCV&, ICCVIO, Dulia
2. Install bird perches @ 50/ha to pick the larvae
3. Set up light trap to monitor, attract and kill the moths
4. Set up pheromone traps @ 12 nos./ha
5. Inundative release of egg parasite Trichogramma spp. and egg larval parasites,
Chelonus blackburnii
6. Spray nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) @ 500 LE/ha in 0.1% teepol.
7. Apply any one of insecticides at 25 kg/ha - endosulfan 1.5 D, quinalphos 1.5 D,
carbaryl 5D or spray any of the following insecticides in 700-1000 L of water
per ha.
 Azadirachtin 0.03% 2.5-5.0 L Lambda cyhalothrin 5 EC 400-500 ml
 Bacillus thuringiensis serovar kurstaki (3a,3b, 3c) 5 WP 1.0-1.25 kg.

2) Tur Plume moth: Exelastis atomosa (Pterophoridae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India, Nepal and New Guinea
Host range: Red gram, lablab, niger and horse gram
Life history:
Adult is delicate, brown coloured small moth with plumed wings. Eggs are
laid on flower buds and tender pods. Egg period is 4 days. Larva is greenish brown,
10 mm in length densely packed with short hairs and spines. Larval period is 14-30
days. It pupates on the pods itself. Pupal period is 4-8 days.
Nature of damage:
The tiny larva bores into unopened buds, flowers and tender parts. IT makes
hole into the pod opposite to seed developing inside and damage it. When one seed is
finished larva cut another hole to another seed and damage the seed. 5-20% pods are
damaged.
Management:
1) Conserve Larval parasitoids, Apanteles paludicolae, Diadegma sp.
2) Chemical control measures are the same as redgram pod borer
3) Tur Pod fly: Melanagromyza obtusa (Agromyzidae: Diptera)
Distribution and status: India, South East Asia, Japan.
Host range: Redgram, Bhendi and Safflower.
Life history:
Eggs are laid by them singly or in cluster inside the pod wall by piercing
through the ovipositor. The fly lays about 60-80 eggs. Incubation period is 2-4 days.
Larval period is about 5-18 days and pupal period varies from 7-10 days. A number
of overlapping generations are found in a year.
Nature of damage:
Maggots initial damage resembles so that of leaf miner as their galleries run
just under epidermis of seed later boring into the soft seeds and feed on grains. The
damaged seeds are unfit for consumption as well as for germination. The extent of
damage may be even upto 60-70% during severe infestation.
Management:
1. Conserve natural enemies like Euderus lividus, Eurytoma sp., E. agromyzae.
2. Spray Carbaryl 50 WP 1.5 kg or endosulfan 35 EC 1.25 L or lambda cyhalothrin
5 EC 400 -500 ml or Lufenuron 5.4 EC 2.5 L with 700 L water/ha.
Integrated Pest Management

A. Cultural methods:
1. Summer deep ploughing is effective in destroying the eggs, larvae and pupae of
various pests
2. Pest population of pulses can also be suppressed to some extent by resorting clean
cultivation.
3. Early sowing crop escapes the first two broods of stem fly.
4. Increase the seed rate to compensate the damage due to stem fly.
5. Soil raking through weeding may reduce the soil grubs.
6. Apply 50 kg potash/ha to the crop raised with closer spacing (20x10 cm) to reduce
the stem fly and pod borer incidence
7. Remove the weeds in and around the field.
8. Collect and destroy egg masses and pupae.
9. Dry the seeds adequately to reduce the moisture level to 8% for the grain purpose.
10. Resistant strains of gram like G-130 & C 214 are less susceptible to H. armigera.

B. Mechanical methods
1. Set up light trap to monitor, attract and kill the pod borer moths.
2. Set up pheromone traps @ 12 nos./ha to reduce gram pod borer incidence.
C. Biocontrol methods
1. Release egg parasite Trichogramma spp. and egg larval parasite Chelonus
blackburnii for the control of H. armigera.
2. Conserve natural enemies like Microbracon sp., Cotesia sp, Bracon hebetor and
Apanteles sp. parasitizes the caterpillar pests.
3. Apply NPV @ 500 LE/ha to control H. armigera.
D. Chemical methods
1. Soil treatment with chlorpyriphos 5D or quinalphos 1.5 D 2 25 kg/ha against
cutworms and other insects hiding below or on the soil surface.
2. Seed pelleting with chlorpyriphos @ 4 ml/kg of seed may reduce the early pests like
stem fly.
3. For sucking pests, spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml (or) dimethoate 30 EC 500
ml/ha (250 l spray fluid / ha)
4. For pod borer, apply any one of the insecticides @ 25 kg/ha endosulfan 4 D,
quinolphos 4D and carbaryl 5D.
5. Spray endosulfan 35 EC 1250 ml (or) monocrotophos 36 SL 625 ml/ha or NSKE
5% twice followed by triazophos 0.05% (spray fluid 500 l/ha).
6. For seed purpose: Mix 1 kg of activated kaolin or malathion 5 D for every 100 kg of
seeds. Pack in polythene lined gunny bags for storage.
7. Neem seed kernel powder 3% effectively controls the storage pest, bruchid beetle.
4) Sunhemp Hairy caterpillar: Utethesia pulchella (Arctiidae:Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: Tamil Nadu and other sunhemp growing tracts in India
Host range: Sunhemp and other green manures
Life history:
The moths lay small whitish eggs on the tender leaves and shoot. On
emergence from the eggs, the larva feed on leaves. Caterpillar hairy with brown head
and yellow lines on the dorsal, dorso-lateral side with black stripes and orange
patches. Body has long brownish hairs arising on warts. Pupation takes place either in
the leaf folds or in the soil. Adult has red and black spots on the white forewings. The
life cycle is completed in about 5 weeks and a number of generations are completed in
a year.
Nature of damage:
Defoliation of the plant. Larva feeds on leaves and also cause severe damage
by feeding on the contents of developing pods. The caterpillars feed by thrusting the
head in and leaving the rest of the body exposed.
Management:
1. Hand pick and destroy the caterpillars.
2. Spray 1.25 L of endosulfan 35 EC or 2.5 kg of carbaryl 50 WP in 625 L of
water/ha.

EXERCISE No. V
PESTS OF CHICKPEA, MUNG BEAN, URD BEAN, COWPEA AND PEA
1. Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Host range: It is s polyphagous pest on Redgram and other pulses, citrus etc.
Life history:
Newly laid nymph is translucent with reddish brown compound eyes. After a
couple of minutes changes to light yellow. After about 30 minutes, the nymph starts
moving and in an hour starts feeding. Apterous females adults are shiny, dark brown
or black. Alate forms are greenish black with transparent wings.
Nature of damage:
Both nymphs and adults suck sap from tender leaves and shoots resulting in
twisting of leaves, poor pod development, devitalization of plants and sooty mould. It
acts as a vector of Rosette disease in groundnut and broad bean virus in pea.
Management:
Spraying with tobacco decoction (1 kg tobacco boiled in 10 lit of water of ½
hour and make up to 30 lit + 100 g soap) and systemic insecticides like dimethoate 2
ml/l or phosphamidon 2 ml/l or malathion 2 ml/l are effective.
2. Red garm cow bug: Oxyrhachis tarandus (Membracidae: Hemiptera)
Distribution: This species is common all over south India.
Host range: It is one of the major pests of redgram.
Life history:
Breeding takes place all the year round the limitation being only the
availability of food.
Nature of damage:
Nymphs as well as adults suck sap from green stem at all stages of the plant
causing corky tissues and excrete honeydew which attracts ants like Camponotus
compressus.
Management:
Spraying dimethoate 2 ml/l, methyl patrathion 2 ml/l or phosphamidon 2 ml/l
is effective.
3. Red gram bug: Cavigralla gibbosa/ Anoplocnemis phasiana (Coreidae: Hemiptera)
Life history:
Freshly laid eggs are flat dorsally and round in shape dull white brown in
colour. Eggs are laid in cluster of 3–15. Newly hatched nymphs are reddish in colour
and in the latter instars it changes to greenish-brown. Adult: C. gibbosa: Greenish-
brown in colour, 2 cm in length, with spines on either side of the middle of the
prothorax. Female bug is bigger and has a round and swollen abdomen in comparison
with a narrow and pointed abdomen of the male. A. phasiana: Biggest of all the bugs
with swollen curved hind legs.
Nature of damage:
Hundreds of nymphs and adults suck sap from the shoots and pods. Shoots
fade, pods shrivel and seeds with dark patch loose germination capacity due to the
feeding of bugs.
Management:
Collection of bugs and their destruction by dipping into kerosinized water
and dusting or spraying with carbaryl 10D 10 kg/ac or foliar spray with dimethoate 2
ml/l or monocrotophos 1.5 ml /l are effective.

4. Leaf hopper: Empoasca kerri (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
Nature of damage:
Small greenish yellow nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves resulting in severe
case, the leaves turn brown, dry and brittle, a condition called “hopper burn”. Attacked
leaflets become cup shaped and yellow at edges. Heavy attack result in the leaflets
turning red-brown with subsequent defoliation and stunting.
Management:
Collection of bugs and their destruction of infested leaves, seed treatment with
carbosulfan @ 30-40g/kg seed, spraying with thiamethoxam 0.4g/l or imidacloprid 0.4
ml/l have been found effective.
5. Pea leaf miner: Phytomyza atricornis (Agromyzidae: Diptera)
Host range: Mustard, cauliflower, cabbage, lentil, potato are infested by this pest.
Life history:
Eggs are inserted into the leaf tissue, pupation is inside leaf mine. Both winter
and summer are passed in pupal stage.
Nature of damage: Maggots mine into mesophyll of leaf leading to irregular blotches
on leaves.
Management:
Maggots are parasitized by Braco nids, Eulophids. Foliar spray with methyl
demeton 2 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l was effective.
6) Pea stem fly: Melanagromyza phaseoli (Agromyzidae: Diptera)
Host range: It is a major pest of blackgram, greengram and soybean.
Incidence is more in rainy season.
Life history:
Shiny bluish – black fly deposit eggs in punctures made by fly on young
leaves. Pupation is at ground level within the stem. Adult fly exits through a thin semi
transparent window.
Nature of damage: Young plants (less than 40 days) suffer more. Yellowish maggots
bore into nearest vein, reach the stem through petiole, bore down the stem and feed on
cortical layers and may extend to tap root resulting in the following symptoms
 Distinct tunnel of stem split open.
 Death of plant or branches.
Management:
· Seed treatment with imidacloprid 3 g/kg seed gives protection upto 30 days.
· Foliar spray with acephate 1.5g/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6ml/l

EXERCISE No. VI
PESTS OF GROUNDNUT
1) Groundnut Leaf roller/ Groundnut Leaf miner: Aproaeroma modicella

(Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Burma and South Africa.
Host range: Groundnut, soybean and redgram.
Life history:
Adult is dark brown with a white spot on the coastal margin of each forewing.
The small hind wings are covered by fringe of minute hair. Adults are found briskly
whirling around the plants in field and lay shiny transparent eggs singly on the under
surface of leaflets. A female moth lays 150-200 eggs that hatch in 2-3 days. The
larvae are pale brown. Fully grown larva measures 6-8 mm. The larval period is 4-17
days. They pupate in white silken cocoons within webbed leaflets and the pupae are
reddish brown. The pupal period is 5-7 days. Adult longevity is 5-6 days. Life cycle
is completed in 20-25 days. They cause severe damage from September to November
to the rainfed crop and during March & April to irrigated crop.
Nature of damage:
It prefers rainfed crop and bunch varieties. Young newly hatched green
caterpillar mines into the leaflets and feed on green tissues resulting in brownish dried
up patches. Later instars caterpillars fold the leaves together and feed on the green
tissues by remaining inside. Severely infested crop presents a burnt up appearance.
Caterpillars (or) pupae can be seen inside the mines and folded leaflets. It also attacks
red gram and soybean.
ETL:
1 larva per meter row or five or more active larvae per plant are found up to
30 days after seedling emergence (DAE), 10 larvae per plant at 50 DAE and 15 larvae
per plant at 75 DAE or later.
Management:
1. Grow resistant cultivars like ICGV 86031, ICGS 156 (M 13), FDRS 10, ICG 57,
156, 541, 7016, 7404, 9883.
2. Sow groundnut early and synchronously in rainy and rabi season.
3. Intercrop groundnut with pearl millet @ 4:1 ratio.
4. Set up light traps between 8 and 11 PM at ground level.
5. Mulch the soil with straw within 10 days after germination wherever possible.
6. Avoid water stress in irrigated crop to avoid the pest infestation.
7. Maintain the fields and bunds free from weeds.
8. Apply either endosulfan 4D or carbaryl 10 D at 25 kg/ha when the pest crosses
ETL.
9. Spray any one of the following insecticides - endosulfan 35 EC 750 ml/ha,
dichlorovos 76 SC 625 ml/ha, quinolphos 25 EC 750 ml/ha, lambda cyhalothrin
5 EC 200-300 ml in 375 L of water.
2) Groundnut Thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)
Economoic Impotance: Responsible for transmittind “ Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus”
and cause “Bud Necrosis” disease. Losses may extend upto 80%.
Life history:
Nymphs and adults dark coloured with fringed wings. Female thrips lay 40-50
eggs inside the tissues of leaves and shoot. Egg period 5 days, nymphal period 7-10
days and adult period is 25-30 days. There are several overlapping generations.
Nature of damage:
Nymphs and adults suck sap from the surface of the leaflets. This results in
white patches on the upper and necrotic patches on the lower surface of the leaves. It
consists of distortions of the young leaf lets and patchy areas of necrotic tissue that
puncture and split as the leaflets grow. Injury is normally seen in seedlings.
Management:
1. Intercrop lab lab with groundnut 1:4 ratio
2. Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml/ ha.
3) Groundnut Pod Sucking bug: Elasmolomus sordidus (Lygaeidae: Hemiptera)
Life history:
The adult is dark brown, approximately 10 mm long and 2 mm wide. In the
field, the females lay their eggs singly in the soil or on groundnut haulms. But in
storage eggs are laid loosely among the groundnuts. A female bug may lay upto 105
eggs. The egg period is 4-5 days. The first instar nymphs have a bright red abdomen,
later instar become progressively darker. Both nymphs and adults feed on kernels by
piercing the pods with their rostrum. The nymphal period is 23-29 days. Since it is
nocturnal in habit, it hides under weeds, cracks and crevices in soil and debris during
day time.
Nature of damage:
It is a serious pest at pod maturity stage, pod harvesting stage and harvested
produce in the threshing floor. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the pod in
the field and produce at threshing floor. Freshly harvested pods have shrivelled
kernels become rancid and give bitter taste. The oil content and germination % of
infested seeds are also adversely affected.
Management:
1. Set up light traps to attract and kill the bugs.
2. Keep the crop refuse in the field along irrigation channel to attract the bugs
which can be killed by dusting.
3. Dust the groundnut stored in the gunny bugs with malathion 4D or spray 0.05%
malathion.
4) White grub : Holotrichia consanguinea (Melalonthidae: Coleoptera)
Life history:
The dark brown adult beetles reenter the soil to hide and lay eggs. Female lays
20 -80 white, roundish eggs in clusters. Egg period 9 - 11 days. Grubs are white and
translucent. Pupates in soil and remain as pupae until the following year. The adult
beetles emerge with the first monsoon showers.
Nature of damage:
Grubs feed on nodules and fine rootlets partially and also girdle the main root
due to this type of damage. Groundnut having tap root system are mostly susceptible
to the attack. Growth of plant is retarded and finally plants wilt or die.
Management:
1. Plough deep at the time of land preparation to expose grub and kill.
2. Adopt crop rotation with rice in irrigated endemic areas to bring down grub
damage.
3. Ensure adequate irrigation to irrigated groundnut in endemic areas since the
grub attacks roots under inadequate soil moisture condition.
4. Set up light traps or bonfires to attract and kill the adults on receipt of summer
showers.
5. Apply malathion or endosulfan or carbaryl dust @ 25 kg per ha in the soil prior
to sowing during last ploughing.
6. Repeat the same on 40 DAS and incorporate in the soil during earthing up.
7. Seed treatment with chloropyripos 20ECor quinalphos 25EC @ 21/ 80 kg seeds
in endemic pockets of white grub.

