Sugie C.

Barrera 11/9/2021
AG 101 -A- Introduction to Agriculture

MODULE 2

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

Exercise 1: Please answer the following questions below briefly.

Each question is equivalent to 15 points.

1.Discuss the different cultural operations in the farm?

1. Pre-Planting Practices
a. Seed Pre-Treatment
Dormant seeds are often difficult to germinate because they have hard seed-coats or other
seed coverings. These dormancy problems are removed physically by scarification (especially
using sand-paper), shelling or cracking and soaking in water overnight. Seeds of some crops
require hot water treatment or scarification with concentrated sulfuric acid to break their
dormancy.
b. Seed Protection Treatments
Seed health and protection are the first steps in the reliable production of economically-
viable crops. Seed treatment, whether by chemical, physical or biological means, is a vital input in
today’s agricultural and horticultural production systems.
2. Land Preparation

a. Land Clearing
Soil preparation for sowing involves land clearing and tillage. Wet soil may need to be
drained while dry soil may require irrigation. Land clearing may be done manually (using machete,
hoe), mechanically (using carabao, tractor, stumper) or chemically (using non-selective herbicides
in zero or no-tillage system). Bush burning (uncontrolled, controlled) helps to get rid of fallow or
excess debris.

b. Tillage
This involves the turning of the topsoil either manually (traditionally, minimum tillage)
mechanically (conventional tillage), essentially targeted at creating a favorable environment for
crop establishment. Primary tillage loosens the soil and mixes in fertilizer and/or plant material,
resulting in soil with a rough texture. Secondary tillage produces finer soil and sometimes shapes
the rows. It is done by using various combinations of equipment such as mouldboard plough, disc
plough, harrow, dibble, hoe, shovel, rotary tillers, subsoiler, ridge- or bed –forming tillers, and
rollers.
c. Planting/Transplanting
Seeds of many crops can be planted by direct sowing in well-prepared field plots. Direct
seed-sowing is achieved by broadcasting (especially for small seeds), drilling and planting in holes.
In manual planting, seeds are sown using planting stick or cutlass. Mechanical planters are
available and some of them perform combined operations such as seed sowing, fertilizer and
pesticide application simultaneously. Vegetative propagules are usually manually planted in holes
dug in soil with a cutlass and at reasonable depth, or mechanically
3. Post-Planting Practices

a. Thinning
This is the removal of excess seedling stands from a hill or row of crop. Thinning helps to
reduce interplant competition thereby creating adequate growth environment for optimum
productivity.

b. Supplying
This involves the filling of empty stands of crop arising from sowing, germination or
emergence failure, or localized herbivory in a field. In some crops, viable seedlings removed
during thinning may be used for supplying missing stands.

c. Watering
In transplanted crops, copious watering is required immediately after transplanting for
initial seedling establishment on the field. Irrigation, through controlled application of water over
a crop field, is required for dry planting and production of crops. Proper irrigation leads to
increased yields from more plants, and higher yields from healthier plants. Overirrigation is
damaging, because poor drainage causes waterlogging which results in poor crop establishment,
growth and salting of farmlands

d. Weed Management
This encompasses all aspects of weed control, including prevention of spread and land use
practices and modification in the crop’s habitat that interfere with the ability of the weeds to adapt
to the crop’s environment.
The three methods of weed management are:
Preventive Approach- This involves forestalling the incidence of weed infestation through plant
quarantine, animal quarantine, fallow management, farm sanitation, roguing isolated stands,
preventing weed seeding, re-seeding and propagule regrowth and weed contamination of crop
propagules. Other measures are choice of variety and field, planting rather than sowing, crop
sequence, accurate sowing and planting, using certified weed-free plants, seeds, growth media and
soil amendments.
Eradication Approach- This involves the complete removal of a weed species from infested land.
It is achievable in non-agronomic situation but undesirable in agro-ecosystems. The reasons for
this are that it is too costly, it disturbs natural ecosystem functioning and the activity of bioagents
may lead to crop failure.
Control Approach- This involves the suppression of weed populations to a tolerable level that
renders the cropping situation economically safe for agricultural production. It is the most
important and environment-friendly approach to weed management in agro-ecosystems. The
different methods are cultural, mechanical, chemical and biological control. Cultural weed control
involves any practice adopted by the farmer in his crop production effort not directly aimed at
weed control.
e. Fertilizer Application
Fertilizers may be applied by broadcasting, row placement by banding and ringing, or
topdressing by either method. Micronutrients are also applied as foliar sprays to target crops.
Organic fertilization involves manuring (especially the ageing form) and composting (use of
compost consisting of crop residues, straw, manure, kitchen wastes, etc.). Also, liming involves
the use of lime, steel slag or other materials to the soil to increase its pH level and subsequently,
improve conditions for the growth of both crops and micro-organisms.

