Afd Ec 9 2007

Aluminum Frame
Design Manual
EC 9:2007
for
ISO SAP010122M51 Rev. 0

Proudly developed in the United States of America January 2022
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ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOFTWARE MODELING, ANALYSIS, AND DESIGN
ALGORITHMS AND COMPENSATE FOR THE ASPECTS THAT ARE NOT
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Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Units 2
1.2 Axes Notation 2
1.3 Stress Check 2
2 Design Algorithms 3
2.1 Check Capability 3
2.2 Check Stations 3
2.3 Demand/Capacity Ratios 4
2.4 Design Load Combinations 4
2.5 Member Unsupported Lengths 5
2.6 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 7
2.7 Effective Length Factor (K) 8
3 Design Process 11
3.1 Notations 11
3.2 Design Loading Combinations 15

3.2.1 Ultimate Strength Combinations 15
3.2.2 Serviceability Combinations 16
3.3 Calculation of Nominal Strengths 16

3.3.1 Classification of Cross-Section and Effective Thickness 18
3.3.2 Nominal Tensile Strength 21
3.3.3 Nominal Compressive Strength 22
i
Aluminum Frame Design EN 1999:2007
3.3.4 Nominal Flexure Strength 26

3.3.5 Nominal Shear Strength 33
3.3.6 Design for Torsion 34
3.4 Design of Members for Combined Forces 34

3.4.1 Sections Subjected to Shear and Torsional Moment 35
3.4.2 Sections Subjected to Bending and Shear 35
3.4.3 Sections Subjected to Bending and Axial Force 35
3.4.4 Sections Subjected to Bending, Shear, and Axial Force 36
3.4.5 Members Subjected to Bending and Axial Force 36
Appendix A P-Delta Effects 38
Appendix B References 41
Appendix C Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) 42
ii
1 Introduction
The design/check of aluminum frames in accordance with the “Eurocode 9: Design of aluminum
structures – Part 1-1: General structural rules” (EN 1999, 2007) is seamlessly integrated within
the program. Initiation of the design process, along with control of various design parameters, is
accomplished using the Design menu. Automated design at the object level is available for any
one of a number of user-selected design codes, as long as the structures have first been modeled
and analyzed by the program. Model and analysis data, such as material properties and member
forces, are recovered directly from the model database, and are used in the design process in
accordance with the user defined or default design settings. As with all design applications, the
user should carefully review all of the user options and default settings to ensure that the design
process is consistent with the user’s expectations. The EN 1999 aluminum frame design is
integrated with the second-order P-Delta and P-δ effects, provided the user specifies that a
nonlinear P-Delta analysis be performed.
The default implementation in the software is the CEN version of the code. Additional country
specific National Annexes are also included. The Nationally Determined Parameters are noted in
this manual with [NDP]. Changing the country in the Design Preferences will set the Nationally
Determined Parameters for the selected country as defined in Appendix F.
It is important to read this entire manual before using the design algorithms to become familiar
with any limitations of the algorithms or assumptions that have been made.
For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is assigned for each
code.
 Reference to the EN 1999-1-1:2007 code is identified with the prefix “EC9.”
 Reference to the EN 1993-1-5:2007 code is identified with the prefix “EC3-5.”
 Reference to the ENV 1993-1-1:1992 code is identified with the prefix “EC1992.”
Reference to the Eurocode 1990:2002 code is identified with the prefix “EC0.”
Units 1
Aluminum Frame Design EN 1999:2007 Introduction
1.1 Units
The EC9 design code is based on Newton, millimeter, and second units and, as such, so is this
manual, unless noted otherwise. Any units, imperial, metric, or MKS may be used in the software
in conjunction with Eurocode 3 design.
1.2 Axes Notation

The software analysis results refer to the member local axes system, which consists of the 2-2
axis that runs parallel to the web and the 3-3 axis that runs parallel to the flanges. Therefore,
bending about the 2-2 axis would generate z-z axis moment, and bending about the 3-3 axis would
generate y-y axis moment. The Eurocode 3 design code refers to y-y and z-z axes, which are
equivalent to the software 3-3 and 2-2 axes, respectively. These notations may be used
interchangeably in the design algorithms, although every effort has been made to use the design
code convention where possible.
1.3 Stress Check

Aluminum frame design/check consists of calculating the ﬂexural, axial, and shear forces or
stresses at several locations along the length of a member, and then comparing those calculated
values with acceptable limits. That comparison produces a demand/capacity ratio, which
typically should not exceed a value of one if code requirements are to be satisfied. The program
does not do the connection design.
Program output can be presented graphically on the model, in tables for both input and output
data, or in calculation sheets prepared for each member. For each presentation method, the output
is in a format that allows the engineer to quickly study the stress conditions that exist in the
structure, and in the event the member is not adequate, aid the engineer in taking appropriate
remedial measures.
2
2 Design Algorithms
This chapter provides an overview of the basic assumptions, design preconditions, and some of
the design parameters that affect the design of aluminum frames.
2.1 Check Capability

The program has the ability to check adequacy of a section (shape) in accordance with the
requirements of the selected design code. General sections and sections defined by the Section
Designer will not be checked as one of the limitations of the program. Other limitations
include the following calculations not being performed:
• Web crippling strength
• Torsion capacity
• All strengths of welded members
To check adequacy of a section, the program checks the demand/capacity (D/C) ratios at a predefined
number of stations for each design load combination. It calculates the envelope of the D/C ratios. It
also checks the other requirements on a pass or fail basis. If the capacity ratio remains less than or
equal to the D/C ratio limit, which is a number close to 1.0, and if the section passes all the special
requirements, the section is considered to be adequate, else the section is considered to be failed. The
D/C ratio limit is taken as 1.0 by default. However, this value can be overwritten in the Preferences
(Appendix C) and Overwrites (Appendix D).
To check adequacy of an individual section, the user must assign the section using the Assign
menu. In that case, both the analysis and design sections will be changed.
2.2 Check Stations

For each design combination, aluminum frame members (beams, columns) are checked at a
number of locations (stations) along the length of the object. The stations are located at equally
spaced segments along the clear length of the object. By default, at least three stations will be
located in a column or brace member, and the stations in a beam will be spaced at most 2 feet
apart (0.5 m if the model has been created in metric units). The user can overwrite the number of
Check Capability 3
Aluminum Frame Design EN 1999:2007 Design Algorithms
stations in an object before the analysis is run and refine the design along the length of a member
by requesting more stations. Refer to the program Help for more information about specifying
the number of stations in an object.
2.3 Demand/Capacity Ratios

Determination of the controlling demand/capacity (D/C) ratios for each aluminum frame member
indicates the acceptability of the member for the given loading conditions. The steps for
calculating the D/C ratios are as follows:
• The factored forces are calculated for axial, flexural, and shear at each defined station for
each design combination. The bending moments are calculated about the geometric axes for
I-Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Double-Angle, Box, Pipe, Rectangular, Circular
sections for which the principal axes coincide with the geometric axes. For Single-Angle
sections, the design determines the axes of bending provided the lateral-torsional restraint
condition, and bending moments are re-calculated according to the axes of bending
determined.
Shear forces are calculated for directions along the geometric axes for all shapes of section.
• The nominal strengths are calculated for compression, tension, bending, and shear based on
the equations provided later in this manual. For axial compression, the nominal strengths are
determined based on the geometric axes for I-Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee,
Double-Angle, Box, Pipe, Rectangular, Circular sections. For Angle sections, the lateral-
torsional restraint condition is examined to determine the bending axes and all computations
related to flexural strength are based on that.
For flexure, the nominal strengths are calculated based on the geometric or principal axes of
bending. For the I-Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Double-Angle, Box, Pipe,
Rectangular, Circular sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For
Angle sections, the lateral-torsional restraint condition is examined to determine the bending
axes and all computations related to flexural strength are based on that.
The nominal strength for shear is calculated along the geometric axes for all sections.
• Factored forces are compared to nominal strengths to determine D/C ratios. In either case,
design codes typically require that the ratios not exceed a value of one. A capacity ratio
greater than one indicates a member that has exceeded a limit state.
2.4 Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed load cases for which
the structure needs to be checked. The program creates a number of default design load
combinations for aluminum frame design. Users can add their own design combinations as well
as modify or delete the program default design load combinations. An unlimited number of
design load combinations can be specified.
Demand/Capacity Ratios 4
To define a design load combination, simply specify one or more load cases, each with its own
scale factor. The scale factors are applied to the forces and moments from the load cases to form
the factored design forces and moments for each design load combination.
For normal loading conditions involving static dead load (DL), live load (LL), roof live load
(RL), snow load (SL), wind load (WL), earthquake load (EL), notional load (NL), and dynamic
response spectrum load (EL), the program has built-in default design combinations for the design
code. These are based on the code recommendations.
The default design combinations assume all load cases declared as dead or live to be additive.
However, each load case declared as wind, earthquake, or response spectrum cases, is assumed to be
non-additive with other loads and produces multiple lateral combinations. Also, static wind,
earthquake and notional load responses produce separate design combinations with the sense (positive
or negative) reversed. The notional load patterns are added to load combinations involving gravity
loads only. The user is free to modify the default design preferences to include the notional loads for
combinations involving lateral loads.
For other loading conditions involving moving load, time history, pattern live load, separate
consideration of roof live load, snow load, and the like, the user must define the design load
combinations in lieu of or in addition to the default design load combinations. If notional loads
are to be combined with other load combinations involving wind or earthquake loads, the design
load combinations need to be defined in lieu of or in addition to the default design load
combinations.
For multi-valued design combinations, such as those involving response spectrum, time history,
moving loads and envelopes, where any correspondence between forces is lost, the program
automatically produces sub-combinations using the maxima/minima values of the interacting
forces. Separate combinations with negative factors for response spectrum load cases are not
required because the program automatically takes the minima to be the negative of the maxima
response when preparing the sub-combinations described previously.
The program allows live load reduction factors to be applied to the member forces of the
reducible live load case on a member-by-member basis to reduce the contribution of the live load
to the factored responses.
combinations.
2.5 Member Unsupported Lengths