EXERCISE No. VII
PESTS OF CASTOR AND SUNFLOWER
PESTS OF CASTOR
Castor is attacked by more than twenty pests of which capsule borer, hairy
caterpillars, other defoliators, leaf hopper and white fly are serious.
1. Capsule & Shoot borer: Conogethes punctiferalis (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
India, Australia, Burma, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia and Malaysia.
Host range:
Castor, mango, sorghum ears, guava, peaches, cocoa, pear, avacado,
cardamom, ginger, turmeric, mulberry, pomegranate, sunflower, cotton tamarind,
hollyhock.
Life history:
Adult is medium sized with small black dots on pale yellow wings. It lays eggs
on the developing capsules. Egg period is 6 days. Larva measures 24 mm when fully
grown. Larva is pale green with pinkish tinge and fine hairs with dark head and
prothoracic shield. Larva lives under a cover of silk, frass and excreta. Larval period is
12-16 days. It pupates in the stem or capsule.
Nature of damage:
The damage is caused by the caterpillar, which bores into the main stem of
young plant and ultimately into the capsules. The borer is distributed throughout India
where castor is grown.
Management:
Removal and distruction of infested shoots and capsule. Spraying the infested
crop with malathion 0.1% or methyl parathion 50 EC 2.0 L @ 1000-1200 L water per
hectare proved effective in controlling the pest.
2) Castor semi looper: Achaea janata (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia,
Philippines.
Host range: Castor, rose, pomegranate, tea, citrus, mango, Cadiospermum
helicacabum
Life history:
Adult is a pale reddish brown moth with black hind wings having a median
white spot on the outer margin. Eggs are laid on the tender leaves. Egg period is 2-5
days. Larva is a semilooper with varying shades of colour with black head and a red
spot on the third abdominal segment and red tubercles in the anal region. Larval period
is 11-15 days. It pupates in soil for 10-14 days. (Parallelia algira looks very similar to
Achaea janata but the wings have black stripes or triangles).
Nature of damage:
The damage is caused by both the caterpillar and adult moth. The caterpillars
feed voraciously on castor leaves. Feeding from the edges inwards, leave behind only
the mid rib and the stalk. The damage is maximum in August, September and October.
The adult of this species are fruit sucking moths and cause serious damage to citrus
crop.
Management:
1. Dusting the infested crop with 2% parathion dust @ 20-25 kg/ha.
2. Spray endosulfan 35 EC 2.0 L or carbaryl 50% WP 2 kg in 1000-1200 L
water/ha.
3. Conserve braconid parasitoid Microplitis ophiusae since it keeps the pest under
check.
3) Leaf eating caterpillar: Spodoptera litura
4) Castor Jassids: E. flavescens
Integrated pest management

I. Cultural method:
1. Resistant varieties:
(a) Variety C3 Pakistan is tolerant. R.C.1098 and R.C.1096 coonoo are resistant to
jassid attack.
(b) Varieties R.C.1066, R.C.1067, R.C.1092, R.C.1069, R.C.1071 and R.C.1072
are resistant to mite infestation.
2. Summer ploughing: Deep summer ploughing should be followed, so that the larvae
of semilooper, hairy caterpillar pupated in the soil will be killed due to scorching
sunlight.
II. Mechanical method:
1. Set up light trap to attract and kill lepidopteran moths.
2. Collect and destroy the egg masses of Spodoptera litura and slug caterpillar.
3. Collect and destroy the early instar larvae of Spodoptera litura, semilopper and
hairy caterpillar.
III. Microbial method:
1. Use of bacteria: Spraying of thuricide (Bacillus thuringiensis1%) is found to be
effective in controlling the larvae of A. janata and other lepidopterous larvae.
2. Use of virus: Nuclear polyhedrosis, Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis and pox-like virus
has been found effective against A. moorei and Euproctis spp.
3. Use of nematodes: Mermis submigrescens have been found effective against
A.moorei.
4. Use of antifeedants: Triphenyl tin compound 45% WP @ 0.06% and other fentin
compounds will protect the crop from the attack of Spodoptera mauritia,
Spodoptera littoralis, Pericallia ricini, Spodoptera litura.
5. Apply NSKE 3% + neem oil 2% for the control of semilooper.
6. Apply dimethoate 500 ml/ha or methyl demeton 25 EC 1500 ml/ha to control
sucking pests.
7. Apply endosulfan 4D 25 kg/ha to control semilooper and other pests.
8. Spray any one of the following insecticides/ha thrice from flowering at three weeks
interval to control capsule and shoot borer. Malathion 2 L, and carbaryl 50 WP 2
kg in 1000 L of water.
PEST OF SUNFLOWER
1) Bihar hairy caterpillar - Spilosoma obliqua (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera)

Distribution and status: Sporadic pest widely distributed in the Orient. It is very
serious in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab
Host range: sesamum, mash (Phaseolus mungo), mung (P. aureus), linseed, mustard,
sunflower and some vegetables.
Life history:
Adults have crimson coloured body with black dots. Wings pinkish with
numerous black spots. Larva is orange coloured with broad transverse bands with tuft
of yellow hair that are dark at both end. Pest breeds from March to April and again

from July to November. Adult female lays 400-1000 light green, spherical eggs in
clusters on the underside of the leaves. Egg period 8- 13 days. Larval instars 7 and
period 30-56 days. Pupation takes place in plant debris or soil and pupal period 7-15
days. Adult lives for 7 days. Early instars are gregarious and later instars disperse in
search of food.
Nature of damage: Defoliation
Management:
1. Dust young caterpillars with malathion 5 D @ 25 kg/ha
2. When full grown chemical control becomes difficult as in the case of red hairy
caterpillar of groundnut.
3. For chemical control measures refer red hairy caterpillar.
2) Leaf eating caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
They are polyphagous pests. Caterpillars eat leaves and soft portions of the
stems. In severe cases there will be plants without leaves.
Their life histories, damage and management have been detailed under cotton
pests.
Management:
Dusting leaves and flower heads with methyl parathion 2D or spraying with
quinalphos 2 ml/l or thiodicarb 1 g/l or acephate 1.5g/l or endosulfan 2 ml/l is
effective.
(Note: Do not dust or spray during flowering period before seed set).
3) Leafhopper: Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Cicadellidaea: Hemiptera)
Nature of damage:
Greenish yellow adults, pale greenish, transluscent nymphs suck sap from
undersurface of leaves injecting toxins which result in curling of leaves and ultimately
hopper burn symptoms. Leaves dry up and drop down.
Management:
Seed treatment with imidacloprid 5 g/kg seed or fo liar sprays with
monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l or endosulfan 2 ml/l are recommended.

EXERCISE No. VIII
PESTS OF SAFFLOWER, MUSTARD AND LINSEED
PEST OF SAFFLOWER
1) Safflower Aphid: Uroleucon compositae (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

This pest causes considerable damage to safflower in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
Life history:
The aphids are small shining black, soft bodied insects. The nymphs are
smaller in size and are reddish brown in colour. The aphid is active from December to
April. A female produces 6-56 young ones with an average of 21. It completes its life
cycle in 11-16 days. The adult aphid has a life span of 17 days.
Nature of damage:
The aphids suck the sap from leaves, twigs, flowers and capsules. In infested
plants, the height, number of leaves and shoots reduce significantly. The plants
become weak, remain stunted and· sometimes dry up. Seed production is seriously
affected. The aphids secrete honeydew which attracts a black sooty mould.
Management:
1. Early sowing in Ist week of October in drought prone areas sowing crop in IInd
week of Sept. is recommended.
2. Brumus suturalis is predaceous on aphids.
3. Two sprays at 15 day interval with monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l
or chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l are effective.
2) Leaf eating caterpillar: Prospalta capensis (Safflower caterpillar)/ Spodoptera
exigua/ Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Nature of damage:
They are polyphagous. The larvae feed on the foliage causing extensive
defoliation. Their life histories damages have been detailed under cotton (H.
armigera) and millets (S. exigua)
Management: Foliar sprays with quinalphos 2 ml/l or chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l are
recommended.
PESTS OF MUSTARD
1) Mustard Aphid: Lipaphis erysimi (Aphididae:Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: Distributed worldwide and is a serious pest
Host range:
Cruciferous oilseeds like toria, sarson, raya, taramira and Brassica vegetables
like cabbage, cauliflower, knol-khol,
Life history:
They are louse like, pale-greenish insects abundant from December to March.
During summer, it is believed to migrate to the hills. The pest breeds
parthenogenetically and the females give birth to 26-133 nymphs. They grow very fast
and are full-fed in 7-10 days. About 45 generations are completed in a year. Cloudy
and cold weather (20°C or below) is very favourable for the multiplication of this pest.
The winged forms are produced in autumn and spring, and they spread from field to
field and from locality to locality.

Nature of damage:
Both the nymphs and adults suck cell-sap from leaves, stems, inflorescence or
the developing pods. Vitality of plants is greatly reduced. The leaves acquire a curly
appearance, the flowers fail to form pods and the developing pods do not produce
healthy seeds. The yield of an infested crop is reduced to one-fourth or one-fifth.
Management:
1. Sow the crop early wherever possible, preferably up to third week of October.
2. Apply recommended dose of fertilizers.
3. Apply anyone of the following insecticides when the population of the pest
reaches 50-60 aphids per 10 cm terminal portion of the central shoot or when an
average of 0.5-l.0 cm terminal portion of central shoot is covered by aphids or
when plants infested by aphids reach 40-50 per cent Foliar sprays - 625 -1000
ml of oxydemton methyl 25 EC, dimethoate 30 EC, endosulfan 35 EC,
quinalphos 25 EC, malathion 50 EC; 940-1500 ml of chiorpyriphos 20 EC in
600-1000 L of water per ha depending on the stage of the crop.
4. Granular insecticides - 10 kg of phorate lO G, 33 kg of carbofuran 30 per ha
followed by a light irrigation.
5. Conserve parasitoids Ischiodon scutellaris (Fabricius), Diaeretiella rapae
M'Intosh (Braconidae) and Lipolexis gracilis Forester (Aphididae), predators
viz., Syrphus serarius (Wiedmann) (Syrphidae). Brinckochrysa scelestes
(Banks) (Chrysopidae), Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus, Menochilus
sexmaculatus (Fabricius) (Coccinellidae) and entomopathogens viz.,
Entomophthora coronata and Cephalosporium aphidicola.
2) Mustard Sawfly: Athalia lugens (Tenthredinidae: Hymenoptera)
Distribution and status: Widely distributed in Indonesia, Formosa, Myanmar and
the Indian Sub-continent.
Host range: Mustard, toria (Brassica campestris), rapeseed, cabbage, cauliflower,
knolkhol, turnip, radish, etc
Life history:
Dark green larvae have 8 pairs of abdominal prolegs. There are five black
stripes on the back, and the body has a wrinkled appearance. A full-grown larva
measures 16-18 mm in length. The adults are small orange yellow insects with black
markings on the body and have smoky wings with black veins. The mustard sawfly
breeds from October to March and undergoes pupal diapause during summer. The
adults emerge from these cocoons early in October. They live for 2-8 days and lay
30-35 eggs singly, in slits made with saw like ovipositors along the underside of the
leaf margins. Egg period is 4-8 days and the larvae feed exposed in groups of 3-6 on
the leaves during morning and evening. They remain hidden during the day time and,
when disturbed, fall to the ground and feign death. There are 7 instars with a larval
period of 16-35 days. Pupation is in water proof oval cocoons in soil and the pupal
period is 11-31 clays. Lifecycle is completed in 31-34 days. It completes 2-3
generations from October to March.
Nature of damage:
The grubs alone are destructive. They bite holes into leaves preferring the
young growth and skeletonize the leaves completely. Sometimes, even the epidermis
of the shoot is eaten up. Although the seedlings succumb; the older plants, when
attacked, do not bear seed.
Management:
1. Give first irrigation 3-4 weeks after sowing as it reduces the bug population
significantly.

2. Spray 1.0 L of malathion 50 EC or 625 ml of endosulfan 35 EC or quinalphos 25
EC in 500-600 L of water per ha once in October and again in March-April.
3. Conserve larval parasitoid Perilissus cingulator Morby (Ichneumonidae) and the
bacterium, Serratia marcescens Bizio (Enterobacteriaceae).
4. Spray 250 ml of dimethoate 30 EC or monocrotophos 36 SL or 625 ml of
chlorpyriphos 20 EC in 750 litres of water/ha and repeat the spray after 15 days, if
necessary.
5. Conserve parasitoid Aphidencyrtus aphidivorus and predator Brumoides suturalis
PEST OF LINSEED
1. Linseed Gall-midge: Dasineura lini (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)

Distribution and status: Serious in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Delhi and Punjab.
Host range: Linseed
Life history:
The adult of this gall-midge is a small orange fly. The female lays 29-103
smooth, transparent eggs in the folds of 8-17 flowers or in tender green buds, either
singly or in clusters of 3-5. The eggs hatch in 2-5 days. Just after emergence, the
larvae are transparent, with a yellow patch on the abdomen. They pass through four
instars in 4-10 days and when full-grown become deep pink and measure about 2 mm
in length. The full-grown maggots drop to the ground, prepare a cocoon and pupate in
the soil. The pupal period lasts 4-9 days. A generation is completed in 10-24 days.
There are four overlapping generations during the season.
Nature of damage:
Damage is the result of feeding by maggots on buds and flowers.
Consequently no pod-formation takes place.
Management:
1. The adult flies can be killed by using light traps. The flies are also attracted in
day-time to molasses or gur added to water.
2. As the incidence of this pest is more on the late-sown crop as compared with the
nonnal-sown crop, the practice of nonnal-sown crops should be adopted if
possible.
3. Dust 5 per cent carbaryl 15-20 kg/ha or spray carbaryl 50 WP 1.125 kg/ha in 600-
750 L of water/ha.
4. Conserve larval parasitoids viz., Systasis dasyneurae Mani
(Miscogasteridae), Elasmus sp. (Elasmidae), Eurytoma sp. (Eurytomidae),
Torymus sp. (Torymidae) and Tetrastichus sp. (Eulophidae).