f. Green Manuring
This consists of ploughing in green (non-woody) species or parts of living mulch, cover
species of second crop (grown after the main crop), fallow weed vegetation, or leaf-litter or
pruning’s of shade or hedgerow plants. A major objective of this practice is making nutrient
available to the main crop.

g. Mulching
This involves the covering of the ground in a crop field with organic (dead, living) or
inorganic materials, especially to protect the soil from degradation and ensure sustainable
agriculture.

h. Cover Cropping
This is the practice of planting food and non-food crops which are capable of spreading
growth on the soil surface and “smothering” weed growth. Food cover species include sweet
potato, pumpkin, melon, pulse crops, rye, oats, and sorghum-sudan grass.

i. Pest and Disease Control

Pests and pathogens are among the most serious factors limiting economically-efficient
crop production and utilization of natural resources in both tropical and temperate agriculture.
Pests, which cause damage to crops, consist of both arthropods (winged and wingless insects,
mites, millipedes) and non-arthropods (slugs, snails, nematodes/ eelworms, birds, mammals).
Micro-organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and mycoplasma cause crop diseases, such as
anthracnose, leaf spots, mosaic virus disease, bacteria wilt, blast and stem and root rot. Approaches
to pest and disease control are many and varied, but they are broadly based on the principles of
prevention, control/curative and eradication in special situations.

j. Harvesting
For different crops, there is need for one complete harvest or several pickings cowpea.
Timely harvesting is necessary to prevent infestation by pests and infection by pathogens.
Traditionally, most crops are harvested manually by hand or aided by the use of simple implements
such as the sickle, hoe and cutlass.

k. Storage
Harvested (usually surplus) crop produce is stored in good condition until needed. A good
storage should be effective against rain, excessive direct heat, theft, insects (especially weevils)
and other pests (rodents, birds), and pathogens (molds). Crop products can be stored in many
different kinds of storage containers, varying from earthen gourds, baskets, cribs to big metal and
cement silos. The method of storage is determined by the financial status, available materials and
external (climatic) conditions.

l. Farm Mechanization
This involves two types of implements, namely farm tools and farm implements. Farm
tools are mostly simple hand tools and used for manual work, cutlass (machete), hoes, mattock,
pick-axe (digger), axe, rake, spade, shovel, digging fork, hand fork, trowel, garden shears,
secateurs, watering can, wheelbarrow, go-to-hell, scraper, budding knife and sickle. Farm
implements are heavy, usually animal- or tractor-drawn and used for difficult farm work. They
include ploughs, harrows, ridgers, cultivators, planters and combine harvesters.

2. What are the different sequence of operations used in producing crops?

The different sequence of operations used in producing crops are, thinning, supplying,
watering, weed management, fertilizer application, green manuring, mulching, cover cropping,
pest and disease control, harvesting, storage, farm mechanization.