The column unsupported lengths are required to account for column slenderness effects for
flexural buckling and for lateral-torsional buckling. The program automatically determines the
unsupported length ratios, which are specified as a fraction of the frame object length. These
ratios times the frame object lengths give the unbraced lengths for the member. These ratios can
also be overwritten by the user on a member-by-member basis, if desired, using the overwrite
option.
Member Unsupported Lengths 5

Two unsupported lengths, 𝑙𝑙33 and 𝑙𝑙22 , as shown in Figure 2-2 are to be considered for flexural
buckling. These are the lengths between support points of the member in the corresponding
directions. The length 𝑙𝑙33 corresponds to instability about the 3-3 axis (y-y axis), and 𝑙𝑙22
corresponds to instability about the 2-2 axis (z-z axis). The length 𝑙𝑙𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 not shown in the figure,
is also used for lateral-torsional buckling caused by y-y direction bending (i.e., about the 3-3
axis).
In determining the values for 𝑙𝑙22 and 𝑙𝑙33 of the members, the program recognizes various aspects
of the structure that have an effect on these lengths, such as member connectivity, diaphragm
constraints and support points. The program automatically locates the member support points
and evaluates the corresponding unsupported length.
It is possible for the unsupported length of a frame object to be evaluated by the program as
greater than the corresponding member length. For example, assume a column has a beam
framing into it in one direction, but not the other, at a floor level. In this case, the column is
assumed to be supported in one direction only at that story level, and its unsupported length in
the other direction will exceed the story height.
By default, the unsupported length for lateral-torsional buckling, 𝑙𝑙𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is taken to be equal to the
𝑙𝑙22 factor. Similar to 𝑙𝑙22 and 𝑙𝑙33 , 𝑙𝑙𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 can be overwritten.
Figure 2-2 Unsupported lengths l33 and l22
The unsupported length for 2-2 direction bending for lateral-torsional buckling also can be
defined more precisely by using “precise” bracing points in the Lateral Bracing option, which is
accessed using the Design > Lateral Bracing command. This allows the user to define the lateral
bracing of the top, bottom, or both flanges. The bracing can be a point brace or continuous bracing.
The program calculates the unbraced length to determine axial capacity based on the limit state
of flexural buckling from this definition. Any bracing at the top or bottom, or both, is considered
enough for flexural buckling in the 2-2 direction. While checking moment capacity for the limit
state of lateral-torsional buckling (LTB) at a station, the program dynamically calculates the
Member Unsupported Lengths 6

bracing points on the compression flange at the left and at the right of the check station
considering the sign of moment diagram. This definition affects only the unbraced lengths for 2-
2 direction bending (L22) and lateral-torsional buckling (LLTB). This “exact” method of bracing
definition does not allow the user to define unbraced lengths for y-y direction bending (L33).
There are three sources of unbraced length ratio: (1) “automatic” calculation, (2) “precise”
bracing definition, (3) overwrites, with increasing priority in considerations. “Automatic”
calculation of the unbraced length is based on member connectivity considering only the
members that have been entered into the model. This misses the tiny bracing members. However,
such automatically calculated bracing lengths are load combo (moment diagram) independent.
This can be reported easily. Similarly, the overwritten values are load combo independent. This
allows the program to report the overwritten unbraced length easily. However, if the member has
a “precise” bracing definition, the unbraced length can be different at different stations of the
member along the length. Also, it can be load combo dependent. Thus, when the unbraced length
is reported in the detailed design info, it is reported perfectly considering all three sources as
needed. However, when reporting unbraced length on the model shown in the active window, the
program-reported value comes from “automatic” calculation or from the overwrites if the user
has overwritten it.
2.6 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements

The preferred method is to model a beam, column or brace member as one single element.
However, the user can request that the program break a member internally at framing
intersections and at specified intervals. In this way, accuracy in modeling can be maintained, at
the same time design/check specifications can be applied accurately. There is special emphasis
on the end forces (moments in particular) for many different aspects of beam, column and brace
design. If the member is manually meshed (broken) into segments, maintaining the integrity of
the design algorithm becomes difficult.
Manually, breaking a column member into several elements can affect many things during design
in the program.
1. The unbraced length: The unbraced length is really the unsupported length between braces.
If there is no intermediate brace in the member, the unbraced length is typically calculated
automatically by the program from the top of the flange of the beam framing the column at
bottom to the bottom of the flange of the beam framing the column at the top. The
automatically calculated length factor typically becomes less than 1. If there are intermediate
bracing points, the user should overwrite the unbraced length factor in the program. The user
should choose the critical (larger) one. Even if the user breaks the element, the program
typically picks up the unbraced length correctly, provided that there is no intermediate
bracing point.
2. K-factor: Even if the user breaks the member into pieces, the program typically can pick up
the 𝐾𝐾-factor correctly. However, sometimes it cannot. The user should note the 𝐾𝐾-factors.
All segments of the member should have the same 𝐾𝐾-factors and it should be calculated based
Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 7

on the entire member. If the calculated 𝐾𝐾-factor is not reasonable, the user can overwrite the
𝐾𝐾-factors for all the segments.
2.7 Effective Length Factor (K)

The effective length method for calculating member axial compressive strength has been used in
various forms in several stability-based design codes. The method originates from calculating
effective buckling lengths, KL, and is based on elastic/inelastic stability theory. The effective
buckling length is used to calculate an axial compressive strength, 𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , through an empirical
column curve that accounts for geometric imperfections, distributed yielding, and residual
stresses present in the cross-section.
The K-factor is used for calculating the Euler axial capacity assuming that all the member joints
are free to sway, i.e., lateral translation is allowed. The resulting axial capacity is used in
calculating 𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 . This 𝐾𝐾 is always greater than 1 if the frame is a sway frame. The program
calculates the 𝐾𝐾 factor automatically based on sway condition. The program also allows the user
to overwrite 𝐾𝐾 factors on a member-by-member basis. If the frame is not really a sway frame, the
user should overwrite the 𝐾𝐾2 factors.
The automated 𝐾𝐾-factor calculation is turned off if the user sets the “Consider P-Delta Done?”
to be “Yes” in the preferences. In this case, all the columns, beams, and braces are assigned 𝐾𝐾-
factors of unity.
𝐾𝐾 has two values: one for y-y direction and the other for z-z direction, 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 , 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 .
There is another K-factor. 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 for lateral-torsional buckling. By default, 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is taken as equal
to 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢. However, the user can overwrite this on a member-by-member basis.
Determination 𝑲𝑲 Factors:
The 𝐾𝐾-factor algorithm has been developed for building-type structures, where the columns are
vertical and the beams are horizontal, and the behavior is basically that of a moment-resisting
frame for which the 𝐾𝐾-factor calculation is relatively complex. For the purpose of calculating 𝐾𝐾-
factor, the objects are identified as columns, beam and braces. All frame objects parallel to the
Z -axis are classified as columns. All objects parallel to the X - Y plane are classified as beams.
The remainders are considered to be braces.
The beams and braces are assigned 𝐾𝐾-factor of unity. In the calculation of the 𝐾𝐾-factor for a
column object, the program first makes the following four stiffness summations for each joint in
the structural model:
𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � � � 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = � � �
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥
𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏

𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = � � � 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = � � �
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦
Effective Length Factor (K) 8

where the x and y subscripts correspond to the global X and Y directions and the c and b subscripts
refer to column and beam. The local 2-2 and 3-3 terms 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸22 /𝐿𝐿22 and 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸33 /𝐿𝐿33 are rotated to give
components along the global X and Y directions to form the (𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸/𝐿𝐿)𝑥𝑥 and (𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸/𝐿𝐿)𝑦𝑦 values. Then
for each column, the joint summations at END-I and the END-J of the member are transformed
back to the column local 1-2-3 coordinate system, and the 𝐺𝐺-values for END-I and the END-J of
the member are calculated about the 2-2 and 3-3 directions as follows:
𝐼𝐼 𝐽𝐽
𝐼𝐼
𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐22 𝐽𝐽 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐22
𝐺𝐺22 = 𝐼𝐼 𝐺𝐺22 =
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏22 𝐽𝐽
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏22
𝐼𝐼 𝐽𝐽
𝐼𝐼
𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐33 𝐽𝐽 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐33
𝐺𝐺33 = 𝐼𝐼 𝐺𝐺33 =
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏33 𝐽𝐽
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏33
If a rotational release exists at a particular end (and direction) of an object, the corresponding
value of 𝐺𝐺 is set to 10.0. If all degrees of freedom for a particular joint are deleted, the 𝐺𝐺-values
for all members connecting to that joint will be set to 1.0 for the end of the member connecting
to that joint. Finally, if 𝐺𝐺 𝐼𝐼 and 𝐺𝐺 𝐽𝐽 are known for a particular direction, the column 𝐾𝐾-factors for
the corresponding direction is calculated by solving the following relationship for 𝛼𝛼:
𝛼𝛼 2 𝐺𝐺 𝐼𝐼 𝐺𝐺 𝐽𝐽 − 36 𝛼𝛼
=
(
6 𝐺𝐺 + 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼 𝐽𝐽 ) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
from which 𝐾𝐾 = 𝜋𝜋/𝛼𝛼. This relationship is the mathematical formulation for the evaluation of 𝐾𝐾-
factor for moment-resisting frames assuming sidesway to be uninhibited. For other structures,
such as braced frame structures, the 𝐾𝐾-factor for all members are usually unity and should be set
so by the user. The following are some important aspects associated with the column 𝐾𝐾-factor
algorithm:
• An object that has a pin at the joint under consideration will not enter the stiffness
summations calculated above. An object that has a pin at the far end from the joint under
consideration will contribute only 50% of the calculated 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 value. Also, beam members that
have no column member at the far end from the joint under consideration, such as cantilevers,
will not enter the stiffness summation.
• If there are no beams framing into a particular direction of a column member, the associated
𝐺𝐺-value will be infinity. If the 𝐺𝐺-values at both ends of a column for a particular direction
are infinity, the 𝐾𝐾-factor corresponding to that direction is set equal to unity.
• If rotational releases exist at both ends of an object for a particular direction, the
corresponding 𝐾𝐾-factor is set to unity.
• The automated 𝐾𝐾-factor calculation procedure can occasionally generate artificially high 𝐾𝐾-
factor, specifically under circumstances involving skewed beams, fixed support conditions,
and under other conditions where the program may have difficulty recognizing that the
members are laterally supported and 𝐾𝐾-factors of unity are to be used.
• The automated K-factor calculation is turned off if the user sets the “Consider P-Delta
Done?” to be “Yes” in the preferences. In this case, all the columns, beams, and braces are
assigned K-factors of unity.

• All 𝐾𝐾-factor produced by the program can be overwritten by the user. These values should
be reviewed and any unacceptable values should be replaced.
• The beams and braces are assigned 𝐾𝐾-factor of unity.

Aluminum Frame Design EN 1999:2007 Design Process
3 Design Process
This chapter provides a detailed description of the algorithms used by the programs in the
design/check of structures in accordance with “Eurocode 9: Design of aluminum structures – Part
1-1: General structural rules.” The implementation covers load combinations from Eurocode
1990:2002 [EN 1990:2002], which are described in the section “Design Loading Combinations”
in this chapter.
3.1 Notations
The various notations used in this chapter are described herein.
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Effective cross-sectional area, mm2
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 Gross cross-sectional area, mm2
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 Net area of the cross-section, mm2
𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 Area of the web, mm2
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 Shear area, mm2
𝑏𝑏 Width of the element of the section, mm
𝑏𝑏𝑤𝑤 Height of the web excluding the fillet radius, mm
𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , 𝐶𝐶3 Bending coefficient dependent on moment gradient used in

calculation of lateral-torsional buckling moment
𝐷𝐷 Diameter to mid-thickness of pipes, mm
𝐸𝐸 Modulus of elasticity, N/mm2
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 Shear strength considering buckling, N/mm2
𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 Ultimate strength, N/mm2
Notations 11
𝑓𝑓0 Base yield strength, N/mm2
𝐺𝐺 Shear modulus, N/mm2
𝑖𝑖𝑦𝑦 , 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧 Radius of gyration of full unreduced cross-section, mm
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 Polar radius of gyration of cross-section about shear center,

mm
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 Moment of inertia of the compression flange about the z-z axis
of the section, mm4
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 moment of inertia of the tension flange about the z-z axis of
the section, mm4
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 or 𝐼𝐼22 Moment of inertia about y-y axis, mm4
𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 or 𝐼𝐼33 Moment of inertia about z-z, mm4
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 Torsion constant of the gross cross-section, mm6
𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 Warping constant of cross-section, mm6
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 , 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 Effective length factor for buckling about y-y and z-z axes,
respectively
𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 Effective length K-factor for lateral-torsional buckling
𝑘𝑘𝜎𝜎 Buckling factor of plate element
𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 Shear buckling coefficient
𝐿𝐿𝑡𝑡 Lateral-torsional unbraced length of member, mm
𝐿𝐿𝑦𝑦 , 𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 Unbraced length of member for buckling about y-y and z-z
axes, respectively, mm
𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal member flexural strength due to lateral-torsional

buckling, N-mm
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal section flexural strength due to local buckling, N-mm
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 Elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling, N-mm
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 Design bending moment about y-y and z-z axis, respectively,
N-mm
Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 Moment due to the shift of the centroidal y-y and z-z axis,
respectively
Notations 12
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Characteristic value of resistance to bending moment about y-

y and z-z axis, respectively, N-mm
𝑀𝑀𝑓𝑓,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Plastic moment capacity of the cross-section consisting of the

effective area of flanges only, N-mm
𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Plastic moment capacity of the cross-section consisting of the

effective area of flanges and fully effective area of the web, N-
mm
𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal member compressive strength due to global buckling,

N
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal section compressive strength due to local buckling, N
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 , 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 Elastic critical force for buckling about y-y and z-z axis,
respectively
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 , 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 Elastic critical force for torsional and torsional-flexural

buckling, respectively
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Design axial force, N
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Characteristic value of resistance to compression
𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal tensile strength due to general yielding, N
𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal tensile strength, N
𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal tensile strength due to fracture, N
𝑠𝑠𝑤𝑤 Slant height of the web
𝑡𝑡 Thickness of the element of the section, mm
𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Effective thickness of the element of the section, mm
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal shear strength, N
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal shear strength considering buckling, N
𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal shear strength considering yielding, N
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Effective section modulus of the effective cross-section, mm3
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Elastic section modulus of the gross cross-section, mm3
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 Plastic section modulus of the gross cross-section, mm3
𝛽𝛽 Slenderness parameter of the element of the section
Notations 13
𝛽𝛽1 , 𝛽𝛽2 , 𝛽𝛽3 Limiting slenderness parameter of the element of the section
𝜂𝜂 Stress gradient factor
𝜂𝜂0 , 𝛾𝛾0 , 𝜉𝜉0 Exponents in interaction formulae
𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 , 𝛾𝛾𝑐𝑐 , 𝜉𝜉𝑐𝑐 , 𝜓𝜓𝑐𝑐 Exponents in interaction formulae
𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠 Distance from centroid to shear center in y-axis direction, mm
𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 Distance from centroid to shear center in z-axis direction, mm
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 Partial factor for resistance of the member to instability
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 Partial factor for resistance of the cross-section in tension to

fracture
𝜆𝜆̅ Nondimensional relative slenderness
𝜆𝜆̅0 Limit of the horizontal plateau of the buckling curves
𝜆𝜆̅0,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Plateau length of the lateral-torsional buckling curve
𝜆𝜆̅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Nondimensional slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling
𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤 Relative web slenderness factor of shear buckling
𝜇𝜇 Poisson’s ratio of aluminum = 0.30
𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 Relative non-dimensional critical moment
𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 Relative non-dimensional torsion parameter
𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 Relative non-dimensional coordinate of the point of load

application related to shear center
𝜁𝜁𝑗𝑗 Relative non-dimensional cross-section mono-symmetry

parameter
𝛼𝛼 Imperfection factor corresponding to the appropriate buckling

curve according to the type of cross-section
α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Imperfection factor corresponding to the appropriate curve for

lateral-torsional buckling
Φ Value to determine the reduction factor 𝜒𝜒
Φ𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Value to determine the reduction factor 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝜒𝜒 Reduction factor for buckling
Notations 14
𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 Reduction factor in calculation of effective thickness of

element
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 Factor for shear buckling
𝜎𝜎1 , 𝜎𝜎1 Stress at the opposite ends of the element of the cross-section,
N/mm2
𝜓𝜓 Stress ratio used to determine the effective thickness
3.2 Design Loading Combinations