EXERCISE No. IX
PESTS OF SOYBEAN, SESAMUM AND NIGER
PESTS OF SOYBEAN
1) Stem fly: Ophiomyia phaseoli / Melanagromyza sojae (Agromyzidae: Diptera)

Host range: It is a major pest of blackgram, greengram and soybean.
Incidence is more in rainy season.
Life history:
Shiny bluish – black fly deposit eggs in punctures made by fly on young leaves.
Pupation is at ground level within the stem. Adult fly exits through a thin semi
transparent window.
Nature of damage:
Young plants (less than 40 days) suffer more. Yellowish maggots bore into
nearest vein, reach the stem through petiole, bore down the stem and feed on cortical
layers and may extend to tap root resulting in the following symptoms
 Distinct tunnel of stem split open.
 Death of plant or branches.
Management:
i) Seed treatment with imidacloprid 3 g/kg seed gives protection upto 30 days.
ii) Foliar spray with acephate 1.5g/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6ml/l.
2) Leaf eating caterpillar:Spodoptera exigua (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
The caterpillar causes damage by feeding on leaves. For other details refer under millets.
3) Soyabean leafminer: Aproaerema modicella/ Caloptilia soyella
Host range: Important pest of soybean also attacks groundnut and some leguminous
weeds.
Life history:
Brownish grey moth lays white eggs singly on underside of leaves close to mid
rib. Full grown caterpillar is green with dark head and pupates within the web.
Nature of damage:
Young larva initially mine into leaflets and feed on mesophyll. Later as it grow
web the leaflets together and feed. Severely infested field presents a symptom as if burnt
when viewed from a distance.
Management:
Foliar spray with acephate 1.5 g/l or chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l or quinalphos 2 m l/l
were effective measures.
4) Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Aleurodidae: Hemiptera)
Nature of damage:
Both nymphs and adults suck sap from undersurface of leaves, excrete honeydew.
Damaged leaves show uniform bronzing. For other details refer under cotton
Management:
Foliar spray with acephate 1.5 g/l or triazophos 2 ml/l or profenophos 2 ml/l were
effective measures.
PESTS OF SESAMUM
1) Gingelly leaf and pod borer: Antigastra catalaunalis (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)
Host range: This is one of the most common, important and specific pest of gingelly.
Life history:
Adult is a pale brownish small moth with yellowish brown elongated wings. The
female lays about 100 to 130 shining flat eggs on the tender parts of plants. Incubation
period is 4 -5 days. The full grown larva is pale green with black head and tubercles
having thin hairs on the body. It measures about 20 mm long. Larval period is 11-16
days.Pupation is within the web. Pupal period lasts 7-10 days. Infestation starts when the
crop is 15 day old, peak activity being in July – September
Nature of damage:
The larvae web together the top leaves or bore into tender shoots and capsules and
feed on them. The damage results in;
 Webbed leaves at top with young caterpillars.
 Bored shoots, flower buds and pods
In case of severe infestation the yields are drastically reduced.
Management:
i) Early sowing of kharif crop in first week of July.
ii) Rabi crop or summer crop as ID crop is recommended to escape pest and also for
better quality of seed.
iii) Collection and destruction of webbed leaves, infested pods at initial stages of
infestation.
iv) Foliar spray with endosulfan 2 ml/l or dichlorvos 1 ml/l or chlorpyriphos 2 ml/l.
2) Gallfly: Asphondylia sesame (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)
Host range: It is one important pest in south India and also in Rajasthan and a specific
pest on gingelly.
Life history:
The small mosquito like fly inserts the eggs into the ovaries of flower buds. The
pupation takes place inside the malformed capsule/pod. Life cycle is completed in 23 –
37 days. Activity starts at bud initiation, peak activity being in September - November.
Nature of damage:
The small whitish maggots feed on the ovary which results in;
 Malformation of pod without proper setting of seeds.
 Galled buds and flowers fade and dry.
Management:
i) Picking of galls, picking and burning shed buds as a prophylactic measure.
ii) Resistant variety in endemic areas is N 166 – 5.
iii) Foliar sprays with dimethoate 2 ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l.
3) Sphinx caterpillar/ Gingelly hawk moth/ Death’s hawk moth: Acherontia styx
(Sphingidae: Lepidoptera)
Life history:
The moth is very large, brownish with a characteristic skull like marking on
thorax and violet and yellow bands on abdomen. Dark brown forewings are covered with
yellowish, bluish and grey powdery scales. Yellowish hindwings are with two cross lines.
It is known to suck honey from combs and cause annoyance to bees.
Nature of damage:
Stout green caterpillar with yellowish oblique stripes and a conspicuous yellowish
curved anal horn feeds on the leaves and acts as a defoliator.
Management:
Foliar spray with carbaryl 3 g/l or endosulfan 2 ml/l or malathion 2 ml/l or
phosalone 2 ml/l is recommended.

EXERCISE No. X
PESTS OF COTTON

1 Spotted bollworms Earias vitella & Noctuidae Lepidoptera
E. insulana
2 American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae Lepidoptera
3 Pink bollworm Pectinophora Gelechiidae Lepidoptera
gossypiella
4 Leafhopper or Amrasca devastans Cicadellidae Hemiptera
Jassid
5 Red cotton bug Dysdercus cingulatus Pyrrhocoridae Hemiptera
6 Dusky cotton bug Oxycarenus Lygaeidae Hemiptera
hyalinipennis
7 Thrips Thrips tabaci Thripidae Thysanoptera
8 Mealy bug Phenacoccus solan Pseudococcidae Hemiptera
9 Cotton aphid Aphis gossypii Aphididae Hemiptera
1) Spotted bollworms: Earias vitella & E. insulana (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Distribution and status: Cosmopolitan. Major pest
Host range: Cotton, bhendi, holly hock, Hibiscus cannabinus, Abutilon indicum
Life history:
Earias vittella has green forewigns with white streak in each of them. Earias
insulana has complete green forewings Scuptured, crown shaped, deep sky blue
colour eggs are deposited singly on the shoot tips, buds, flowers, fruits. Egg period is
3 days Larva is brown with dorsum showing a white median longitudinal streak; the
last two thoracic segments and all the abdominal segments have two pairs of fleshy
tubercles (finger shaped processes), one dorsal and the other lateral. E. vittella is
without finger shaped processes. Larval period is 10-12 days. Pupation is outside the
bolls in a tough, boat shaped, dirty white silken cocoon. Pupal period is 7-10 days.
Nature of damage:
In the beginning of the season, when the crop is a few weeks old, the small
caterpillar on hatching out from the egg leads a free life for a few hours. Then it bores
into top tender shoot, the portion of the shoot above the damage withers, droops and
dries up. Depending upon the locality upto 50 per cent of the crop may be damaged in
this manner. When the squares and bolls begin to develop, these caterpillars move
from the shoots and start damaging bolls by making conspicuous holes into them. The
squares and small bolls injured by the larvae drop away from the plants. The
developing bolls are also damaged and some of the damaged bolls fall to the ground.
The infested bolls, which are not shed, are destroyed by the larvae eating the seeds
and filling them with excrement. Such affected bolls may open prematurely and
badly.
2) American bollworm/ Green bollworm: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae:
Lepidoptera)

Distribution and status: Cosmopolitan. Major pest
Host range: Sorghum, lablab, soybean, peas, sunflower, safflower, chillies,
groundnut, tobacco, bhendi, maize, tomato.
Life history:
Adult: Brown coloured moth with a ‘V’ shaped speck on forewing and dull
black border on the hind wing. Eggs are laid on the host plants singly. The egg
period is 7 days. Full grown larva is 2” long, greenish with dark brown gray lines
and dark and pale bands. It shows colour variation from greenish to brown. The
larval duration is 14 days. It pupates in soil for 10 days.
Nature of damage:
The caterpillars feed on leaves, squares, flowers and small bolls. When the
squares, flowers and bolls are attacked, they feed the internal content completely by
thrusting their head inside leaving the rest of the body outside. The damaged squares
and young bolls drop away from the plants. The developed bolls and open bolls are
not attacked.
Economic threshold level: 10% of affected fruiting parts or bolls or one egg/plant or
one larva/plant.
Management of bollworms:
a. Monitoring:
Pest monitoring through light traps, pheromone traps and in situ
assessments by roving and fixed plot surveys has to be intensified at farm,
village,block, regional and state levels. For bollworm, H. armigera management,
an action threshold of one egg per plant or 1 larva/ plant may be adopted.
b. Cultural practices:
1) Grow Bt cotton viz., Bollgard I containing Cry 1 Ac protein that offers protection
against American bollworm and Bollgard II containing Cry 2 Ab in addition to
Cry 1 Ac which offers season long protection against Spodoptera and
Helicoverpa.
2) Grow Helicoverpa resistant varieties like L 1245, LD 135, Sujata, LK 861,
Abadhita.
3) Grow spotted bollworm resistant varieties like L 1245, JK 119-25-54, BCS 10,
BCS 10-75, FBRN 2-6, HAO 66-107-1/1, Hopi, Deltapine, LH 95, UK 48G 27,
Sanguineum
4) Premonsoon sowing during 4th week of September significantly lower the
bollworm damage in rainfed areas.
5) Synchronized sowing of cotton preferably with short duration varieties in each
cotton ecosystem.
6) Avoid continuous cropping of cotton both during winter and summer seasons in
the same area as well as ratooning.
7) Avoid monocropping. Grow less preferred crops like greengram, blackgram,
soyabean, castor, sorghum etc., along with cotton as intercrop or border crop or
alternate crop to reduce the pest infestation.
8) Remove and destroy crop residues to avoid carry over of the pest to the next
season, and avoid extended period of crop growth by continuous irrigation.

9) Optimize the use of nitrogenous fertilizers which will not favour the
multiplication of the pest.
10) Judicious water management for the crop to prevent excessive vegetative growth
and larval harbourage.
c. Biological control:
1) Application of nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) at 3 x 1012 POB /ha in evening
hours at 7th and 12th week after sowing.
2) Conservation and augmentation of natural predators and parasites for effective
control of the pest.
3) Inundative release of egg parasite, Trichogramma spp., at 6.25 cc/ha at 15 days
interval 3 times from 45 DAS, egg-larval parasitoid, Chelonus blackburnii and the
predator Chrysoperla 1,00,000/ha at 6th, 13th and 14th week after sowing.
4) ULV spray of NPV at 3 x 1012 POB /ha with 10% cotton seed kernel extract,
10% crude sugar, 0.1% each of Tinopal and Teepol for effective control
of Helicoverpa.
d. Chemical control :
1) During the early stages of square formation, apply endosulfan 35 EC @ 0.2 l/ha.
2) During bolling and maturation stage, apply any one of the following insecticides
per ha; phosalone 50 EC 2.5 L quinalphos 25 EC 2.0 L, carbaryl 50 WP 2.5 kg
(1000 L of spray fluid/ha)
3) Discourage the indiscriminate use of insecticides, particularly synthetic
pyrethroids.
4) Use of proper insecticides which are comparatively safer to natural enemies such
as endosulfan, phosalone, etc., at the correct dosage and alternating different
groups of insecticides for each round of spray.
5) Avoiding combination of insecticides as tank mix.
6) Adopting proper delivery system using spraying equipments like hand
compression sprayer, knapsack sprayer and mist blower to ensure proper coverage
with required quantity of spray fluid and avoiding ULV applications.
7) Proper mixing and preparation of spray fluid for each filling of spray fluid tank.
3) Cotton pink bollworm: Pectinophora gossypiella (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India, Pakistan, Africa, Australia, Asia. Major pest
Host range: Cotton, bhendi, holly hock and other malvaceous plants
Life history:
Larva: Varies in general color; young larva white and late instar almost black,
brown or green to pale or pink with several dark and light alternating bands running
the entire length. Adult: Small moth, brown or dull yellow or olive grey with dark
spots on the forewing.
Nature of damage:
The caterpillars feed on flower buds, flowers and bore into bolls. When they
bore into flower buds, they feed on developing anther and style and occasionally on
ovary. When they are found in flowers, the flowers do not open and give rosette
appearance. The young bolls, when attacked, are shed after a few days, but the larger
bolls remain on the plant. Locules are damaged and interlocular burrowing can be
noticed. Seeds are destroyed and lint gets stained. The aperture through which they

make their entry into the boll is closed and it becomes difficult to differentiate
between a healthy and infested boll. Due to damge ginning % of seeds and spinning
quality of kapas adversely affected.
Management:
1) Use pheromone trap @ 12/ha to monitor the adult moth activity.
2) Collect and destroy the shed fruiting parts at weekly intervals.
3) Crush the pink bollworm larvae in the rosette flowers.
4) Spray endosulfan 2.0 L /ha in the early stages of square formation.
5) Durign bolling and maturation stage, spray fenpropathrin 30 EC 250-340 ml or
fenpropathrin 10EC 750-1000 ml or triazophos 40 EC 1.5 - 2.0 L or
cypermethrin 10 EC 500-700 ml or 25 EC 180-250 ml of water/ha.
4) Leafhopper or Jassid: Amrasca devastans (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera):
Distribution and status: Major pest in all cotton-growing region of India.
Host range: Cotton, potato, brinjal, castor, bhendi, tomato, hollyhock and sunflower.
Life history:
Adult green and wedge shaped, lay eggs singly within leaf veins. Incubation
period 4-11 days. Nymph light green and translucent found between the veins of
leaves on the under surface. Nymphal period 7-21 days. Nymphs moult five times.
Life cycle is completed in 15-46 days. Eleven generations are known to occur in a
year.
Nature of damage:
Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the under surface of leaves, tender
leaves turn yellow, leaf margins curl downwards and reddening sets in. In the case of
severe infestation leaves get a bronze or brick red colour which is typical “hopper
burn”. Crop growth retarded.
ETL: 50 nymphs / adults per 50 leaves or yellowing and curling from the middle to
upper portion of the plants in 25 % of plants in the field
Management
i. Early sowing and close spacing of cotton reduces pest infestation particularly if
the rainfall is heavy.
ii. Setup light trap to monitor the broods of leaf hopper and to attract and kill.
iii. Release predators viz., Chrysopa carnea.
iv. Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1000 ml/ha and NSKE 5% @ 25 kg/ha or
750 ml endosulfan 35 EC in 1000 L of water per hectare.
v. Use resistant varieties like MCU 3, MCU 5 and MCU 9.
5) Red cotton bug: Dysdercus cingulatus (Pyrrhocoridae: Hemiptera)
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bombay, Andhra Pradesh and Tropical Africa, Tropical
Asia, Australia, U.S.A. Central and South America and India. Regular pest at crop
maturity.
Host Plants:
Cotton, bhendi, maize, pearl millet, hollyhock, clover, sorghum and silk cotton.
Life history:
The adult is a red and black bug with white stripes ventrally on the abdomen.
The eggs are laid in loose masses in the soil. The fecundity of the bug is 100 – 130.
Egg period 4-7 days. The nymph undergoes six instars to become adult. The nymphal
period lasts for 26 - 89 days. The adult bug undergoes hibernation (resting period)
during winter months.