3. Discuss the specific benefits of certain operations in crop production.?

The specific benefits of certain operation in crop production:
a. It aids in the control of bugs, annoyances, and soil-borne illnesses. It also keeps weeds at bay.
b. Anticipate or restrict the need for top-of-the-line irrigation system watering periods. If products
that require a high watering system are followed by a moderate watering system, the dirt's physical
condition will not be influenced or broken down.
c. It even fosters labor appropriation. Following product, make proper use of ll assets and inputs.
Throughout the year, family and homestead work, power, gear, and equipment are heavily utilized.
d. An increase in the cost of their produce as a result of increased demand in the nearby market.
As a result, there is a yearly pay cycle.
e. Incorporating harvests from various promoting zones (root framework) and supplement
requirements could help maintain a healthier balance of nutrients in the soil. Developing harvests
of different root depths prevents ongoing exhaustion of the same-depth supplements structure.
Deep established harvests.

4. Discuss the distinction between the sexual and asexual plant propagation?
The distinction between the sexual and asexual plant propagation is Asexual (Vegetative)
Propagation is inducing a vegetative portion or part of a living plant to grow roots and then
developing it into a new plant. Plant multiplication avoids the seed cycle (genetic material
exchange) and is thus the greatest strategy to keep some species as clones (individuals that are
genetically identical to their parents) and the sexual propagation is the plant propagation that
involves the fusing of markedly different sex cells (male and female) to generate a plant. The
fusion of sex cells allows genetic materials to be exchanged, resulting in heterogeneity and the
formation of hybrids that differ greatly in appearance, physiological status, and other
characteristics, and conform to the emerging plants' diverse adaptation to varying environmental
growth conditions.