The design load combinations are combinations of load cases for which the structure is designed
and checked. A default set of automated load combinations is available in the software, as
described in this section. These default combinations can be modified or deleted. In addition,
manually defined combinations can be added should the default combinations not cover all
conditions required for the structure of interest.
The default load combinations considered by the software for the EC9 are defined in the
following sections and handle dead (D), live (L), wind (W), and earthquake (E) loads. For other
load types, combinations should be manually generated.
The following two sections describe the automated load combinations generated by the software
for ultimate strength and serviceability, in accordance with EC0.
3.2.1 Ultimate Strength Combinations

The load combinations are defined based on EC0 equation 6.10 or the less favorable EC0
equations 6.10a and 6.10b [NDP].
∑𝑗𝑗≥1 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺,𝑗𝑗 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘,𝑗𝑗 + 𝛾𝛾𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,1 + ∑𝑖𝑖>1 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,𝑖𝑖 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)
∑𝑗𝑗≥1 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺,𝑗𝑗 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘,𝑗𝑗 + 𝛾𝛾𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ𝑄𝑄,1 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,1 + ∑𝑖𝑖>1 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,𝑖𝑖 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)
∑𝑗𝑗≥1 𝜉𝜉𝑗𝑗 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺,𝑗𝑗 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘,𝑗𝑗 + 𝛾𝛾𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,1 + ∑𝑖𝑖>1 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,𝑖𝑖 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
Load combinations including earthquake effects are generated based on:

∑𝑗𝑗≥1 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘,𝑗𝑗 + 𝑃𝑃 + 𝐴𝐴𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + ∑𝑖𝑖>1 Ψ2,𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,𝑖𝑖 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)
The following load combinations are considered if the option is set to generate the combinations
based on EC0 equation 6.10.
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝐿𝐿 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)
Design Loading Combinations 15

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)
𝐷𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝐸 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)

𝐷𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝐸 + Ψ2,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)
The following load combinations are considered if the option is set to generate the combinations
based on the maximum of EC0 equations 6.10a and 6.10b.
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)
𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)

𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝐿𝐿 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝑊𝑊 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)
𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝐿𝐿 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)

𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
𝐷𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝐸 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)

𝐷𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝐸 + Ψ2,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)
The variable values and factors used in the load combinations are defined as:
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1.35 [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.2(B))
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1.00 [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.2(B))
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺,1 = 1.5 [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.2(B))
0.7 (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙, 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)
Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 =� [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.1)
0.6 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙)
𝜉𝜉 = 0.85 [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.2(B))
Ψ2,𝑖𝑖 = 0.3 (assumed office/residential) [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.1)
3.2.2 Serviceability Combinations

The following characteristic load combinations are considered for the deflection checks:
𝐷𝐷 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
𝐷𝐷 + 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
3.3 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

The nominal strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed for aluminum
members in accordance with the subsequent sections. The nominal compression strengths for all
shapes of sections are calculated based on their geometric (or principal) axes of buckling. For I-
Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Double-Angle, Box, Pipe, Rectangular, Circular
Calculation of Nominal Strengths 16

sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For Single Angle sections, the
lateral-torsional restraint condition is examined to determine the buckling axes and all
computations are based on those.
The nominal flexural strengths for all shapes of sections are calculated based on their geometric
(or principal) axes of bending. For the I-Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Double-Angle,
Box, Pipe, Rectangular, Circular sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes.
For Single Angle sections, the lateral-torsional restraint condition is examined to determine the
bending axes and all computations are based on those.
The nominal strengths in compression and flexure due to global buckling depend significantly
on the unbraced length about the axis of bending, and for lateral-torsional buckling. These
unbraced lengths can be specified as a fraction of the member length in the Overwrites. By
specifying a ratio for an unbraced length type, the number of brace points will be internally
determined, and the braced point locations will be arranged such that they are symmetric over
the center line of the member, and the unbraced length at the ends of the member will be greater
than or equal to 12 inches and less than or equal to the specified unbraced length 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. ≤ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≤
𝐿𝐿 (Figure 3-1). If 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖., the brace point next to the ends will be ignored and 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 will
be updated to be 𝐿𝐿 ≤ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≤ (𝐿𝐿 + 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. ). By default, the unbraced length ratios about y-y and
z-z axes of bending are determined by the analysis of structures, and the unbraced length ratios
for lateral-torsional buckling is taken as unity.
Figure 3-1: Braced point locations by Overwrites
The lateral-torsional bracing condition can also be specified by point and/or uniform bracing in
the Lateral Bracing option under the Design menu. However, the bracing condition assigned by
this option will be overwritten by the user-specified unbraced length ratio for lateral-torsional
buckling in the Overwrites.
The nominal compression strength in consideration of flexural and local buckling, and moment
strength in consideration of local buckling also depend on aluminum material buckling class. The
classification of material (Class A or Class B) is determined in accordance with the alloy and
temper of aluminum material as shown in Table 3.2 of the EC9. Both the alloy and temper
designations are specified in the material definition.
Both nominal compression and flexural strengths in consideration of the limit state of local
buckling are calculated using the Effective Thickness Method as described in the next section.
For all sections, the nominal shear strengths are calculated for directions aligned with the
geometric axes.
The calculations of the nominal strengths are not performed for General and Section
Designer sections.

3.3.1 Classification of Cross-Section and Effective Thickness

The nominal compressive and moment strengths of a section are dependent on the slenderness of
individual elements of the section. In consideration of local buckling, each element of the section
is categorized into loading conditions of Uniform Compression (UC) or Stress Gradient (SG),
and its slenderness and effective thickness are calculated correspondingly.
Under axial compression load, all elements of the section are subjected to Uniform Compression
(UC) stress condition. When the section is subjected to flexural bending about y-y axis, for
example, the flanges of wide-flange (I) section is assumed to be in Uniform Compression while
the web is in Stress Gradient. If bending is about z-z axis, both the web and flanges are in Stress
Gradient.
Tables 3-1 summarizes the plate type and loading condition of each element of the sections in the
program. The width is determined for each element considering the effect of the fillet radius. Both
the width and thickness of each element are also used to compute its area, which is utilized in
calculation of the total compression and flexure capacity due to the condition of local buckling.
Table 3-1 Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios of Elements for Stress Capacity –

Members Subjected to Compression or Flexure
Section Slenderness Parameter, Flexure
Example Part Compression
Type (𝛽𝛽) y-y z-z
UC: 𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡
Doubly Symmetric I-Shape
SG+: 𝜂𝜂 𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡
Outstand UC UC SG
SG-: 𝜂𝜂 𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡
Internal UC SG UC
Singly Symmetric I-Shapes
Outstand UC UC SG
Outstand UC UC SG


Internal UC SG UC
Outstand UC UC SG
Channel
Internal UC SG UC
Outstand UC UC SG
Double-Channel
Internal UC SG UC
Internal UC UC SG
Box
Internal UC SG UC
T-Shape
Outstand UC UC SG
SG-: 𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡


Outstand UC SG UC
Outstand UC UC SG
Double-Angle
Outstand UC SG UC
SG+: 𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡
Outstand UC UC SG
Angle
SG+: 𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡
Outstand UC SG UC
𝐷𝐷
Pipe
3� Curved UC SG SG
𝑡𝑡
where:
0.70 + 0.30𝜓𝜓 1 ≥ 𝜓𝜓 ≥ −1
𝜂𝜂 = � (EC9 6.1.4.3(1) Eq. 6.4 & 6.5)
0.80/(1 − 𝜓𝜓) 𝜓𝜓 ≤ −1
𝜓𝜓 = ratio of the stresses at the edges of the element under consideration
Notes: SG+ and SG- means stress gradient with positive and negative moment, respectively.
Positive moment results in compression on the top and tension on the bottom of the
section, and vice versa for the negative moment.
The slenderness of each element of the cross-section is classified according to the value of the
slenderness parameter 𝛽𝛽 as shown in Table 3-2. The limiting slenderness parameters 𝛽𝛽1 , 𝛽𝛽2 , and
𝛽𝛽3 are defined in Table 3-3. The section class will be taken as the highest class of all the elements
of the section.
Table 3-2: Slenderness classification of elements of the cross-section