Nature of damage:
The damage is caused by both nymphs and adults by sucking the sap of the
plant as well as that of bolls and stain the lint. They are also, therefore, termed as
cotton boll stainers. The bugs are gregarious in habit. Attacked seeds loose viability.
The bacterium Nematospora gossypii enters the site of injury and stains the fibre.
Management:
1) Biocontrol agent Harpactor costalis is predaceous on nymph and adult. Since
the pest feeds gregariously, the infested leaves or bolls can be shaken in water
and drowned.
2) Plough the field to expose the eggs.
3) Spray fluvalinate 25 EC 200-400 ml/ha orendosulfan 35 EC 750 ml/ha.
6) Dusky cotton bug: Oxycarenus hyalinipennis (Lygaeidae: Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: Africa, Egypt, Indian, china and philipiness. Minor pest but
regular in occurrence
Host range: Cotton, bhendi, holly hock and other malvaceous weeds.
Life history:
The adult is a small flat bug, dusky brown in colour. It lays cigar shaped,
white eggs in clusters of 2-10 within the half opened bolls, on the bolls, flower or
buds. The incubation period is 6-10 days. The nymphs undergo five instars. The
nymphal duration is 30-40 days.
Nature of damage:
It sucks the sap from developing seeds in open bolls and stains the lint black.
Seeds discoloured and shrunken.
Management: As per Red cotton bug.
7) Thrips: Thrips tabaci (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)
Life history:
Adults small, slender, yellowish to brown with fringed wings and drift away on
disturbance. Nymph very minute, slender, yellowish and microscopic.
Nature of damage:
Both nymph and adult lacerate the tissue and suck the sap from the upper and
lower surface of leaves and in cases of severe infestation they curl up and become
crumbled. Silvery sheen on the lower surface can be seen in early stages of attack.
ETL: 1 No. /leaf
Management:
i. Monitor the nymphs and adults from the 14th day after sowing.
ii. Spray any of the following insecticides with 500 L water/ha
 Buprofezin 25 SC 1000 ml Profenofos 50 EC 1000 ml
Diafenthiuron 50 WP 600 g Fipronil 5 SC 1.5-2.0 L
8) Mealy bug: Phenacoccus solan (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)
During the last few years mealybugs, which were considered to be minor pests
in many crops have acquired the status of major pests especially in cotton, vegetables
and fruits. Recently in India the cotton crop in Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
Gujarat is being seriously infested with mealybug
Host range:
Polyphagous pest. Ornamental plants, fruit crops, vegetables and field crops.
Ninety one host plants spread across 24 families has been recorded in India till date.
Life history:
The body is covered with very short waxy filaments. Long tails and stripes on
the body are absent. This species does not produce an egg mass or ovisac. Mealybugs
are white to pink in colour and measure 3–4 mm in length. In case of M. hirsutus,
eggs as well as crawlers are pink in colour. The crawlers measure 0.3 mm in length.
Immature females and newly matured females are greyish-pink which are dusted with
mealy white wax. Adult females are 2.5–4.0 mm long, soft-bodied, elongate oval and
slightly flattened. Females are provided with 9-segmented antennae, anal lobe bars,
numerous dorsal oral rim ducts on all parts of the body except the limbs and long,
flagellate dorsal setae. Males have one pair of very simple wings, long antennae and
white wax filaments projecting posteriorly with no mouthparts.
Nature of damage:
Plants infested during vegetative phase exhibit symptoms of leaf curling,
distorted and bushy shoots, crinkled and/or twisted and bunchy leaves. Plants dry
become stunted and dry. Late season infestation during reproductive crop stage results
in late opening of bolls, reduced plant vigour, early crop senescence, affecting the
yield badly.
Management:
1. Early crop termination
2. Destruction of cotton stalks.
3. Destroy alternate weed host growing on field bunds, water channels and
wastelands.
4. Use acid delinted seeds for sowing.
5. Grow pigeonpea, bajra or maize as border crop wherever possible.
6. Regulaarly monitoring of the pest.
7. Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE 5%) 50ml/L + Neem oil 5ml/ L + detergent
powder 1gm/L or Fish oil rosin liquid 10 ml mixed with neem10ml/L or
Karanj oil 10ml /L can be sprayed as spot application on infested stalks.
8. Use Cryptolaemus montrouzieri adults /grub@ 10 per infested plants wherever
available.
9. Spray biopesticides viz., Verticillium lecanii (Potency 2 X 108 C.F.U /gm)
10gm/l and Beauveria bassiana (Potency 108 spores/ml) 10ml/l.
10. Spray less hazardous insecticides, such as acephate, 75 SP 2.0 kg, malathion
50 EC 2 L, buprofezin 25 SC 2.0 L/ha. As the last option, spray moderately
hazardous insecticides: Quinolphos 25 EC or Chlorpyriphos 20EC.
9) Cotton aphid: Aphis gossypii (Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: India, occasionally serious.
Host plants: Cotton, bhendi, brinjal, chillies, guava
Life history:
The aphids are greenish brown, soft bodied and small insects. The alate as
well as apterous females multiply parthenogenitically and viviparously. A single
female may produce 8-22 nymphs in a day which become adults in about 7-9 days.
They are often attended by ants for the sweet honey dew secretion. Winged forms
may be seen under crowded conditions.
Nature of damage:
It is a potential pest on cotton infesting tender shoots and under surface of the
leaves. They occur in large numbers, suck the sap and cause stunted growth, gradual
drying resulting in death of the plants. Development of black sooty mould due to the
excretion of honey dew gives the plant, a dark appearance.
ETL: 5% of infested plants.
Management:
i. Monitor the nymphs and adults of early season sucking pests from the 14th day
after sowing.
ii. Conserve natural enemies viz., Monochilus sexmaculatus, Coccinella
septumpunctata, Aphelinus mali, A. flavipes, Phylloscopus tristis
iii. Spray any of the following insecticides with 500 L water/ha Acetamiprid 20 SP
50 g or Fluvalinate 25EC 200-400 ml or NSKE 5% kg/ha or Azadirachtin
0.03% 500 ml.
Integrated pest management of cotton pests
1) Remove cotton crop and dispose off the crop residues as soon as harvest is over.
2) Avoid staking of stalks in the field.
3) Avoid ratoon and double cotton crop.
4) Adopt proper crop rotation. Use optimum irrigation and fertilizers.
5) Synchronize the sowing time in the villages and complete the sowing within 10
to 15 days.
6) Grow one variety throughout the village as far as possible.
7) Avoid other malvaceous crops in the vicinity of cotton crop.
8) Timely earthing up and other agronomic practices should be done.
9) Hand pick and burn periodically egg masses, visible larvae, affected and shed
squares, flowers and bolls and squash pink bollworm in the rosettes.
10) Use locally fabricated light traps (modified Robinson type) with 125 Watt
mercury lamps to determine the prevalence of pests and their population
fluctuation.
11) The magnitude of the activity of the moths of the cotton pink bollworm, the
cutworm (Spodoptera litura) and the American bollworm can be assessed by
setting up the species-specific sex pheromone trap each at the rate of 12 per ha.
12) Apply chemical insecticides only when it is absolutely necessary and when
pest population damage crosses ETL.
13) Intercropping with pulses viz., cowpea, greengram, blackgram and soybean
reduce the population of sucking pests of cotton, viz., aphid and leaf hopper.
Also, the bollworm incidence is low. Besides, the highest activity of natural
enemies viz., spiders and predatory lady bird beetles are significant.
14) Grow resistant cultivars like G 27, LD 135, Lohit, Abadhita, MCU 7, Sujata,
Digvijay, Sanguineum.

EXERCISE No. XI
PESTS OF SUNHEMP AND MESTA
PESTS OF SUNHEMP
1) Sunhemp Hairy Caterpilar: Utetheisa lotrix/ Argina cribraria (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera)
Host plants: It is the most serious and specific pest of sunhemp.
Life history:
Moth of U. pulchella has pale white fore wing with red and black dots. A.
cribraria has orange yellow fore wing with black spots ringed with yellow. The hind
wings are orange with black spots on them. The female moth lays about 80-100 round,
smooth yellow eggs on leaves singly or in small groups. Egg stage lasts for 3-4 days. The
caterpillar has yellow lines dorsally and dorsolaterally and black stripes and orange
patches laterally and a brown head with long brown hairs on its body. Larval duration is
18-21 days. Full grown caterpillar pupates in the soil and pupal stage is 6-8 days. The
total life cycle takes 27-31 days.
Nature of damage:
The just hatched larva either defoliates (vegetative stage) or bores into pods (in
heading stage). The larvae feed on sun hemp and defoliate the plant. The damage will be
more (serious in later stages), when they bore into pods and feed on the seeds. The
symptoms are defoliation of plant, bored seed capsules.
Management:
i) Larval parasitoid Bracon brevicornis suppress the population naturally.
ii) Foliar spray with endosulfan 2 ml/l or methyl parathion 2 ml /l or dusting methyl
parathion 2D 10 – 12 kg/ac are effective measures.
2) Sunhemp stem borer: Laspeyresia tricentra (Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera)
The caterpillars cause small gall like swellings on shoots and stem and because of
this the fiber length is affected and there is profuse branching of infested plants.
Insecticides recommended against sun hemp caterpillar are effective.
3) Sunhemp flea beetle:Longitarsus belgaumensis (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera)
It is common in South India. Adult beetle bite holes on leaves. Spraying with
endosulfon 1.5ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6ml/l in the evening hours is recommended
PESTS OF MESTA
1) Mesta hairy caterpillar:Euproctis scintillans (Lymantriidae: Lepidoptera)
Host plants:
It also infests rose, castor, cotton, pigeonpea, mango, linseed, sunhemp,
pumpkin, pomegranate apple and jute etc.
Life history:
Moth is yellowish with a reddish line and spots on the edges.Eggs are laid in
masses on the undersurface of leaves. The egg period is 5-9 days. Eggs hatch into larvae
and feed on foliage.Larva has yellowish brown head and yellow dorsal stripe with a mid
dorsal red stripe. There are tufts of black hairs dorsally on the first three abdominal
segments. The larval period is 29-35 days Larva pupates in a cocoon of hairs on the
leaves or leaf folds. Pupal period lasts for 10-12 days.
Nature of damage:
The early instar larvae feed gregariously on the foliage.

Management:
Timely sowing at the onset of monsoons, foliar sprays with endosulfan 2 ml/l or
methyl demeton 2 ml/l were effective.
2) Mesta stem weevil: Alcidodes affaber (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Host plants:
This insect is a common pest on malvaceous plants in India infesting bhendi,
gogu, Bombax malabaricum, Althae rosea and Ficus bengalensis etc.
Nature of damage:
The adult feed on leaf buds, petiols and tender terminal portion. However, serious
damage is caused only by the grubs boring into stem and petioles and causing gall like
swellings. Frass is found through holes made on stems. The infested plant gets stunted.
Their flowers and fruiting get retarded considerably. A single plant may harbor as many
as 12 grubs.
This pest is active from September-December.
Management:
i) The grubs are parasitised by Aphrastofracon alcidophagus (Braconidae) and
Zoridescopus spp (Ichneumonid).
ii) Foliar sprays of endosulfan 2 ml/l are effective in management.
3) Mealy bug: Meconellicoccus hirsutus (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)
Host plants:
Besides mesta, it also attacks jute, grapevine and guava.
Life history:
Sac-like pink coloured females are covered by milky white waxy coating. Eggs
are laid in masses.
Nature of damage:
Upon hatching, crawlers move to succulent parts and suck sap resulting in
symptoms like swelling on stem, shortened internodes, bunchy top formation as
secondary branches arise. If growing tips are infested vertical growth is suppressed. Fibre
snaps at point of infestation during retting.
Management:
i) Release of Cryptolaemus montronzieri when peak infestation is noticed in Sep-
Oct.
ii) Foliar spraying with methyl demeton 2ml/l or dimethoate 1.5ml/l is effective.
4) Leafhopper: Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
5) Aphid: Aphis gossypii (Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Both above pests covered under pests of cotton

EXERCISE No. XII
PESTS OF SUGARCANE

1 Early shoot borer Chilo infuscatellus Crambidae Lepidoptera
2 Internode borer Sesamia inferens Noctuidae Lepidoptera
3 Top borer Scirpophaga Pyralidae Lepidoptera
excerptalis
4 Root borer Emmalocera depressela Pyralidae Lepidoptera
5 Pyrilla Pyrilla perpusilla Fulgoridae Hemiptera
6 Wooly aphid Ceratovacuna Aphididae Hemiptera
lanigera
7 Whiteflies Aleurolobus Aleurodidae Hemiptera
barodensis
Neomaskellia bergii
8 Mealy bug Saccharicoccus Pseudococcidae Hemiptera
sacchari
9 Scale insects Melanaspis glomerata Diaspididae Hemiptera
10 White grub Holotrichia Melolonthidae Coleoptera
consanguinea
11 Termites Odontotermes obesus Termitidae Isoptera
12 Mites Schizotetranychus Tetranychidae Acarina
andropogoni
1) Early shoot borer: Chilo infuscatellus (Crambidae: Lepidoptera)

Distribution and status: India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thiawan, Philippines, Korea,
Afghanistan and Burma.
Host range: Pearl millet, oat, barley and maize
Life history:
Larva is dirty white with five dark violet longitudinal stripes and dark brown
head. Adult is pale greyish brown moth with black dots near the costal margin of the
forewings and with white hind wings.
Carry over: Pest hibernates as larva in stubbles.
Seasonal occurrence: Adasali- July to September; Preseasonal: November to
December; Suru: January to March
Nature of damage:
Dead heart in 1-3 month old crop, which can be easily pulled out, rotten
portion of the straw coloured dead-heart emits an offensive odour. Larva bore
number of holes at the base of the shoot just above the ground level can be seen. It is
major pest in the early stage of the crop.
ETL: 15 % deadheart
Management:
1) Apply management practice if population excess ETL of 15% dead heart.
2) Grow resistant varieties: CO 312, CO 421, CO 661, CO 917 and CO 853.
3) Planting in December – January escapes the incidence
4) Intercrop with Sesbania sp.(Daincha) for reduced shoot borer incidence
5) Trash mulching : 10 – 15 cm thickness on 3rd day after planting
6) Earthing up – 30th day
7) Ensure adequate moisture
8) Remove and destroy dead hearts
9) Apply Granulosis virus (GV) @ 1.1 x 105 granules twice on 35 and 50 DAP.
10) Release tachinid parasitoid: Sturmiopsis inferens @ 125 gravid females.
11) Apply carbofuran 3G @ 33 kg or fipronil 0.3 G 25.0-33.0 kg / ha in the soil
before the cane setts are covered.
12) Apply cartap hydrochloride 4G or fipronil 0.3 G at 25 kg /ha by mixing in 50 kg
soil and sprinkle along the rows at 45 days after planting followed by earthing up.
13) Spray monocrotophos 36 SL 1000 ml or endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml or
chlorpyriphos 20 EC 1000 ml or chlorantraniprole 18.5 SC 375 ml or fipronil 5
SC 1.5-2.0 L or /ha.
2) Internode borer: Chilo sacchariphagus indicus (Crambidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka
Host range: Pearl millet, rice and sorghum
Life history:
Eggs are laid between leaf sheath and stem in clusters. Larva: White with four
violet longitudinal stripes and light brown head. Pupation inside the stem in larval
tunnels.Adult: Pale brown with white hind wings.
Carry over: Pest hibernates as larva in cane or stubbles from November to February.
Seasonal occurrence: May to September
Nature of damage:
Infestation of the pest is noticed in all the stages of the crop growth. Firstly it
act as as an early shoot borer causing death hearts. The activity as an internal borere
starts from 3-4 months after planting and continuos till harvest. Internodes constricted
and shortened, with a number of bore holes and fresh excreta in the nodal region.
Affected tissues become reddened. Larva have habit to bore internodes one after the
another.
Management:
1) Avoid use of excessive nitrogen fertilizers.
2) Release egg parasitoid: Trichogramma chilonis @ 2.5 ml / ha – 6 releases –
4th month onwards at 15 days intervals
3) Release larval parasitoids: Stenobracon deesae, Apanteles flavipes,
4) Release pupal parasitoids: Tetrastichus ayyari, Trichospilus diatraeae.
5) Apply carbofuran 3G granules to soil @ 30/kg per hectare, if damage is severe. If
the damage is acute, apply carbofuran 3 G 30 kg /ha.
3) Top borer: Scirpophaga excerptalis (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India, Pakistan, China, Formosa, Japan, Philippines,
Thailand, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Burma and Taiwan
Host range: Millets and other grasses