5. Enumerate and discuss the different methods of propagation of high value crops?
Sexual Propagation -This is a method of plant propagation involving the fusion of distinctly
different sex cells (male, female) to produce a plant. The fusion of sex cells allows the exchange
of genetic materials leading to heterogeneity and formation of hybrids, which vary widely in their
appearance, physiological status, etc. and conforms on the emerging plants diverse adaptation to
varying environmental growth conditions. Sexual Propagation includes:
Seeds - is the generative part of the plant used for propagation. A seed is a small immature plant
(embryo) protected by a seed coat or testa, which is formed from the outer layers of the ovule after
fertilization. The seed is the basic unit of propagating many tropical crops, including yam and
fruits (mango, pawpaw, passion fruit). Even in crop species whose primary mode of propagation
is by vegetative means (e.g., mango, avocado pear), seed sowing constitutes an important method
of regenerating new plants, and obviating the limitations (e.g., poor adaptation) of vegetative
propagation. Seeds are sown in three different ways, namely by broadcasting, drilling/row-seeding,
and pocket drilling/ sowing in holes.
Asexual (Vegetative) Propagation- This method involves the induction of a vegetative section or
part of a living plant to form roots and subsequently, developing it into a whole new plant. Plant
multiplication does not involve the seed cycle (exchange of genetic materials) and therefore, it is
the best way to maintain some species as clones; individuals identical to the parent.
Asexual (Vegetative) Propagation includes:
Budding/Bud Grafting - A process consisting of the engrafting of the bud (scion) of a plant into
the stem (stock) of another plant of the same genus. Generally, it is very suitable for propagating
deciduous fruit (Citrus spp.) and shade trees. Budding of improved materials on regenerated
chupons is one of the new methods of rehabilitating cacao in the country. In the most common
Tbudding pattern, the desired scion from a young, actively-growing shoot of a chosen crop variety
is immediately slid into a T-shaped slit on the rootstock. The joined bud and rootstock are held by
a winding of rubber band/special tape/wrap which holds it until sealed, which prevents drying or
contamination of grafted materials.
Grafting - Grafting allows gardeners to produce plants identical to a parent plant, allows growers
to control size and shape of a tree or shrub (e.g., apples) and gives more vigorous and earlier-
fruiting plants. Also, two varieties can be grown on the same tree to facilitate pollination (e.g., in
apples). However, like budding grafting is labor-intensive, expensive, inefficient in poor weather
and plant growth conditions, and where cambiums of both scion wood and rootstock are not
precisely aligned.
Layering -This involves bending a branch/part of the stem of a growing plant and anchoring (with
a rock or peg) and burying a portion of it, with a view to establishing a new root system at the
point of contact between the bent part and the earth (i.e. on the shoots that are still attached to the
parent plant). A light soil increases rooting success as will wounding or girdling of the buried
portion.
Cuttings - A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the parent plant in order to
regenerate the parent plant (by regaining loss tissues), thereby forming a new plant. Both woody
and herbaceous plants are asexually propagated by cuttings of stems, leaves and roots. Cuttings
regenerate new plants through change of mature cells into meristematic cells that are found at rapid
growth sites like buds. As in layering, the use of rooting hormone as a dip, preferably one
containing a fungicide, helps to hasten rooting, increase number of roots, or gives uniform rooting,
except on soft fleshy stems
Root Cuttings -This involves the propagation of plants from a section of a root. In some species,
the root cuttings produce new shoots which subsequently form their own root system whereas in
others, root cuttings develop root system before producing new shoots. Plants propagated from
root cuttings include blackberry and rose. In most cases, root cuttings of woody plants are usually
taken during the dormant (inactive growing period) season when roots have large carbohydrate
levels.
Divisions - Divisions are segments produced by cutting or breaking a crown or clump of suckers.
Suckers are aerial stems formed from adventitious buds. Each segment consists of a bud and some
roots, which when replanted grows into a new plant vertical to the parent plant. In cocoyam and
taro, plants are propagated from young shoots. Pears and raspberries are propagated by suckers.
Bulbs and Corms - Bulbs are specialized underground stems whose leaves are used as food
storage organs. The fleshy stem part is usually very short (compressed) and attached to a basal
plate while the fleshy leaves (bud scales) protect the terminal bud, which eventually grow into a
new plant under appropriate (favorable) environment. Bulbs can be propagated by removing small
bulblets (young bulblets) or offsets (mature bulblets/large buds as in lilies) that form at the base of
the parent bulb.
Runners/stolons - These are the lateral stems or vines of crops such as grass species and sweet
potato, which run and grow horizontally on the soil surface to produce nodal adventitious roots
and subsequently plantlets. The organs are cut into smaller sections, each with one or more buds,
and partially buried in the ground to produce new plants. Examples of plants propagated through
these organs are strawberries and yarrow.
Tubers -The “tuber” is specialized kind of swollen, modified and compressed stem structure that
functions as an underground food storage organ developed from either the base of the stem (stem
tuber) or the root (root tuber) of a plant. The tubers of root crops such as yam and Irish potato are
sliced into setts from which axillary buds (“eyes”) sprout into new plants or by planting whole
tubers.
Suckers - A sucker is a branch of the parent plant that will occasionally appear in a leaf axil of the
plant. Propagation can be achieved by cutting the suckers from the parent plant and rooting in a
rooting medium, e.g., African violet. Some trees and roots have shallow roots which produce
separate plants called suckers. Cutting through the roots around the suckers helps to separate the
suckers, more easily with smaller suckers about 60 cm.
Rhizomes - Rhizomes are horizontal stems running at or just below the ground surface, specially
modified to food storage organs. Unlike roots, rhizomes have nodes and internodes, with the nodes
containing growing points (“eyes”). When cut into smaller sections or segments containing one or
more viable buds and scale leaves, the buds sprout into new plants. Ginger, iris, couch grass and
strawberry are propagated from rhizomes.
Micropropagation or Tissue Culture -This modern technique of plant propagation is based on
the principle that each plant cell has the potential to grow into a new plant exactly like the parent
plant. In this method, individual or small group of plant cells (tiny pieces of bud, leaf and stem)
are manipulated in a way to enable them produce a new plant.

6. In your own opinion what are the reasons why fruit trees should be propagated asexually?
The reason why fruit tress should be propagated asexually are it may be the only way to
perpetuate particular cultivars, and to propagate plants that produce seed that is difficult to
germinate or has a very short storage life, and to preserve the genetic characteristics of a particular
plant, and it maintains the juvenile or adult characteristics of certain cultivars.