𝛽𝛽 ≤ 𝛽𝛽1 𝛽𝛽1 < 𝛽𝛽 ≤ 𝛽𝛽2 𝛽𝛽2 < 𝛽𝛽 ≤ 𝛽𝛽3 𝛽𝛽3 < 𝛽𝛽
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
Table 3-3: Slenderness parameters 𝜷𝜷𝟏𝟏 , 𝜷𝜷𝟐𝟐 , and 𝜷𝜷𝟑𝟑

Material Internal Outstand
class 𝛽𝛽1 /𝜀𝜀 𝛽𝛽2 /𝜀𝜀 𝛽𝛽3 /𝜀𝜀 𝛽𝛽1 /𝜀𝜀 𝛽𝛽2 /𝜀𝜀 𝛽𝛽3 /𝜀𝜀
Class A 11 16 22 3 4.5 6
Class B 13 16.5 18 3.5 4.5 5

where 𝜀𝜀 = �250/𝑓𝑓0 [𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 ]
For section under bending, 𝜀𝜀 = �(250/𝑓𝑓0 )(𝑧𝑧1 /𝑧𝑧2 ) in which 𝑧𝑧1 is the distance from the elastic
neutral axis of the effective section to the most severely stressed fiber, and 𝑧𝑧2 is the distance from
the elastic neutral axis of the effective section to the element under consideration.
The effective section is comprised of the effective thickness of each element that is calculated by
multiplying the local buckling factor 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 to the element thickness as follows:
1.0 𝛽𝛽 ≤ 𝛽𝛽3
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 = � 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 (EC9 6.1.5(1) Eq. 6.11 & 6.12)
− (𝛽𝛽/𝜀𝜀)2 𝛽𝛽 > 𝛽𝛽3
𝛽𝛽/𝜀𝜀
where 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2 are determined as shown in Table 3-4. For element under stress gradient, 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 is
only applied to portion of the element that is under compression.
Table 3-4: Constants 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 and 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐

Material Internal Outstand
class 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2
Class A 32 220 10 24
Class B 29 198 9 20
As the effective thickness, 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡 or 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ), of each of the elements in the cross-section is
determined, the effective section properties are calculated as follows:
Effective area: 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖

∑𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖
Effective neutral axis: 𝑧𝑧̅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖
Effective moment of inertia:

2
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 − ��𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖 �𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧̅𝑖𝑖2 − � 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦,𝑖𝑖 − 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �𝑧𝑧̅ − 𝑧𝑧̅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �
where:
𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖 = distance of the effective element 𝑖𝑖 measured from the top fiber of the section.
𝑧𝑧̅𝑖𝑖 = distance of the effective element 𝑖𝑖 measured from centroid of the unreduced
gross cross-section.
𝑧𝑧̅ = centroid of the unreduced gross cross-section measured from the top flange
centerline.
𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 = the width of element 𝑖𝑖
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 = moment of inertia of the unreduced gross cross-section about y-y axis.
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦,𝑖𝑖 = moment of inertia of reduced portion of element 𝑖𝑖 about its own axis.
3.3.2 Nominal Tensile Strength

This section applies to the members subject to axial tension. The design tensile strength is taken
as the lower value obtained according to the limit states of yielding of gross section under tension
and tensile rupture in the net section.
𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = min (𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ) (EC9 Eq. 6.18)
where
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓0
𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (EC9 Eq. 6.18)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
0.9𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢
𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (EC9 Eq. 6.19a)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2

𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 is the gross area of the cross-section

𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 is the net area of the cross-section
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 is the yield strength
𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 is the ultimate strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 is the partial factor for resistance of the cross-section and member instability
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 is the partial factor for resistance of the cross-section in tension to fracture
3.3.3 Nominal Compressive Strength

The design compression strength is taken to be the least compression capacity of the members in
consideration of member buckling including flexural and torsional and flexural-torsional
buckling, and local buckling of the cross-section. The limit states of torsional and flexural-
torsional buckling are ignored for closed sections (Box and Pipe sections.) The summary of limit
states considered for each type of section is displayed in Table 3-5 below.
Table 3-5 Limit States Considered for the Sections Subjected to Compression and
Section Type for Torsional-Flexural Buckling
Section Type for Torsional-Flexural
Section Shape Limit States
Buckling
I-Shape FB, FTB, LB General
Channel FB, FTB, LB General
Double-Channel FB, FTB, LB General
Box FB, LB General
T-Shape FB, FTB, LB Outstand
Double-Angle FB, FTB, LB Outstand
Angle FB, FTB, LB Outstand

Table 3-5 Limit States Considered for the Sections Subjected to Compression and
Section Type for Torsional-Flexural Buckling
Pipe FB, LB
Round Bar FB
Rectangular FB
General FB
FB = flexural buckling LB = local buckling
FTB = flexural-torsional buckling
3.3.3.1 Member Buckling

The nominal member buckling compressive strength is the minimum value obtained according
to the limit states of flexural buckling and torsional-flexural buckling:
𝜒𝜒𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜
𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (EC9 Eq. 6.48)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
where
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is the effective area of the cross-section calculated using the Effective
Thickness Method and the uniform compressive stress equal to 𝑓𝑓0
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 is the yield strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 is the partial factor for resistance of the member to instability.
In above equation, 𝜒𝜒 is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling curve calculated as follows:
1
𝜒𝜒 = ≤ 1.0 (EC9 Eq. 6.49)
2 2�
Φ+�Φ −𝜆𝜆
where
Φ = 0.5�1 + 𝛼𝛼�𝜆𝜆̅ − 𝜆𝜆̅0 � + 𝜆𝜆̅2 �
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜
𝜆𝜆̅ = �
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝛼𝛼 is an imperfection factor and 𝜆𝜆̅0 is the limit of the horizontal plateau corresponding to the
appropriate material buckling class for flexural buckling and type of cross-section for
torsional-flexural buckling as shown in Tables 3-6 and 3-7, respectively.
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode based on the gross cross-
sectional properties and calculated as described in subsequent sections.
Table 3-6: Values of 𝜶𝜶 and 𝝀𝝀�𝟎𝟎 for flexural buckling

Material class Buckling curve 𝛼𝛼 𝜆𝜆̅0
Class A 1 0.20 0.10
Class B 2 0.32 0.00
Table 3-7: Values of 𝜶𝜶 and 𝝀𝝀�𝟎𝟎 for torsional-flexural buckling

Cross-section Buckling curve 𝛼𝛼 𝜆𝜆̅0
Composed entire of radiating outstands 1 0.20 0.60
General 2 0.35 0.40

3.3.3.1.1 Flexural Buckling

For flexural buckling, the elastic critical force 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is determined by:
𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 = 2 (EC9 I.3(1) Eq. I.14)
�𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐿𝐿𝑦𝑦 �
𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 = (𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 )2
(EC9 I.3(1) Eq. I.15)
For Single-Angle sections, the program checks for buckling axes. As the frame member is fully
restrained against lateral-torsional buckling, the buckling axes are the geometric axes, and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is
calculated with 𝐾𝐾, 𝐿𝐿, and 𝐼𝐼 based on the geometric axes. Otherwise, the buckling axes are the
principal axes and and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is calculated with 𝐾𝐾, 𝐿𝐿, and 𝐼𝐼 based on the principal axes.
3.3.3.1.2 Torsional and Torsional-Flexural Buckling

3.3.3.1.2.1 Box and Pipe Sections
The limit states of torsional and torsional-flexural buckling are not considered for members with
closed sections, such as Box and Pipe sections.
3.3.3.1.2.2 I-Shapes with Equal Flanges, Double-Channel Sections

1 𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 = �𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 + � (EC9 I.3 Eq. I.16)
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠2 𝐿𝐿2𝑇𝑇
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 (EC9 6.2.3(5) Eq. 6.34)
3.3.3.1.2.3 Channel Sections

1 2 𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠2
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑦𝑦2
�𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 + 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 − ��𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 + 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 � − 4𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 �1 − 𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ��
2�1−𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 2𝑠𝑠 � 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠2
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
(EC9 I.3 Eq. I.19)
3.3.3.1.2.4 I-Shapes with Unequal Flanges, Tee, Double-Angle Sections