Life history:
Larva: Smooth, white or cream coloured with a red coloured mid-dorsal line
and yellow head. Adult: White coloured moth (with a buff coloured anal tuft in the
abdominal tip of female).
Carry over: Pest hibernates as larva in cane top throughout winter.
Seasonal occurrence: October or November
Nature of damage:
Dead heart in grown up canes, which cannot be easily pulled; dead heart
reddish brown in colour; parallel row of shot holes in the emerging leaves and red
tunnels in the midribs of leaves; bunchy top appearance due to the growth of side
shoots. Larva bores into the midrib of unfolded leaves and mine their way to the
base.
Management:
1) Grow resistant varieties: Co 724, CoJ 67, Co 1158, Co 1111
2) Collect and destroy the egg masses.
3) Release bio control agents like ichneumonid parasitoid:Isotima javensis@ 100
pairs/ ha (prepupal parasitoid); egg parasitoids:Telenomus beneficiens,
Tetrastichus schoenobi, Trichogramma chilonis; larval parasitoids: Goniozus
indicus, Chelonus sp.,; pupal parasitoid: Tetrastichus ayyari.
4) Leaf hopper/Sugarcane pyrilla: Pyrilla perpusilla (Fulgoridae: Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: India, Pakistan
Host range: Sugarcane, wheat, barley, oats, maize, sorghum, baru, guinea grass
and sudan grass.
Life history:
The adults lay 300 - 536 eggs in clusters on the underside of leaves. Egg
period 8-28 days. Nymphs are soft and pale brown to pale orange with two
characteristic tufts of waxy secretion at the end of abdomen. Pupal period 2 - 6
months. Adult is soft, straw coloured with the head pointing forward as snout. Wings
fold over the abdomen like hood; densely veined and transparent. Adult live for about
2 - 5 months. 3- 4 generations are completed in a year.
Nature of damage:
Nymph and adult suck the cell sap from lower surface of the leaves as a result
plant losses turgidity begin to wither a gets dried up. The sucrose % of juice is
adversely affected. They also excrete honey due like substances that spread on the
leaves on which black fungus (Capnodium spps.) develop with affect the
photosynthesis alonghwith the yield.
Management:
1) Collection and distruction of egg masses.
2) Removal of 5-6 lower most leaves helps in reduction of pyrilla population
as maximum egg laying takes place on such leaves.
3) Avoid excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers.
4) Set up light trap.
5) Detrash on 150 and 210 DAP.

6) Release 4000-5000 cocoons or 4-6 lakhs egg of Epiricania melanoleuca
(Lepidopteran predator) per ha
7) Conserve predators viz., Brumus suturalis, Chilomenes sexmaculatus and
Coccinella septumpunctata.
8) Spray endosulfan 35 EC 2 L in 1000 L water/ ha.
5) Sugarcane woolly aphid: Ceratovacuna lanigera (Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: India. It has been posing threat as a major pest in
Maharashtra since a few years and is fast spreading to new areas.
Host: Bamboo, Cynadon dactylon, sugarcane
Life history:
Female reproduce parthenogenetically reproducing 15 to 35 young ones in 24
hours. The nymphal stage is 6 to 22 days. Life cycle is completed in 30 days. Adult
emerge after fourth moult.
Nature of damage:
It is a congregation of large number of white coloured nymphs and adults on
the undersurface suck the cell sap; honeydew secretion with sooty mould on upper
surface of the leaves. Canes with short internodes and narrow leaves with reduced
girth.
Management:
1. Monitor the fields especially areas under shade where the colony establishes first.
2. Avoid transport of sugarcane for crushing from SWA infested area.
3. If seed material is to be moved, treat setts in malathion 0.1% solution for 15
minutes, pack in gunny bags and transport without using green or dry leaves as
packing or cushion material.
4. Practice wide-row/paired-row planting and de-trashing that allow greater aeration
and light.
5. Avoid late application of nitrogenous fertilizer and excessive irrigation.
6. Spray infested crop with acephate 75 SP 2.0 kg or monocrotophos 36 WSC 2.0L or
dimethoate 30EC 2.0 L in 1000 L of water directing the spray fluid towards the
under surface of leaves. Un-infested clumps in about 3 metre radius of the infested
clumps may also be similarly treated with the insecticide.
7. Collect leaves bearing predators from other parts of the field and release.
8. Mass produce predators viz.,Dipha aphidivora , Micromus igorotus and Eupeode
confrater in shade-net houses and release them in infested fields.
6) Whiteflies:
Host: Only on sugarcane.
Life history:
a) Aleurolobus barodensis (Aleurodidae: Hemiptera)
The female lays 60 - 65 creamy white conical eggs and are glued to the
surface of the leaves. Egg period 8 - 10 days. Neonate nymphs are pale yellow, flat
and oval, later turn shiny black. Its body surrounded by fringes of wax. Nymphal
period 25 - 30 days. Pupal period 10-111 days. Adult is pale yellow with hyaline

wings dusted with waxy bloom, exhibit brisk fluttering movements. The adult live
only for about 24-48 hours. The insect completes 9 generations in a year.
b) Neomaskellia bergii, Neomaskellia andropogonis (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera):
Black, grey or white dot like pupae on the undersurface of leaves. Nymph
oval in shape and brownish. Their bodies are surrounded by white wax. Pale
brown adult has black bands on wings.
Nature of damage:
Leaves, turn pinkish and gradually dry later. Infested leaves look white, while
those below are black due to the growth of sooty mould on the honeydew.
Management:
1) Avoid excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers.
2) Conserve nymphal parasitoids viz., Azotus delhiensis, Encarsia isacci.
3) Encourage predators viz., Chilocorus nigritus,Scymnus nubilus
7) Mealybug: Saccharicoccus sacchari (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera):
Distribution and status: Sugarcane growing areas
Host range: Sorghum and some grasses
Life history:
Female lays yellowish, smooth, cylindrical eggs. Within few hours the eggs
become soft and elongated and soon the nymph emerges. Newly emerged nymphs are
quite active with a pinkish transparent body. Nymphal period 2-3 weeks. Adults are
white with mealy coating, sessile. Life of adult female is 3-5 days. The entire life
cycle is completed in about a month. The pest completes several generations in a
year.
Nature of damage:
Pinkish oval insects beneath leaf sheath on the nodes, with whitish mealy
coating. Sooty mould develops on the plant. Main cane stunted; roots also attacked.
Management:
1) Use resistant varieties: CO 439, CO 443, CO 720, CO 730 and CO 7704.
2) Detrash on 150 and 210 DAP.
3) Drain excess water.
4) Spray methyl parathion 50 EC or malathion 50 EC 1000 ml 1000 L water/ ha.

EXERCISE No. XIII
NON INSECT PESTS OF FIELD CROPS
There are different kinds of insect causing damage to variety of crops, animals
and directly affecting mans interest known as non- insect pests. Few of the most
important non- insect pests on crops are as follows,
1) Mites:
Mites also known as Acarina belong to phylum Arachnida, to which spiders
also belong. These are minute organisms that can rarely be seen with naked eyes.
Mites cause heavy damage in crops especially in vegetables and ornamentals. Mites
constitute a large group with its members inhabiting a variety of habitats like soil,
water, plants, animals, processed food and animal waste. Both nymphs and adults suck
sap from plant parts like leaves, terminal or axillary shoots, fruits etc with their needle
like chelicerae and cause symptoms like;
1) Formation of white blotches on leaves in vegetables.
2) Characteristic red spots that enlarge and coalese making whole leaf reddish.
3) Drying of leaves and stems in sugarcane.
4) Formation of crowded buds ,crumpled shoots in mango.
5) Formation of pinkish blotches on fruits of citrus.
6) Curling of leaves upwards in chillies.
7) Formation of warts and longitudinal tissues on nuts of coconut.
8) Act as vectors by transmitting viral diseases. e.g., Tetranychus neocaledonicue,
Acerie cajani.
Management:
1. Removal of alternate hosts in the field.
2. Spraying of sulphur @ 3 gm/ Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lt/ Methyldemeton 25 EC
@ 2 ml /lt / kelthane (Dicofol) 5 ml /lit / Ethion @ 1 ml/lit.
3. Fungal pathogen, Hirsutella thompsoni reported to be effective against coconut
eriophid mite.
4. Predaceous insects on mites e.g., Scolothrips indicus, Scymnus gracilis.
2) Snails and Slugs:
Snails and slugs belong to phylum, Mollusca and hence also known as mollusks.
Giant African snails (Achatina fullica) is most important snail pest having spread
worldwide due to accidentally as well as deliberately. Snails possess a protective shell
covering, formed by their own secretion, while slugs lack protective shell. The snails
are very active during rainy season. Their activities are very much correlated with the
rainfall and humidity causing damage to vegetables, ornamental, plantation and fruit
crops.
Management:
1. During rainy season, moist gunny sacks or leaves can be heaped near the cropped
area and the snails collected near them can be killed on following day.
2. Among chemicals, metaldehyde is the most effective molluscicide which are
available as 5 % pellets.
3) Plant Parasitic Nematodes:
Nematodes are popularly called as round or eel worms. Nematodes
belong to the phylum Aschelminthes. Plant parasitic nematodes constitute one of the

important groups of organisms which live in soil around plant roots. They are often
microscopic, long and slender, confined usually to the top soil of 20-25 cm. Plant
parasitic nematodes complete their life cycle in 6 stages within 20-40 days. It causing
extensive damage to cultivated plants, resulting in heavy losses. Damage may be
caused directly, or indirectly when the phytoparasitic nematodes transmit plant viruses
or allow pathogens to gain entry into the plant through damaged areas created by these
nematodes. E.g. Root knot, Cyst, Burrowing, Citrus Nematodes etc.
Management:
Nematicides which are in commercial use may be grouped in to two types namely
a) Fumigants (Compounds belonging to halogenated hydrogen and isothiocyanate
group): e.g., DD Mixture (1-3 Dichloro propene and 1-2 , Dichloro propane in 2:1
ratio) used @ 400-500 lts per ha as pre platn soil fumigant/ EDB (Ethylene
ibromide)/ Chloropicrin /Methylbromide.
b) Non Fumigants (include organophosphates and carbamates): e.g., Parathion,
Phorate, Carbofuran and Methomyl.
4) Crabs:
Crabs are arthropods which belong to group Crustacea and are aquatic by
nature. The rice fields crab, Paratelphusa hydrodrumus lives in holes in the sides of
field bunds and irrigated channels etc., where water does not stand. They are active
after dusk and at night. Channels and holes are protected by heaping soil around their
openings.
Management:
1. They are naturally controlled by rats and pond heron Ardeloa grayi.
2. They can be trapped in wide-mouthed pots buried with their rim at about the water
level; inside the pots, moistened rice bran in lumps are kept as bait.
3. Poison baiting with warfarin 0.0025 per cent in popped rice mixed with fried onions
and fish can be used
4. Fumigation with cyno gas though effective is costly.
5) Millipedes:
Millipedes are also arthropods and nocturnal, which live beneath leaves,
stones, bark and logs as well as in soil. As the name indicates, these have a large
number of legs. Millipedes commonly occurring in India are Lulas sp. on Jowar and
Harpurostreptus sp. on tapioca. They are brownish black in colour and about 8.7 cm
in length feed on tender buds and roots of newly planted sets causing plant death.
6) Rats and mice (Rodents):
Family: Muridae; Order: Rodentia; Class: Mammalia
Rodents are of two type namely Commensel rodents and Field rodents
I) Commensel rodents:
a) House mouse - Mus musculus
b) House rat or black rat – Rattus rattus
c) Common Indian field mouse - Mus musculus booduga
d) Brown rat - Rattus norvegicus
II) Field rodents:
a) Soft furred field rat or grass rat (Millardia meltada)
b) Indian Mole Rat or Lesser Bandicoot Rat (Bandicota bengalensis)
They cause severe damage to crops and domestic commodities, thereby
requiring to be controlled effectively. Several types of diseases are known to be
transmitted by rats. Besides consuming considerable quantity of food, they
contaminate much more by urine, faeces, and hairs and sebaceous secretions.
Management of rodents:
i) Killing rats by sticks.
ii) Trapping the rats using traps.
iii) Snap neck trap kills the rat instantly.
iv) Live catch traps trap the rats alive Eg. Single rat trap, wonder trap.
v) Burrows in the fields can be flooded with water, which kill the rats.
Chemicals used for controlling rodents can be classified into two types;
A) Acute poison: That are used in single dose
Zinc phosphide: To be used only in fields not in houses with a recommendation at
2.5% technical grade in pre-baiting is compulsory for effective results i.e., 95%
flour + 1 to 2% Zinc phosphide + 2% groundnut oil + 1% sugar
B) Anticoagulants: e.g.,Warfarin, Fumarin, Toumarin, Recumin
These poisons are lethal when consumed for several days. They prevent
blood clotting and break cell wall of blood capillaries leading to haemorrhage.
Rats normally die in aerated areas. House rat and house mouse die after 2-5 days
of continuous feeding.
Bromadiolone is only registered and recommended @ 0.005% ai in cereal baits
to be used in pulsed baiting technique
Fumigants: e.g., Aluminium phosphide (CP) solid/ Ethelen dibromide (EDB)
/Ethelene dichloride carbontetrachloride (EDCT)
Natural enemies
Cats, dogs, owl, hawks and snakes. Also Salmonella sp. of virus can be used
for rodent control but not recommended due to health threat to non target species.
7) Hare and rabbit:
Hares and rabbits are one of the best known wild mammals and of
considerable economic importance. They are nocturnal and graze mainly on grass,
herbs, scrubs, bulbs, roots, bark etc. Instances of their becoming pests on agricultural
crops are widely known throughout the country. They do considerable damage to
crops like wheat, barleygram, maize, jowar, bajra, pea, mustard, bean, cabbage and
others. They are browse on young fruit trees and forest plants.
8) Birds:
Many birds such as;
Pigeons and seagulls eat human food and carry disease.
Woodpeckers peck at rooftops and also nest in them. They cause structural damage to
houses.
Parrot: (Psittacula spp.): About eight species of parrots have been recorded in India.
Out of these species, Large Indian parakeet (P. eupatria) is very common in
Maharashtra. This species causes heavy damage to all sorts of near-ripe fruits such as
guava, ber, mango, plums, peaches by eating fruits and also spoiling the fruits by
cutting it with beak.
Common myna was declared by IUCN Species Survival Commission as one of the
world's most invasive species and one of only three birds in the top 100 species that
pose an impact to biodiversity, agriculture and human interests.
Cowbirds are brood parasites, which cause declines in local songbird populations.
Crow Corvus spp. Damage wheat, cobs of maize, ripe fruits of fig, mulberry.
House sparrow Passer domesticus damages the earheads of jowar, maize, bajra and
soft and fleshy fruits such as mulberry and fig.
Yellow throated sparrow causes havey damage to wheat and barley.
Management of Birds:
(a) Trapping the birds in nets or catching them with the help of sticky substance
‘Lassa’.
(b) A piece of Chapatti dipped in 0.04% parathion and placed on the top of roof is a

good bait for crows.
(c) Parrots and sparrows are repelled by spraying 0.6% thiurun’ on wheat crops at
milk stage.
(d) Scaring devices using mechanical, acoustic and visual means are normally
employed, i.e,. beating of drums to produce sounds is still in vogue in many parts of
the country particularly during harvesting.
(e) Fire crackers placed at regular intervals along a cotton rope. The rope burns from
one end and ignites the crackers at regular interval which produce sounds and scare
away the birds.
(f) Loud sounds due to the burning of acetylene gas produced at intervals are utilized
to scare away birds and small animals.
(g) Birds may be scared by display of scare crows, dead birds and visually attractive
flags etc.