1 2 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠2
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑧𝑧2
�𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 + 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 − ��𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 + 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 � − 4𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 �1 − 𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 ��
2�1−𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 2𝑠𝑠 � 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠2
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
(EC9 I.3 Eq. I.19)
3.3.3.1.2.5 Single Angle Sections with Equal Legs

For angle section with equal legs, a check for buckling axes is performed. As the frame
member is fully restrained against lateral-torsional buckling, the buckling axes are the
geometric axes, the section is considered non-symmetric, and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 is calculated as the
lowest root of the cubic equation:
𝑦𝑦 2
2
�𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 ��𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 ��𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 � − 𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 �𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 � � 𝑠𝑠 � −
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
𝑧𝑧 2
2
𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 �𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 � � 𝑠𝑠 � = 0
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
(EC9 I.3 Eq. I.19)
Otherwise, the bending axes are principal, the section with equal legs is singly symmetric
about the principal y-y axis, and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 is determined as follows:

1 2 𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠2
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑦𝑦2
�𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 + 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 − ��𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 + 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 � − 4𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 �1 − 𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ��
2�1−𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 2𝑠𝑠 � 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠2
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
(EC9 I.3 Eq. I.19)
For angle section with unequal legs, 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 is calculated as the lowest root of the cubic
equation I.3 Eq. I.19 of the EC9.
In the preceding equations,

𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 is the warping constant of the gross cross-section, mm6
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 is the torsion constant of the gross cross-section, mm6
𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠 , 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 are the coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 = �𝑖𝑖𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠2 = polar radius of gyration about the shear center (EC9 Eq. 6.33b)
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 , 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 are the moment of inertia about the y-y and z-z directions, respectively
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 , 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 are effective length factors in the y-y and z-z directions, respectively
𝐾𝐾𝑇𝑇 is the effective length factor for torsional buckling, and it is taken equal to KLTB
in this program; it can be overwritten
𝐿𝐿𝑦𝑦 , 𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 are effective lengths in the y-y and z-z directions, respectively, mm
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 is the effective length for torsional buckling and it is taken equal the unbraced
length for lateral-torsional buckling 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 . 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 can be overwritten.
𝑖𝑖𝑦𝑦 , 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧 are the radii of gyration about the y-y and z-z directions, respectively
𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 , 𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 are defined as shown in Table 3-8. For other values of 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 , 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 , and 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 in the
range between 0.5 and 1.0, linear interpolation is utilized. Otherwise, 𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 and
𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 are taken as 1.0.
Table 3-8: Values of 𝜶𝜶𝒚𝒚𝒘𝒘 and 𝜶𝜶𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 or 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧
1.0 0.7 0.5
1.0 1.000 0.817 0.780
0.7 0.817 1.000 0.766
0.5 0.780 0.766 1.000
3.3.3.2 Local Buckling

The nominal compressive strength of members in consideration of local buckling, 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , is
determined using the Effective Thickness Method as described in Section 3.3.1:
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓0
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (EC9 Eq. 6.2 & 6.3)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
where
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is the effective area of the cross-section obtained using the Effective Thickness
Method by assuming a uniform compressive stress equal to 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜
𝑓𝑓0 is the basic yield strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 is the partial factor for resistance of the cross-section

3.3.4 Nominal Flexure Strength

This section applies to members subject to simple bending about one geometric or principal axis.
For the I-Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Double-Angle, Box, Pipe, Rectangular,
Circular sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For the Single Angle
sections, the lateral-torsional restraint is examined to determine the bending axes and all
computations are based on that.
The nominal bending strength is the minimum value obtained considering the limit states of
lateral-torsional buckling and local buckling as appropriate for different structural shapes.
For members with box, pipe, solid rectangle, and solid circular sections, lateral-torsional buckling
is not considered.
3.3.4.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling

The nominal flexural strength, 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , in consideration of lateral-torsional buckling is taken as:
𝑓𝑓0
𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑦𝑦 (EC9 Eq. 6.55)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
where
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑦𝑦 = effective section modulus about y-y axis of the effective cross-section
𝑓𝑓0 = the basic yield strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 = partial factor for resistance of members to instability
𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling and calculated as follows:
1
𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = ≤ 1.0 (EC9 Eq. 6.49)
�2
Φ𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 +�Φ2𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 −𝜆𝜆 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
where
Φ𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.5�1 + 𝛼𝛼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 �𝜆𝜆̅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 𝜆𝜆̅0,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � + 𝜆𝜆2̅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 �
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓0
𝜆𝜆̅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = �
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝛼𝛼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 and 𝜆𝜆̅0,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 are determined as illustrated in Table 3-9
Table 3-9: Values of 𝜶𝜶𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 and 𝝀𝝀 � 𝟎𝟎,𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 for lateral-torsional buckling
Cross-section Buckling curve 𝛼𝛼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝜆𝜆̅0,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
Class 1 and Class 2 1 0.10 0.60
Class 3 and Class 4 2 0.20 0.40
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the elastic critical moment based on the gross cross-sectional properties and calculated as:
𝜋𝜋�𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (EC9 I.1.2(1) Eq. I.2)
𝐿𝐿
𝐶𝐶1 2
𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ��1 + 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
2
+ �𝐶𝐶2 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 − 𝐶𝐶3 𝜁𝜁𝑗𝑗 � − �𝐶𝐶2 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 − 𝐶𝐶3 𝜁𝜁𝑗𝑗 �� (EC9 I.1.2(1) Eq. I.3)
𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧
𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤
𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = � 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼 (EC9 I.1.2(1))
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡
𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧
𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 = �𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼 (EC9 I.1.2(1))
𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡
𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧
𝜁𝜁𝑗𝑗 = �𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼 (EC9 I.1.2(1))
𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡
where 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 , 𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 , and 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 are the z-z axis moment of inertia, warping constant, and torsion constant,

respectively; 𝐿𝐿 is the effective unbraced length for the lateral-torsional buckling mode and is
defined as 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 , where 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is the effective length factor for the lateral-torsional
buckling mode, and 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is the unbraced length for the lateral-torsional buckling mode.
𝑘𝑘𝑤𝑤 refers to end warping. It is defaulted to 1.0 and can be modified to have value ranging between
0.5 and 1.0 in the Overwrite, and 𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 and 𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 are calculated as:
𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 = 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 − 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠
0.5
𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 = 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 − � 𝑧𝑧(𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐴𝐴
where 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 is the coordinate of the point of load application defaulted to be the coordinate on top
of the section, and 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 is the coordinate of the shear center. Both 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 and 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 are measured with
respect to the coordinate of the centroid of the section along the principal z-z axis. 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 can be
overwritten in the Overwrites.
𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 are taken from Table I.1 and I.2 in EC9 for the case of linear bending moment
diagrams and several transverse loadings (Table 3-10 and 3-11, respectively.) For other values of
𝜓𝜓, 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 , 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 , and 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 , linear interpolation is employed to determine 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 . In Table 3-
10, 𝜓𝜓 = (𝑀𝑀1 /𝑀𝑀2 ) where 𝑀𝑀1 and 𝑀𝑀2 are the smaller and larger bending moment, respectively, at
the ends of the segment between lateral restraints in the plane of bending. In Table 3-11, the two
cases with fixed-end support conditions, 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 are taken conservatively equal to those
in the case with simply-supported conditions and similar loading.
In both Tables 3-10 and 3-11, 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 are calculated as follows:
𝐶𝐶1 = 𝐶𝐶1.0 + (𝐶𝐶1.1 − 𝐶𝐶1.0 )𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ≤ 𝐶𝐶1.1
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 =
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
where:
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = moment of inertia of the compression flange about the z-z axis of the section
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = moment of inertia of the tension flange about the z-z axis of the section
For any other cases, 𝐶𝐶2 and 𝐶𝐶3 are taken as zero, and 𝐶𝐶1 is calculated as follows:
1.7𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐶1 = ≤ 2.5 (EC9 I.1.3(4) Eq. I.9)
2 +𝑀𝑀2 +𝑀𝑀2
�𝑀𝑀0.25 0.5 0.75
where
𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = absolute value of maximum moment in unbraced segment, N-mm.
𝑀𝑀0.25 = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment, N-mm.
𝑀𝑀0.5 = absolute value of moment at the middle of the unbraced segment, N-mm.
𝑀𝑀0.75 = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced segment, N-mm.
For the purpose of determining 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 , the program limits the value of 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 to be within
the range between 0.5 and 1.0. If 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is input to have the value less than 0.5 in the Overwrites,
it will be taken to be 0.5. Likewise, if it is input to have the value greater than 1.0, it will be taken
to be 1.0. If it is program determined, it will be defaulted to be 1.0. This condition of 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is not
imposed for any other calculations elsewhere.
For specific cases of cantilever subjected to concentrated load at the tip or uniformly distributed

load, the relative non-dimensional critical moment 𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is determined according to Table 3-12 and
3-13 with linear interpolation. As 𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 = 0, 𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 = 0, and 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ≤ 8, 𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is computed as:
2
1.27 + 1.14𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤0 + 0.017𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤0 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = � 2
2.04 + 2.68𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤0 + 0.021𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤0 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
For cantilever loaded by concentrated load at tip with 𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 = 0, −4 ≤ 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 ≤ 4, and 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ≤ 4, 𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is
calculated as described in Eq. I.3 with 𝐶𝐶3 = 0 and 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2 determined as follows:
2 3
2.56 + 4.675𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 2.62𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 0.5𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ≤ 2
𝐶𝐶1 = �
5.55 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 > 2
2 3 4
1.255 + 1.566𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 0.931𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 0.245𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 0.024𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 ≥ 0
𝐶𝐶2 = � 2 2
0.192 + 0.585𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 0.054𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 (0.032 + 0.102𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 0.013𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ) 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 < 0
For cantilever loaded by uniformly distributed load with 𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 = 0, −4 ≤ 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 ≤ 4, and 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ≤ 4, 𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
is calculated as described in Eq. I.3 with 𝐶𝐶3 = 0 and 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2 determined as follows:
2 3
4.11 + 11.2𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 5.65𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 0.975𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ≤ 2
𝐶𝐶1 = �
12 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 > 2
2 3 4
1.661 + 1.068𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 0.609𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡 + 0.153𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 0.014𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 ≥ 0
𝐶𝐶2 = � 2 2
0.535 + 0.426𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 0.029𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 (0.061 + 0.074𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 0.0085𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ) 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 < 0

Table 3-10 Values of 𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 and 𝐂𝐂𝟑𝟑 for end moment loadings. (Source: EC9)
Values of factors
Loading and Bending moment
𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶3
support conditions diagram
𝐶𝐶1.0 𝐶𝐶1.1 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 = −1 −0.9 ≤ 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 ≤ 0 0 ≤ 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 ≤ 0.9 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 = 1
1.0 1.000 1.000 1.000

0.7L 1.016 1.100 1.025 1.000
0.7R 1.016 1.100 1.025 1.000
0.5 1.000 1.127 1.019
1.0 1.139 1.141 1.000
0.7L 1.210 1.313 1.050 1.000
0.7R 1.109 1.201 1.000
0.5 1.139 1.285 1.017
1.0 1.312 1.320 1.150 1.000
0.7L 1.480 1.616 1.160 1.000
0.7R 1.213 1.317 1.000
0.5 1.310 1.482 1.150 1.000
1.0 1.522 1.551 1.290 1.000
0.7L 1.853 2.059 1.600 1.420 1.000
0.7R 1.329 1.467 1.000
0.5 1.516 1.730 1.350 1.000
1.0 1.770 1.847 1.470 1.000
0.7L 2.331 2.683 2.000 1.420 1.000
0.7R 1.453 1.592 1.000
0.5 1.753 2.027 1.500 1.000
1.0 2.047 2.207 1.650 1.000 0.850
0.7L 2.827 3.322 2.400 1.500 0.850 -0.300
0.7R 1.582 1.748 1.380 0.850 0.700 0.200
0.5 2.004 2.341 1.750 1.000 0.650 -0.250
1.0 2.331 2.591 1.850 1.000 1.3 − 1.2𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -0.700
0.7L 3.078 3.399 2.700 1.450 1 − 1.2𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -1.150
0.7R 1.711 1.897 1.450 0.780 0.9 − 0.75𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -0.530
0.5 2.230 2.579 2.000 0.950 0.75 − 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -0.850
1.0 2.547 2.852 2.000 1.000 0.55 − 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -1.450
0.7L 2.592 2.770 2.000 0.850 0.23 − 0.9𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -1.550
0.7R 1.829 2.027 1.550 0.700 0.68 − 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -1.070
0.5 2.352 2.606 2.000 0.850 0.35 − 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -1.450
1.0 2.555 2.733 2.000 −𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -2.000
0.7L 1.921 2.103 1.550 0.380 -0.580 -1.550
0.7R 1.921 2.103 1.550 0.580 -0.380 -1.550
0.5 2.223 2.390 1.880 0.125 − 0.7𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 −0.125 − 0.7𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 -1.880

Table 3-11 Values of 𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 , 𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 , and 𝐂𝐂𝟑𝟑 for transverse loading cases. (Source: EC9)
Loading and Values of factors
support 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶3
conditions 𝐶𝐶1.0 𝐶𝐶1.1 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 = −1 −0.9 ≤ 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 ≤ 0.9 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 = 1 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 = −1 −0.9 ≤ 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 ≤ 0.9 𝜓𝜓𝑓𝑓 = 1
1 1 1.127 1.321 0.330 0.459 0.500 0.930 0.525 0.380
1 0.5 1.128 1.231 0.330 0.391 0.500 0.930 0.806 0.380
0.5 1 0.947 0.997 0.250 0.407 0.400 0.840 0.478 0.44
0.5 0.5 0.947 0.970 0.250 0.310 0.400 0.840 0.674 0.440
1 1 1.348 1.363 0.520 0.553 0.420 1.000 0.411 0.310
1 0.5 1.349 1.452 0.520 0.580 0.420 1.000 0.666 0.310
0.5 1 1.030 1.087 0.400 0.449 0.420 0.800 0.338 0.310
0.5 0.5 1.031 1.067 0.400 0.437 0.420 0.800 0.516 0.310
1 1 1.038 1.040 0.330 0.431 0.390 0.930 0.562 0.390
1 0.5 1.039 1.148 0.330 0.292 0.390 0.930 0.878 0.390
0.5 1 0.922 0.960 0.280 0.404 0.300 0.880 0.539 0.500
0.5 0.5 0.922 0.645 0.280 0.237 0.300 0.880 0.772 0.500

Table 3-12 Relative non-dimensional critical moment 𝝁𝝁𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 for cantilever loaded by concentrated end
load. (Source: EC9)
𝜅𝜅 = 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔0 = 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧
Loading and 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤0 𝜁𝜁𝑗𝑗0 = 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝜁𝜁𝑗𝑗 = �
support 𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡
= � = �
conditions 𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 -4 -2 -1 0 1 2 4
4 0.107 0.156 0.194 0.245 0.316 0.416 0.759
2 0.123 0.211 0.302 0.463 0.759 1.312 4.024
0 0 0.128 0.254 0.478 1.28 3.178 5.590 10.730
-2 0.129 0.258 0.508 1.619 3.894 6.500 11.860
-4 0.129 0.258 0.511 1.686 4.055 6.740 12.240
4 0.151 0.202 0.24 0.293 0.367 0.475 0.899
2 0.195 0.297 0.393 0.560 0.876 1.528 5.36
0.5 0 0.261 0.495 0.844 1.815 3.766 6.170 11.295
-2 0.329 0.674 1.174 2.423 4.642 7.235 12.595
-4 0.364 0.723 1.235 2.529 4.843 7.540 13.100
4 0.198 0.257 0.301 0.360 0.445 0.573 1.123
2 0.268 0.391 0.502 0.691 1.052 1.838 6.345
1 0 0.401 0.75 1.243 2.431 4.456 6.840 11.920
-2 0.629 1.326 2.115 3.529 5.635 8.115 13.365
-4 0.777 1.474 2.264 3.719 5.915 8.505 13.960
4 0.335 0.428 0.496 0.588 0.719 0.916 1.795
2 0.461 0.657 0.829 1.111 1.630 2.698 7.815
2 0 0.725 1.321 2.079 3.611 5.845 8.270 13.28.
-2 1.398 3.003 4.258 5.865 7.845 10.100 15.040
-4 2.119 3.584 4.76 6.36 8.385 10.715 15.825
4 0.845 1.069 1.230 1.443 1.739 2.168 3.866
2 1.159 1.614 1.992 2.569 3.498 5.035 10.345
4 0 1.801 3.019 4.231 6.100 8.495 11.060 16.165
-2 3.375 6.225 8.035 9.950 11.975 14.110 18.680
-4 5.530 8.130 9.660 11.375 13.285 15.365 19.925