EXERCISE No. XIV
STORE GRAIN PESTS
In India, post-harvest losses caused by unscientific storage, insects, rodents,

microorganisms etc., account for about 10 per cent of total food grains. The major
economic loss caused by grain infesting insects is not always the actual material they
consume, but also the amount contaminated by them and their excreta which make
food unfit for human consumption. About 500 species of insects have been associated
with stored grain products. Nearly 100 species of insect pests of stored products cause
economic losses
Storage insect pests are categorized into two types viz.
 Primary storage pests: Insects that damages sound grains are primary storage
pests i.e., Internal and External feeders
 Secondary storage pests: Insects that damage broken or already damaged grains
secondary storage pests.

Primary storage pests- Internal Feeders
1 Rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae, S. Curculionidae Coleoptera
granaries
2 Lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha Bostrychidae Coleoptera
dominica
3 Angoumois grain Sitotroga cerealella Gelechiidae Lepidoptera
moth
4 Pulse beetle Callosobruchus Bruchidae Coleoptera
chinensis
Primary storage pests- External Feeders
5 Red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum Tenebrionidae Coleoptera
6 Indian meal moth Plodia interpunctella Phycitidae Lepidoptera
7 Rice moth Corcyra cephalonica Galleriidae Lepidoptera
8 Khapra beetle Trogoderma Dermestidae Coleoptera
granarium
Secondary storage pest
9 Saw toothed grain Oryzaephillis Cucujidae Coleoptera
beetle surinamensis
10 Long headed Latheticus oryzae Tenebrionidae Coleoptera
flour beetle
I) Primary storage pests:-

1) Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
World-wide and is found practically throughout India. It is the most
destructive pest of stored grain. The rice weevil may be found in the paddy fields as
well.
Host range: Rice, sorghum, wheat, barley, maize
Life history:
Full grown larva is 5 mm in length and plumpy, fleshy, legless creature.
Reddish brown beetle adult is 3 mm in length, with a cylindrical body and a long,
slender, curved rostrum. Its elytra bear four light reddish or yellowish spots. The rice
weevil breeds from April to October and hibernates in winter as an adult inside cracks
and crevices or under wheat bags in the godowns. During the active season, females
lay about 400 eggs on the grain by making a depression and the hole is sealed with a
gelatinous secretion. Eggs hatch in 6-7 days and the young larvae bore directly into
grain, where they feed and grow to maturity. Then, they pupate inside the grain. The
pupal stage lasts 6-14 days. On emergence, adult weevil cuts its way out of the grain
and lives for about 4-5 months. At least generations are completed in a year.
Nature of damage:
Both the adults and the grubs cause damage. The developing larva lives and
feeds inside the grain causing irregular holes of 1.5 mm diameter on grains of rice,
sorghum, wheat, barley, maize before harvest and in storage. The weevils destroy
more than what they eat.
2) Lesser grain borer: Rhyzopertha dominica (Bostrychidae: Coleoptera)
India, Algeria, Greece, United States, New South Wales (Australia), Japan China.
Host range:
Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, barley, lentils, army biscuits, ship biscuits,
stored, dried potatoes, corn flour, beans, pumpkin seeds, tamarind seeds and millets.
Life history:
The larva is about 3mm long, dirty white, with light-brown head and a
constricted elongated body. The adult is a small cylindrical beetle measuring about 3
mm in length and less than 1 mm in width. It is shining dark brown with a deflexed
head, covered by a crenulated hood-shaped pronotum. No morphological difference
separates the two sexes. The pest breeds from March to November and in December,
it enters hibernation as an adult or as a larva. A single female can lay 300-400 eggs in
23-60 days at the rate of 4-23 eggs per day. The eggs are laid singly among the frass
or are glued to the grain in batches. When freshly laid, the eggs are glistening white,
but later on a pink opaque line appears on them. The incubation period is about 5-9
days. Larva cuts a circular hole in the pedicel end of the eggs and comes out of it.
Larval period 23 - 50 days, pupal period 4 - 6 days and adult live for about 40 - 80
days. There are 5 -6 generations in a year.
Nature of damage:
Both the adults and the grubs cause damage in warm climate. The adults bore
into the grains and completely hallow out the grain kernals and only barn coat is left.
The adults are powerful fliers and migrate from one godown to another, causing fresh
infestation. Adults produce a considerable amount of frass, spoiling more than what
they eat. The grubs stage can feed inside the grain or on flour or on grain destroyed
by adults.
3) Angoumois grain moth: Sitotroga cerealella (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)
Worldwide in the Indian sub-continent, the pest is more abundant in the
mountainous areas or where the climate is rather mild.
Host range: Paddy, wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, oats etc.
Life history:
A full grown larva is about 5 mm long, with a white body and yellow brown
head. The adult is a buff, grey yellow, brown or straw coloured moth, measuring
about 10-12 mm in wing expanse. The characteristic feature is the presence of the
narrow pointed wings fringed with long hair. Breeding takes place from April to
October. The insect overwinters as a hibernating larva and as the season warms up, it
pupates in early spring. Females start laying eggs singly or in batches on or near the
grain. The eggs are small and white, when freshly laid, turning reddish later on. A
single female lays, on an average, 150 eggs, usually within a week after mating. Egg
period is 4-8 days. The larval stage may last about 3 weeks. Before pupation, the
larva constructs a silken cocoon in a cavity. Pupal period is 9 -12 days and the adult
live for about 4 - 10 days. During the active season, the life-cycle is completed in
about 50 days. Several generations completed in a year.
Nature of damage:
The damage is at its maximum during the monsoon. Only the larvae cause
damage by feeding on the grain kernels before harvest and also in store. The larva
bores into grain and feeds on its contents. Exit holes of 1 mm diameter with or
without a trap door, are seen on the affected cereal grains. As it grows, it extends the
hole which partly gets filled with pellets of excreta. It imparts unhealthy appearance
and smell. In a heap of grain, the upper layers are most severely affected.
4) Pulse beetle: Callosobruchus maculatus (chinensis) (Bruchidae: Coleoptera)
USA, Mauritius, Formosa, Africa, China, the Philippines, Japan, Indonesia,
Sri Lanka, Myanmar and India.
Host range:
Gram, mung (Phaseolus aureus), moth (Phaseolus aconitifolius), peas, cow
peas, lentil and arhar (Cajanus cajan), cotton seed, sorghum and maize.
Life history:
Larva is whitish with a light-brown head. The mature larva is 6-7 mm long.
The adult beetle measuring 3-4 mm in length, is oval, chocolate or reddish brown and
has long serrated antennae, truncate elytra, not covering the pygidium. The pest
breeds actively from March to the end of November. It hibernates in winter in the
larval stage. A single female lays small, oval, scale like 34-113 eggs at the rate of 1-
37 per day. Egg period is 6 -16 days, larval period 10 -38 days. The hibernating
larvae take 117- 168 days to complete their development. The pupal stage lasts 4-28
days. The adult escapes by cutting a circular hole in the seed coat and such grains can
be spotted easily. The average life-span of an adult is 5-20 days. The insect passes
through 7-8 overlapping generations in a year.
Nature of damage:
The adult and grub feed on the grain by making a small hole during monsoon
season. Infested stored seed can be recognized by the white eggs on the seed surface
and the round exit holes with the 'flap' of seed coat. Kabuli types are particularly
susceptible. Though attack been seen in storage sometimes may be carried from the
field where the eggs are been laid on the green pods.
5) Rust red flour beetle: Tribolium castaneum (Tenebrionidae: Coleoptera)
Distribution and status: Worldwide
Host range:
Wheat-flour, dry fruits, pulses and prepared cereal foods, such as cornflakes.
Life history:
The young larva is yellowish white and measures 1 mm in length. As it
matures, it turns reddish yellow.The insect breeds from April to October.T he females
lay white eggs. Pupation takes place in the flour. The pupa is yellowish and hairy.
The pupal stage lasts 5-9 days. The development period from egg to the adult is 26-30
days in summer
Nature of damage:
Both the larvae and adults cause damage on already broken grains while
primary pest on milled products. The greatest damage is during the hot and humid
monsoon season. The larvae are always found hidden in the food. The adults,
however, are active creatures, but mostly found concealed in flour. Adult construct
tunnels as they move through flour and other granular food products. In severe
infestation, the flour turns greyish and mouldy, and has a pungent, disagreeable odour
making it unfit for human consumption.
6) Indian meal moth: Plodia interpunctella (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: The pest is worldwide.
Host range:
It infests grains, meals, breakfast foods, soybean, dried fruits, nuts, s, dried
roots, herbs, dead insects, etc.
Life history:
Larva is white, often tinged with green or pink, a light-brown head, On
reaching maturity, the larva is 8-3 mm in length. The adult moth is about 13-20 mm
in wing expanse with a coppery lustre. Breeding continues throughout the year. The
female moth lays 30-350 minute whitish ovate eggs, singly or in clusters, on or near
the appropriate foodstuffs. The egg period is 2 days to 2 weeks depending upon
weather. The larvae become full-grown in 30-35 days. They crawl up to the surface
of the food material and pupate within a thin silken cocoon. The pupal stage lasts 4-
35 days. In summer, the life-cycle is completed in 5 or 6 weeks and there are about 4-
6 generations in a year.
Nature of damage:
Only the larva causes damage. Crawling caterpillars completely web over the
surface of a heap of grains with silken threads. The adults fly from one bin to another
and spread the infestation.
7) Rice moth: Corcyra cephalonica (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)
The rice moth is distributed in Asia, Africa, North America and Europe. In the
larval stage, it is an important stored-grain pest in both India and Pakistan.
Host range:
It also infests rice, sorghum, maize, gram, groundnut, cotton-seed, milled
products, cocoa beans and raisins.
Life history:
The rice moth is active from·March to November. It passes winter in the larval
stage. The moth lay eggs singly or in groups of 3-5 each on the grains, bags and on
other objects in the godowns. A single female lay 62-150 eggs during its lifespan of
24 days. The eggs hatch in 4-7 days and the larvae under silken web-like shelters,
preferring the partially damaged grains. They are full-fed in 21-41 days, after which
they make silken cocoons among the infested grains. The pupal stage lasts 9-14 days
and the adults live for - one week. They complete life-cycle in 33-52 days and the
pest completes approximately 6 generations in a year.
Nature of damage:
The larvae alone damage the grains of rice and maize by feeding under silken
webs. When infestation is high, the entire stock of grains may be converted into a
webbed mass. Ultimately, a characteristic foul odour develops and the grains are
rendered unfit for human consumption.
8) Khapra beetle: Trogoderma granarium (Dermestidae: Coleoptera)
Distribution and status: Worldwide
Host range:
The Khapra beetle will attack any dried plant or animal matter. It prefers grain
and cereal products, mainly wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, rice, flour, malt, and
noodles. It can also feed on animal products such as dead mice, dried blood, and dried
insects.

Life history:
The insect breeds from April to October and hibernates in the larval stage
from November to March in cracks and crevices. Female begins to lay white
translucent eggs on the grains, singly or sometimes in clusters of 2 -5. The eggs are
rather cylindrical, rounded at one end and narrow at the other. A female may lay 13 -
35 eggs in 1 - 7 days at the rate of 1 - 26 eggs per day. The egg period varies from 3 -
10 days. Larval period is 20 - 40 days and pupal period is 4 - 6 days. Pupation takes
place in the last larval skin among the grains. The adults are incapable of flying.
There are 4-5 generations in a year. Fresh yellowish-white larva grows 4mm long and
turns brown. The adult is a small dark-brown beetle, 2-3 mm long, with a retractile
head and clubbed antennae. The entire body is clothed in fine hairs.
Nature of damage:
The greatest damage is done in summer from July to October. The grubs eat
the grain near the embryo or at any other weak point and from there proceed inwards.
They usually confine themselves to the upper 50 cm layer of grains in a heap or to the
periphery in a sack of grains. They can reduce the grain to a mere frass. Since the
larvae are positively thigmotactic, they can be collected by merely placing gunny
bags on a heap of grain.
II) Secondary storage pest:-
1) Saw toothed grain beetle: Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Cucujidae: Coleoptera)
Life history:
It is slender, dark, narrow, flattened beetle having a row of saw like sharp
teeth on each side of the prothorax. The antenna is clubbed and elytra cover abdomen
completely. It lays 300 whitish eggs loosely in cracks of storage receptacles of
godown. The eggs period is 3 -17 days. The larva is slender, pale cream in colour
with to slightly darken patches on each segment. The larval period is 14- 20 days. It
pupates in a protective cocoon like covering with sticky secretion. The pupal period is
7-21 days.
Nature of damage:
It feed on grains, dried fruits etc by scarving of grain surface or burrowing
holes in them. It attacks rice, wheat, maize, cereal products, oil seeds and dry fruits.
2) Long headed flour beetle: Latheticus oryzae (Tenebrionidae: Coloeptera)
Life history:
The beetle is light brown in colour with longated body, measuring 2 -3 mm in
length and resembles Tribolium castaneum. It lays 400 white eggs singly on grain and
seams of the bags. The incubation period is 7 – 12 days. The grub is small, white
active which feeds voraciously. The larval period is 15-80 days. It pupates for 5-10
days. Life cycle is completed in 25 days at 35 0 and 70% relative humidity.
Resembles Tribolium. Head is longer in proportion to the body than that of Tribolium,
paler and brighter than Tribolium.
Nature of damage:
Both grubs and adult beetles feed on the milled products. It occurs as
secondary infestation in stored grain. It attacks cereal flour, packaged food, rice and
rice products. Occurs as secondary infestation in stored sorghum, wheat, etc.

EXERCISE No. XV
NON INSECT PESTS, MITES, RODENTS, BIRDS AND

MICROORGANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH STORED GRAIN AND
THEIR MANAGEMENT
In a storage bin producers (grain) and decomposers are normally in dormant

state. An increase in moisture or temperature above normal storage conditions activates
the dormant decomposers and enhances the rate of reproduction and growth of insects,
fungi and other microorganisms. Rodents cause extensive damage to both standing crops
and stored grains in many countries.
I) Mite:
Mites are important pests of storage grains in many parts of the world especially
where temperate climate prevails.
• Mostly occur in damp or moist grain.
• Mites are not insects.
• Chiloglyphus and Acarus species are considered most important mites of stored
cereals.
• Mites multiply under high humidity conditions (over 65% relative humidity).
Mite Damage:
• Direct damage by eating the germ of the grain.
• Infested commodity becomes tainted with off-flavours
• Affect the Seed Viability.
• Straw-itch mite´ can cause severe dermatitis and allergic conditions in people
handling infested commodities.
II) Fungi:
Fungi in foods and feed have been a problem for many years and reported cases
of ill effects including death from ingestion of mouldy feeds are numerous. Fungi on
cereal grains are divided into three groups: field fungi, intermediate fungi and storage
fungi. The most common fungi species observed on store grains are Aspergillus,
Penicillium and Rhizopus causing grain spoilage and mycotoxins (poisonous).
Development of Fungi in store grain is influenced by;
• Moisture content of the stored grain
• Temperature
• Condition of the grain going into storage
• Length of time the is grain stored and
• Amount of insect and mite activity in the grain.
• Develop on the surface of & inside stored commodities that have not been dried
properly or which have become wet during storage – emit mycotoxins which are
hazardous to human & livestock health (especially Aflatoxins).
• Aflatoxins are highly dangerous toxic residues produced by certain fungi, such
as Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus - especially affect oilseeds, edible nuts
and cereals.
• Cause aflatoxic hepatitis and enteroergotism.
• Toxins particularly carcinogenic in humans.
• Acts as an immuno-suppressant.
– Temperature (40 - 90o F ; 4 - 32o C)
– Relative Humidity (> 70%)
– Moisture (22-23% in grain)

– Oxygen (1-2%)
Effects of Fungi on Food Grains:
• Reduction of viability.
• Discolouration of embryos.
• Increase of free fatty acids.
• Production of toxins.
• Heating moulding and rotting.
• Mustiness of bad odour.
Fungi Management
• Moisture content (12-14%)
• Heat
– dry heat at 65oC for 6 days
– hot water treatment at 52-55oC
• Fungicides
– Dithane M-45 and Benlate at 3 grams kg-1.
III) Bacteria: associated with stored grains are;
• Bacillus mycoides.
• Bacterium Coli.
• Bacterium herbicola.
• Clostridium butericum.
The bacterial species that occur commonly on grain are generally non-pathogenic,
though contamination with bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli and
Bacillus cereus can occur. Salmonella and E. coli are enteric bacteria, and their presence
on grain is usually an indication that it birds or rodents have contaminated it. This may
occur during harvesting, but more often is a result of poor hygiene in road or rail trucks
during transportation or poor pest control during storage. Levels of contamination with
enteric pathogens are usually very low. Most grain destined for human food is first milled
into flour or other grain products such as semolina, wheat germ and bran. The milling
process may contribute to the microbiological load of the flour, but flour then usually
undergoes further processing, such as baking, that will kill most bacteria. Conditioning
wheat to increase the moisture content to a level suitable for milling can also increase the
counts of bacteria, yeasts and mould. The microbial contaminants are concentrated in the
outer grain layers (bran and wheat germ). These are removed during milling, leaving the
end product, flour, relatively clean and usually pathogen-free. Enteric pathogens such as
Salmonella are rarely isolated from straight run flour, although B. cereus may be present
in low numbers.
IV) Mycotoxin:
Contamination before storage:
The presence of mycotoxins in grain was traditionally regarded as an indicator of
poor storage conditions. The corollary to this was that mouldy grain contained
mycotoxins. Neither statement is necessarily true. Mycotoxins may be produced as a
result of poor storage, but they may already be present in grain coming into storage.
Conversely, not all moulds that grow in stored commodities produce mycotoxins. Some
of the fungi associated with grain in the field (often referred to as ‘field fungi’) can form
mycotoxins, either immediately before, or just after harvest. Alternaria, Fusarium,
Aspergillus and Penicillium can all act as preor postharvest pathogens of grain, and may
form mycotoxins. Alternaria and Fusarium do not compete strongly at reduced water
activities (aw) so are unlikely to form mycotoxins once the grain is dry, or during storage.
Conversely, Aspergillus and Penicillium are more often considered as ‘storage fungi’.

They are known to form mycotoxins in stored grains, and are usually not regarded as
fungi that can produce mycotoxins before harvest.
Mycotoxins formed by Fusarium:
Many fusarium species are capable of forming mycotoxins in grains, but there
are two species (and those closely related to them) that are regarded as having higher
potential to cause mycotoxin contamination of grains: F. graminearum and F.
verticillioides. F. graminearum and the closely related species F. culmorum cause head
scab or head blight in wheat, rye and triticale, and stalk and cob rot of maize. Other small
grain crops such as barley and oats may also be affected. F. graminearum is more
common in wheat in warmer climates, such as Australia, North America and China,
whereas F. culmorum is the dominant species in cooler growing areas such as Finland,
France, Poland and The Netherlands. The most important mycotoxin formed by these
Fusarium species is the trichothecene toxin, deoxynivalenol, also known as DON or
vomitoxin. F. verticillioides is widely distributed throughout the world, and appears to be
established in maize wherever it is grown. It causes stalk and cob rot of maize, but also
basal stalk rot and root rot of sorghum, foot rot of rice and crown rot of asparagus. F.
verticillioides and closely related species such as F. proliferatum form fumonisins in
maize and sorghum. Equine species are particularly susceptible to this mycotoxin, which
causes leucoencephalomalacia, also known as mouldy corn disease or blind staggers, in
horses.
V) Rodents:
The second most important pest in pulse storage is rodents. Rodents invade and
multiply in or near storage places, where food is available in abundance. It causes serious
damage not only to stored products but also to packaging and even to storage buildings.
The principal rodents, those most common and likely to attack stored products, belong to
the following species:
 Black rat, also called roof rat (Rattus rattus)
 Brown or Norway rat, also called sewer rat (Rattus norvegicus)
 Mouse (Mus musculus)
Types of damage:
Rodents not only feed on the grains but also contaminate more than 20% what
consumed with their faeces, urine and hair. Prolonged attacks by these pests inevitably
results in serious quantitative losses, up to 3-4%, of stored products. These losses must be
added to those arising from the decrease in quality of the foodstuffs, caused by the filth
(excrement, secretions) rodents leave behind in the stored products. This contamination is
as important from the marketing standpoint as it is for hygiene and health. Indeed,
rodents are often the vectors of a number of serious diseases like rabies, leptospirosis etc.
Control Measures:
Rodent control is a difficult task. Simple measures cannot be adopted for rodent
control. A combination of following measures often becomes essential:
A) Sanitation:
Sanitation, both outside and inside the storage structures and processing plants,
helps in proper control of rodents.
Outside and surrounding areas should be kept clean so that rodents do not find
shelter near the storage area. The following measures should be taken:
 Keep bushes/weeds cut and grass well mowed.
 Make pavement around the building for 1-2 meters to reduce cover. This will help
prevent rats digging under the building.
 Keep the entire area well drained. Care should be taken not to have any garbage bins
near the building.
 Discarded equipment and boxes should not be dumped around the building. Do not
have a garbage dump near the storage area.
Inside area of the building should be kept clean. This creates distraction for the rats
to stay inside the building. Some suggested measures are :
 Walls and floors of the storage should be smooth. This helps in easy cleaning. Walls
and corners should be kept free of dust, trash and spider webs.
 All the wastes products, dust etc., should be removed immediately after any
operation.
 Bags should be stacked on pallets and not directly on floor. This helps in reducing
hiding cover for the rats.
 A minimum of 75 cm distance should be kept in between wall and stacks. This helps
in easy movement of workers and also reduces cover for rats.
 Walls should be painted with light colour. This reduces dark corners where rats
prefer to stay.
B) Exclusion:
It is an important idea to prevent the rats and birds from entering inside the
storage area. Although it is a difficult task yet constructing rat-proof building and then
careful operations greatly helps in controlling the entry of rats into building. Some
suggested measures are;
 The outer wall of the building should be of a material that rats cannot chew and
should be smooth.
 A 25 cm wide rat shield should be installed at a height of 1-1.5 m all around the
building. This helps in preventing the entry of rats.
 Floor of the building should be constructed at the height of truck bed height.
 Doors and window frames should be of steel and properly fixed with wall avoiding
any gap between frame and wall.
 Windows should be screened with metal mesh to keep out flying insects.
 Lower 20 cm of tightly fitted doors should be covered with metal sheet lining.
 Doors should not be left open when not in use.
 Doors which are required to be left open for longer durations should be provided
with transparent plastic panels to prevent entry of birds.
 Provide proper cement plaster slopes below the windows to prevent birds from
making nests.
 Ensure that no board or bags etc. are kept outside the building touching the wall
otherwise rats can jump over the rat shield and make entry into the building.
C) Killing:
Rats that get inside the building must be killed immediately. Different methods
can be used to kill the rats.
 Field rats live in burrows. To kill these rats, one zinc phosphide tablet per burrow is
required and mouth of burrows need to be sealed with mud after placement of the
tablets.
 Rodents in storage premises are controlled using physical, chemical and mechanical
means.
 Various kinds of rat traps can also be used to catch the rats.
 Chemical method of rat control involves poison baiting to kill rats. Zinc phosphide in
food bait or ready to use single dose anticoagulant can be used for poisoning rats.
Other chemicals for the purpose are barium carbonate, red squill and ANTU. Baits
with slow-killing and anti-coagulant poisons are accepted by rats better than fast-
killing poisons. Initially baits should be offered without poison to lure the rats to the
feeding place.
 Poisoned water and feeders should be kept at strategic places inside the building. In
such cases, no other water should be allowed inside the building.
Sonic and ultrasonic repellents are also being used to repel rats.

EXERCISE No. XVI
STORAGE STRUCTURE AND METHODS OF GRAIN STORAGE
AND FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAIN STORE
MANAGEMENT
STORAGE STRUCTURE AND METHODS OF GRAIN STORAGE

The most common food ofIndian people is wheat and rice which are stored in
different ways. The farmer retains a little part oftheir production for selling it at better
prices, for home consumption, seeds and other purposes. Similarly Food Corporation of
India stores wheat for distributing it to defence and also to State Government at cheaper
rate. It also checks higher prices in the market. Therefore, storage ofwheat and rice is
important for our country. This chapter deals with the method ofstorage in practice at
various levels viz. Govemment/Semi Government and at fanner level. It is thus classified
in two categories
I- Scientific Storage Method
II- Traditional Storage Method
I) Scientific Storage Method:
Holding and preservation ofstocks stored to maintain the quality synchronous to
time lag and to keep it at a particular level during various operation such as
loading/unloading ofstock and unkeep the stocks stored hygienically sound for a length
of time till its liquidation is known as scientific method of storage which may either be in
bags or in bulk. This method ofstorage is generally practised by Govemment/Semi-
Govemment, warehouses, which have enough infrastructural facility available and
various coordinating factors viz. trained personnels and adequate scientific know-hand,
regular input availability and a network of godowns. This method ofstorage can either be
in bags or in bulk.
(i) Bag Method:-
In this method ofstorage, wheat is filled injute bags keeping in view the fact
that wheat is a living organism requiring respiration which is not possible in polythene
bags. After filling wheat in bags the mouth ofbag is stitched and stencilled to mark the
marketing year. Then bags are stored in godowns in a block pitched to a scientific
height so that easy counting of bags could be possible. These godowns are built on a
raised plateform of 3 to 4’ in height to ensure non-proliferation of rodents and
adequate length and width to economise cost with the bags stored to a certain height
provide it with a kind ofroofing and ventilators so as to ensure it free from moisture,
insects and adequate aeration. Moreover, the block formation is typical and ofa certain
prescription in which the bags are pitched from block to block to make a stake which
has a certain number ofbags again and is uniform in nature. The stacks are fonned in
such a manner as to keep specifically ways to the entire length of a particular unit and
galleries before doors for easy preservation and other related operations. These
galleries also help in periodic inspection/treatment ofstocks stored in godown.
(ii) Bulk Method:-
This is one ofthe fonn ofstoring surplus grain in an improved structures of
storage designed with latest technological know-how by using steel reinforced
concrete of different size. The bins traditionally used are built and reformed in certain

capacity in different shape and size and also fitted with mechanized grain lifting
devices which fonn the elevator silos.
There are three types of improved bulk storage methods in use:
(a) Hexagonal Bins: In the recent years standard famous concrete hexagonal bins with
main hole at top and spout at the bottom are constructed in different sizes.
(b) Circular Bins: Using the same material and principle used in hexagonal bins, the
circular over ground bins are built which can be put in pair and row with grain
discharged from opposite side.
(c) Elevator Silos: On the bais of shape and principle used in bins the big structure of
circular square, hexagonal, opatagonal, flopper bottom, flat bottom, deep and
shallow ‘BUNJURE’ are constructed ofvarious capacities provided with
mechanical grain filling, storing devices. This has revolutionized the system of
scientific storage throughout the world to keep the grain hygienically safe for a
period of time with proven immunity from various loss causing agents.
The advance form of bulk storage in silos keep the grain free from insect,
moisture even caused by atmospheric humidity during monsoon period, rodent
damages, low cost treatment ifdeterioration from any particular loss is perceptible
and do economise in cost ofgunny bags due to reuse ofgunny bags dunnage
material. The biggest loss causing agent in this form ofstorage is moisture
penetrated in the structure either due to cracks. From the walls ofthe structures or
grain stored at the time of filling beyond tolerance limit may cause serious damage
to store grain. Therefore, ifa qualitative safe guard can be observed in construction
ofsilos and permissible limit of grain filling upto a particular level of moisture can
be ensured, this can prove best scientific method with all advantageous effect of a
proven technology.
II) Traditional Storage Method:
Since time of the yore man has invented methods to save grain from
deteriorating factors which are called Traditional Method of Storage. There are
different types oftraditional method ofstorage such as cellars, granaries, bukhari,
Kuthila, open under roof, theka, adda, under straw heap etc. which had been practised
in the past and some ofthem continue to be practised even now. These methods were
advantageous to fanners of different ages due to lack ofresources which involved
lesser per quintal investment and easy accessibility ofthe farmers. These methods
were most susceptible to loss which was caused by moisture because ofscant and
muddy structure which were little resistant to rain and also weather humidity resulted
in infestation or got infected due to growth or micro-organisms. With the growth of
agrarian communities the improved fonn of structure came into existence such as jute
bags, steel bins etc. which proved to be more effective in controlling damages in all
aspect and was favourable over the traditional methods. The most common methods
used by the farmers to store wheat in India is as follow:
1) Bulk Method:
In this method ofstorage, a convenient room of the house is selected for
storing wheat (or any other grain). Loose wheat is stored in that room. This
method is mostly used by the large fanners who expect to have quantity of wheat
and cannot buy gunny bags or other kind of costly structures.
Merits:
This method has following merits:
(i) Wheat can be stored in huge quantity.
(ii) A convenient room can be selected easily with easy efforts.
(iii) It can be easily constructed and can have multi purpose advantages. It can
be utilised easily as living room after liquidation ofstored grain.
(iv) Storing ofgrain as well as liquidation is easy involving low cost.
Demerits: This method has following demerits:
(i) In this method, the losses are more as compared to other methods
of storage.
(ii) This method is not a modem method ofstore and is very much susceptible
to humidity.
2) Bag Method:
Most ofthe fanners retain their commodities in bags and mostly this type
of method is used forstoring wheat. After filling the grains in gunny bags it is
packed by proper stitching and they are kept either in room or in a verandah
where a thin layer of straw is spread to prevent it from damp. Later the bags are
stacked one upon other so that they occupy less space.
Merits:
This method has following merits:
(i) The grain can be stored safely for a longer period oftime.
(ii) It is easy to handle and direct loading is also possible. It is more
convenient method of storage as the bags can be carried from one place to
another place. It provides perfect mobility.
(iii) The inspection ofstocks is frequently possible and curative treatment can
also be taken easily.
(iv) Losses are less as compared to other methods.
Demerits:
This method has following demerits
(i) The gunny bags being a costly input with a short life span proved
expensive on cost factor.
(ii) The structure employed in this method is neither moisture proof or insect
proof nor rodent protected as such frequent inspection and treatment is
required which is a costly affair.
3) Kuthila Method:
Kuthila are sort of home made silos and are made up of mud, chaff and
animal dung. They are constructed in parts and their construction process is rather
slow. After one part is constructed and dried the other part is superimposed upon
it. The silo is conical in shape with the base about a meter in diameter and about
one and half meter in height. Its capacity is about one and half tonnes of grain.
This method is mostly used by the small fanners. This method is very much
susceptible to moisture.
Merits: This method has following merits;
(i) It is relatively less expensive and can be constructed by family members in
leisure time.
(ii) It covers very little space.
(iii) Small sized Kuthila can be moved freely from one place to another at
farmers own convenience.
Demerits: This method has following demerits;
(i) Heavy losses occur due to moisture in this method.
(ii) This method is not suitable for storing huge quantities ofgrain for longer
period.
(iii) Quality of commodity deteriorates gradually.
4) Loose Foodgrains Covered with Straw:
This method entails the sand and switching ofa layer offoodgrains as thick
as desired or possible in a given structure between straw spread on the surface
covered by a piece of cloth or gunny bags are used to tap again applying the same
material and stitched together spreading it on the surface ofstored grain and again
a thick layer ofstraw is spread over the foodgrains. This method keeps the effect
of dampness at bag keeping the quality ofgrain sound to a maximum extend.
(i) Effect ofmoisture/dampness is relatively low dueto high temperature ofstraw.
(ii) The quality of grain in this method is uniformly maintained.
(iii) The layer ofstraw acts as a permanent shield against transmission ofheat thus
uniform temperature ofstored grain is maintained.
(iv) This method proved relatively cheaper as straw is one ofthe by-products of
crops available in plenty with the fanner.
(i) Chances offire hazards is inherent in this method as the straw catches fire
easily causing substantial damages to stored grain.
(ii) Periodical inspection of grain is not possible. Therefore, if any infection is
Noticed preventive/curative measures cannot be administered whenever
needed.
(iii) This method is also proved counter productive when the structures used as
storage point is a Kutcha muddy house is which moisture during rainy season
can seep through walls and spoil the grains stored.
6) Steel Bins Storage Method:
Steel bins are improved method as compared to Kuthilas. It is more
scientific and safe method ofstorage. Steel bins are made up ofsteel sheets turned
in round shape providing a covered mouth of upper side for filling grain and one
outlet in bottom to take out the grains. These bins are free from moisture, rodents
and to some extent pest proof. The capacity of such bins ranges from 5 to 15
quintals. Due to more scientific method ofstorage, the Government agencies like
U.P. Agro-Industrial Corporation first supplied these bins to the marginal farmers
at substidised rate to make it popular.
(i) Steel bins are easy to transport.
(ii) It can be kept at a convenient place in the house.
(iii) This structure is moisture, rodents, birds and to some extent pest proof
(iv) Timely inspection, prophylactic and curative treatment can be administered
whenever required.
Demerit: This method has following demerit;
(i) This method is employed for storing small quantity of wheat. Hence it is not
suitable for middle as well as big farmers.
(ii) Steel bins are economical still marginal/small fanners cannot purchase these
bins at subsidised rate.
7) Adda Storage Method:
This method is a traditional method. It is similar to the method where
loose grains were covered with straw for storage. Again investment is on the
gunny bags which are required in large number. In this method gunny bags are
filled with grain and stacked in the stem portion ofthe adda to a certain height and
in the interior portion is thick layer ofstraw covered with clot/gunny pieces
stitched together. The losse grain is stored mear side walls and hay sticks are
bundled together as dunnage material.

(i) This method is particularly useful for the fanners having little accommodation
for their living. They divide their room in a adda and rest ofthe space is used
fore their living or residing.
(ii) It is relatively cheap and large quantity of grain can be stored in this method.
(iii) This method is less expensive because it is practised by using farm by
product such as straw, hay sticks and old gunny bags.
(i) The outer most side of gunny bags stored is vulnerable to growth of
microorganisms being without any particular shield.
(ii) Proper treatment whenever needed cannot be administered.
(iii) Stored grain is open to rodent hazard as there is no barrier to keep them off.
(iv) Stored grain may absorb moisture due to seepage from the constructed
portion or from saturated air precisely the part ofwhich is in its direct contact.
8) Pucca Kothi Storage Method:
This is improved method of storage and is advanced form of Kuthilas or
home made silos. It is made up ofbricks and cement and is rectangular in shape.
An isolated or safe place in comer ofroom or verandah is selected to construct
such structure. These are constructed on 9” to 1.5” raised plateform. The bricks
are placed in criss crossed manner upto a desired height and on the top ofit well
cut out opening is provided to fill up grain through it and in bottom another hole
is made to take grain out (outlet).
(i) It occupies relatively less space.
(ii) Being a home made structure a convenient size is made.
(iii) Pucca Kothi may be treated with pesticides or with smoke of Neem leaves
without any harm to structure.
(iv) It is easy to handle.
(v) Effect of moisture/dampness is relatively low because they are made up of
bricks and cement which work as a barrier.
(vi) The quality of grain stored in this method is maintained.
(vii) Grain may be stored for longer period.
(viii) Timely inspection, prophylactic and curative measures can be administered
whenever required.
(i) Economically small or marginal fanners cannot construct Pucca Kothi as
they cannot afford the construction cost.
(ii) It is not suitable for storing huge quantity of grain.
9) Khatti Storage Method:
It is a kind of pit storage. A pit is dug into the ground and foodgrains are
stored therein. This is called Khatti method ofstorage. These pits vary in capacity
from 80 to 300 quintals according to the requirements. This method is not so
important for fanners as it is in the market.
(i) Large quantities of grain can be stored without sacrifice offloor space.
(ii) Ground space can be utilised properly.
(i) This method is very much susceptible to moisture, rats etc.
(ii) Losses are very high in this method.
(iii) It is very costly at village level.

10) Ferro-Cement Storage Bin:
The structural Engineering Research Roorkee designed a simple ferrow-
cement storage bin which could help fanners to store their grain without loss. The
small ferro-cement bins developed by the centre can store up grain to the extent
ofthree tonnes. A bigger type can store upto ten tonnes. To cater the needs of
small farmers, the centre also developed one and halftonne capacity bins. These
bins can be placed above ground or under ground without affecting the stored
commodity.
Merits: This method has following merits:
(i) It is very handy.
(ii) It is more durable.
(iii) It is more scientific and losses are minimized.
(iv) It can be kept anywhere in the house and aerial space ofbin can be utilised.
Demerits: Only demerits of this method is that it is very expensive.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAIN STORE

MANAGEMENT
a) Conditions of the Grains:
It was mentioned in Section 3.3 that only clean, unbroken kernels should be
selected for storage. Now two other elements can be added to this list. The grain
should be dry and it should be cool when it is put into storage.
b) Climatic Conditions:
Grain stores best in weather which is dry and cool. Unfortunately, the weather
is not always dry and cool. During the serious rainy season even well dried grain can
become wet again if it is exposed to very wet air or rain. Since grain must be stored
during all kinds of weather the type of storage method chosen must protect the grain
from the worst possible weather conditions.
c) Store Conditions:
A grain store must perform one task: the store must protect the grain from its
natural enemies: mould and fungus, insects, rats, birds, and other animals.
To do this a grain store should have the following properties:
- The store must be dry.
- The store should be cool.
- The store should keep out the sun.
- The store should be clean.
- The store should have no holes or cracks in the roof, walls, or floor.
- The store might need to be treated with insecticide.
It is good to know why these six conditions should be followed. First, a good
grain store should keep the grain cool, dry, and out of the sunlight because cool, dry grain
respirates, or breathes, very slowly. The seed coat can resist mould and insect attack if
the grain is kept cool and dry. Second' a grain store should be kept clean and in good
repair (no holes or cracks in walls, etc.) so that insects and rats cannot enter or hide and
live inside. Finally, the last item, some stores have to be treated with an insecticide to
remove serious insect infestation. It is often difficult to control insects without using
chemicals.

EXERCISE No. XVII
PREVENTIVE AND CURATIVE METHODS OF STORED GRAIN
PESTS
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF STORED PRODUCE PESTS

The control methods of stored produce pests can be categorized into
preventive and curative measures.
A) Preventive measures
1) Sun Drying: of grains to reduce the moisture content of grain below 8% will
reduce the multiplication of pests, which can be done by spreading thin layer of
grain in sun. Dryers can also be used.
2) Mixing of inert dust: such as clay, ash etc cause injuries and laceration on cuticle
resulting dessication and death of insect.
3) Bagging: is done after proper drying and stored in new gunny bags or free from
pest infestation to insect. Old gunny bags should be fumigated by 0.1% malathion
or DDVP to avoid cross infestation.
4) Godown hygine: Seal all the godown cracks and crevices with cement. All rat
burrows sealed with cement. Before storing grains, godown infested by sparying
malathion 01.%.
5) Care while storing: Proper dunnage to protect grains from moisture. Wooden
crate dunnage with layer of malting is necessary helping to circulate the air and
prevent losses due to moisture accumulation.
6) Proper stocking of bags to facilitate the inspection and treatment of grains.
B) Curative measures:
i) Ecological methods:
 Manipulate the ecological factors like temperature, moisture content and oxygen
through design and construction of storage structures/ godown and storage to
create ecological conditions unfavourable for attack by insects.
 Temperature above 420 C and below 150 C retards reproduction and
development of insect while prolonged temperature above 450 C and below
100C may kill the insects.
 Dry the produce to have moisture content below 10% to prevent the buildup of
pests.
 Kill the pests bio stages harbored in the storage bags, bins etc., by drying in the
sun light.
 Store the grains at around 10 % moisture content to escape from the insects
attack.
 Manipulate and reduce oxygen level by 1% to increase the CO2 level
automatically, which will be lethal to all the stages of insects.
ii) Physical methods:
Provide a super heating system by infrared heaters in the floor mills and food
processing plants to obtain effective control of pests since mostly the stored
produce insects die at 55 –600C in 10 – 20 minutes.
 Modify the storage atmosphere to generate low oxygen (2.4% and to develop
high carbon di oxide (9.0 – 9.5) by adding CO2 to control the insects.
 Seed purpose: Mix 1 kg of activated kaolin (or) lindane 1.3 D (or) malathion 5
D for every 100 kg of seed and store/pack in gunny or polythene lined bags.
 Grain purpose: Mix 1 kg activated kaolin for every 100 kg of grain and store.
To protect the pulse grains, mix activated kaolin at the above dosage or any one
of the edible oils at 1 kg for every 100 kg of grain or mix 1 kg of neem seed
kernel for every 100 kg of cereal / pulse and store.
 Do not mix synthetic insecticides with grains meant for consumption.
iii) Cultural methods
 Split and store pulses to escape from the attack by pulse beetle since it prefers to
attack whole pulses and not split ones.
 Store the food grains in air tight sealed structures to prevent the infestation by
insects.
iv) Mechanical methods
 Sieve and remove all broken grains to eliminate the condition which favour
storage pests.
 Stitch all torn out bags before filling the grains.
v) Chemical methods
 Treat the walls, dunnage materials and ceilings of empty godown with
malathion 50 EC 10 ml/L (or) DDVP 76 WSC 7 ml/L spray solution/10 sq.m.
 Treat the alleyways and gangways with malathion 50 EC 10 ml/L or DDVP 76
WSC 7 ml/ L (1 L of spray fluid/270 m3).
 Spray malathion 50 EC 10 ml/ L with @ 3 L of spray fluid / 100 m2 over the
bags.
 Do not spray the insecticides directly on food grains.
 Use knock down chemicals like lindane smoke generator or fumigant strips
pyrethrum spray to kill the flying insects and insects on surfaces, cracks and
crevices.
 Use seed protectants like pyrethrum dust, carbaryl dust to mix with grains meant
for seed purposes only.
 Decide the need for shed fumigation based on the intensity of infestation.
 Check the black polythene sheets or rubberized aluminium covers for holes and
get them ready for fumigation.
 Use EDB ampoules (available in different sizes 3 ml, 6 ml, 10 ml, 15 ml and 30
ml) at 3 ml/quintal for wheat and pulses and 5 ml/ quintal for rice and paddy
(Do not recommend EDB for fumigation of flour oil seeds and moist grains)
 Use EDCT (available in tin containers of 500 ml, 1 liter and 5 litres) at 30– 40
litres/ 100 cubic meter in large scale storage and 55 ml/quintal in small scale
storage.
FUMIGATION
Use fumigants like ethylene dibromide (EDB), ethylene dichloride carbon
tetra chloride (EDCT), aluminium phosphide (ALP) to control stored produce pests
effectively. Apply aluminum phosphide (available in 0.6 g and 3 gram tablets) @ 3
tablets (3 gram each) per tonne of food grains lot with help of an applicator. Choose
the fumigant and work out the requirement based on the following guidelines.
 3 tablets of aluminum phosphide 3 g each per tonne of grain.
 21 tablets of aluminium phosphide 3 g each for 28 cubic meters
Period of fumigation is 5 days
Mix clay or red earth with water and make it into a paste form and keep it
ready for plastering all round the fumigation cover or keep ready sand snakes.
Place the required number of aluminium phosphide tablets in between the bags in
different layer. Cover the bags immediately with fumigation cover. Plaster the
edges of cover all round with wet red earth or clay plaster or weigh down with
sand snakes to make leaf proof. Keep the bags for a period of 5-7 days under
fumigation based on fumigant chosen. Remove the mud plaster after specified
fumigation periods and lift cover in the corner to allow the residual gas to escape.
Lift the cover after few hours to allow aeration.

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INDEX

Course No.:- ENTO- 354 (New) Credit: - 1 + 1 = 2

Ex. Exercise Title Pg. Date Sign

Sr.No. Pest Name Scientific Name Family Order

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |1 |

Integrated Pest Management in Paddy

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |7 |

Sr.No. Pest Name Scientific Name Family Order

1) Sorghum Stem borer: Chilo partellus (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |10 |

Integrated Pest Management in Sorghum

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |12 |

Sr.No. Pest Name Scientific Name Family Order

3 Rodents Rattus rattus Muridae Class-

1) Stem borer: (Details given under pest of Sorghum)

4) Bajra Shoot fly: Atherigona approximate (Muscidae: Diptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |13 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |15 |

Sr.No. Pest Name Scientific Name Family Order

1) Gram pod borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae: Lepidotera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |16 |

Integrated Pest Management

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |17 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |18 |

1. Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |19 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |20 |

1) Groundnut Leaf roller/ Groundnut Leaf miner: Aproaeroma modicella

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |22 |

Integrated pest management

1) Bihar hairy caterpillar - Spilosoma obliqua (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |24 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |25 |

1) Safflower Aphid: Uroleucon compositae (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |26 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |27 |

1. Linseed Gall-midge: Dasineura lini (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |28 |

1) Stem fly: Ophiomyia phaseoli / Melanagromyza sojae (Agromyzidae: Diptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |30 |

Sr.No. Pest Name Scientific Name Family Order

1) Spotted bollworms: Earias vitella & E. insulana (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |31 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |32 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |33 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |34 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |37 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |38 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |39 |

Sr.No. Pest Name Scientific Name Family Order

1) Early shoot borer: Chilo infuscatellus (Crambidae: Lepidoptera)

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |41 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |42 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |43 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |44 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |45 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |47 |

Ratnai College of Agriculture, Akluj |48 |

In India, post-harvest losses caused by unscientific storage, insects, rodents,