Table 3-13 Relative non-dimensional critical moment 𝝁𝝁𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 for cantilever loaded by distributed load.
(Source: EC9)
𝜅𝜅 = 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 𝜅𝜅𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔0 = 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝜁𝜁𝑔𝑔 𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧
Loading and 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤0 𝜁𝜁𝑗𝑗0 = 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝜁𝜁𝑗𝑗 = �
support 𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡
= � = �
conditions 𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 -4 -2 -1 0 1 2 4
4 0.113 0.173 0.225 0.304 0.4311 0.643 1.718
2 0.126 0.225 0.34 0.583 1.165 2.718 13.270
0 0 0.132 0.263 0.516 2.054 6.945 12.925 25.320
-2 0.134 0.268 0.537 3.463 10.490 17.260 30.365
-4 0.134 0.270 0.541 4.273 12.715 20.135 34.005
4 0.213 0.290 0.352 0.443 0.586 0.823 2.046
2 0.273 0.421 0.570 0.854 1.505 3.229 4.365
0.5 0 0.371 0.718 1.287 3.332 8.210 14.125 26.440
-2 0.518 1.217 2.418 6.010 12.165 18.685 31.610
-4 0.654 1.494 2.950 7.460 14.570 21.675 35.320
4 0.336 0.441 0.522 0.636 0.806 1.080 2.483
2 0.449 0.663 0.865 1.224 1.977 3.873 15.575
1 0 0.664 1.263 2.172 4.762 9.715 15.53 27.735
-2 1.109 2.731 4.810 8.695 14.250 20.425 33.075
-4 1.623 3.5581 6.025 10.635 16.880 23.555 36.875
4 0.646 0.829 0.965 1.152 1.421 1.839 3.865
2 0.885 1.268 1.611 2.185 3.282 5.700 18.040
2 0 1.383 2.550 4.103 7.505 12.77 18.570 30.570
2.724 6.460 9.620 13.735 18.755 24.365 36.365
4.678 8.635 11.960 16.445 21.880 27.850 40.400
1.710 2.168 2.500 2.944 3.565 4.478 8.260
2.344 3.279 4.066 5.285 7.295 10.745 23.150
4 3.651 6.210 8.845 13.070 18.630 24.625 36.645
7.010 13.555 17.850 22.460 27.375 32.575 43.690
12.270 18.705 22.590 26.980 31.840 37.090 48.390
The elastic critical moment, 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , of I-Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Angle, or Double-
Angle sections is calculated as described previously. The equation to calculate 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is only
applicable to cross-sections that are symmetrical about the z-z axis of bending, which does not
apply to Channel and Angle sections. However, it is still calculated using this equation given the
available information. For Angle section, it is assumed that the shear center coordinate 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 is the
projection on the axis along the direction of load application 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 in calculation of 𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 . For Pipe and
Box sections, the reduction factor for buckling 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is taken as unity in the calculation of flexural
strength due to lateral-torsional buckling.
For Non-prismatic element with all sections along the element having similar shape, all properties
required for calculation of 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is linearly interpolated from those properties of the two end
sections of the segment which the design section falls in. This procedure is also applied to Non-

prismatic element with sections having different shapes and may produce unexpected design
results.
The value of 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 can be overwritten in the Overwrites.
3.3.4.2 Local Buckling

The Effective Thickness Method described in Section 3.3.1 is adopted to calculate the flexural
strength for the limit state of local buckling. And the nominal flexural strength is computed as:
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓0
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (EC9 Eq. 6.4 & 6.5)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
where
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = section modulus of the effective cross-section comprised of elements with
effective thickness subjected only to bending moment with a maximum
stress 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = elastic section modulus of the gross cross-section
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 = the partial factor for resistance of the cross-section
For Angle section, when bending axes are principal axes, the calculation of effective thickness
of elements and effective section modulus as described in Section 3.3.1 is also applicable. The
corresponding element stresses and effective thickness are calculated accounting for the angle
between principal and geometric axes.
3.3.5 Nominal Shear Strength

The nominal shear strengths are calculated for shears along the geometric axes for all sections.
In calculating nominal strength for shear, 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , it is assumed that there are no intermediate
stiffeners used to enhance shear strength of a section. The program calculates shear strengths
considering the limit state of shear yielding and buckling.
The nominal shear strength 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 is computed as:

ℎ𝑤𝑤
𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 39𝜀𝜀
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = � ℎ𝑤𝑤 (EC9 6.2.6(2) & (3))
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚�𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 � ≥ 39𝜀𝜀
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
where:
𝑓𝑓0
𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 (EC9 6.2.6(2) Eq. 6.29)
√3 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
𝑓𝑓
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 0 (EC9 6.7.4.1(3) Eq. 6.122)
√3 𝛾𝛾 𝑀𝑀1
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = ℎ𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 = area of the web.
ℎ𝑤𝑤 = height of the web between flanges.
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 = thickness of the web
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 = factor for shear buckling and determined assuming non-rigid end post as follows:

𝜂𝜂 𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤 ≤ 0.83/𝜂𝜂
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 = �0.83/𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤 0.83/𝜂𝜂 < 𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤 < 0.937 (EC9 6.7.4.1 Table 6.13)
0.83/𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤 0.937 ≤ 𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤
𝑏𝑏𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓0
𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤 = 0.35 � (EC9 6.7.4.1 Eq. 6.123)
𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 𝐸𝐸
𝑏𝑏𝑤𝑤 = height of the web excluding the fillet radius.
In y-y direction of shear, the notional width of the flanges is used in place of the height of the
web for calculation of nominal shear strength. For I-section with different flanges, the width of
the larger flange is used to determine the slenderness 𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 and the shear stress 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 , which is applied
with total area of both top and bottom flanges to calculate 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 .
For pipe and circular sections

0.8𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = � (EC9 6.2.6(2b) Eq. 6.31)
0.6𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
where
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 = gross cross-sectional area of the section
3.3.6 Design for Torsion

The torsion capacity of cross-section is calculated as:
𝑓𝑓
𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜 (EC9 6.2.7(1))
√3 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
where:
𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = plastic torsion modulus
For box section, 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 is calculated considering the design shear strength of individual parts of the
cross-section according to preceding section 3.3.5.
3.4 Design of Members for Combined Forces

Previous sections of this design manual address members subject to only one type of force,
namely axial tension, axial compression, flexure or shear. This section addresses the design of
members subject to a combination of two or more forces.
In the calculation of the demand/capacity (D/C) ratios, first, for each station along the length of
the member, the actual member force/moment components are calculated for each design
combination. Then, the corresponding capacities are calculated. The D/C ratios are calculated at
each station for each member under the influence of each of the design combinations. The
controlling D/C ratio is then obtained, along with the associated station and design combination.
A D/C ratio greater than the D/C ratio limit (whose default value is 1.0) indicates exceeding a
limit state. At each station for each load combination, the governing D/C ratio is taken as the
largest calculated from the subsections below.
Design of Members for Combined Forces 34

3.4.1 Sections Subjected to Shear and Torsional Moment

In presence of torsion, the shear strength 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 is reduced to 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 and the D/C ratio is:
𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
≤ 1.0 (EC9 6.2.7(1))
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇,𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑
where 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 is determined as follows:
𝜏𝜏𝑡𝑡,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 √3
⎧ �1 − I − shaped section
1.25𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 /𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
⎪
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = �1 − 𝜏𝜏𝑡𝑡,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 √3 − 𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 √3 Channel section (EC9 Eq. 6.35, 6.36 & 6.37)
⎨ 1.25𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 /𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 /𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
⎪ 𝜏𝜏 √3
⎩ 1 − 𝑡𝑡,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 Box section
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 /𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
𝜏𝜏𝑡𝑡,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = shear stress due to St. Venant torsion
𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = shear stress due to warping torsion
3.4.2 Sections Subjected to Bending and Shear

𝑉𝑉
For the design in which 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 > 0.5, the D/C ratio is:
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
≤ 1.0
𝑀𝑀𝑣𝑣,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2
where 𝑀𝑀𝑣𝑣,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 �1 − �2 − 1� � (EC9 Eq. 38)
3.4.3 Sections Subjected to Bending and Axial Force

The D/C ratio for I-Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Angle and Double-Angle sections
subjected to bending and axial force is:
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜉𝜉0 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
� � + (EC9 Eq. 6.40)
𝜔𝜔0 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝜂𝜂0 𝛾𝛾0 𝜉𝜉0

𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
� � +� � +� � (EC9 Eq. 6.41)
𝜔𝜔0 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
where
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 applied moments about y-y and z-z axis, respectively
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 applied axial force
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 section moment capacity about y-y and z-z axis, respectively
𝜂𝜂0 = 𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧2 𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦2 1 ≤ 𝜂𝜂0 ≤ 2
𝛾𝛾0 = 𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧2 1 ≤ 𝛾𝛾0 ≤ 2
𝜉𝜉0 = 𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦2 1 ≤ 𝜉𝜉0 ≤ 2
𝜔𝜔0 = 1 for section without welds or holes
𝛼𝛼𝑦𝑦 , 𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧 shape factor for bending about y-y and z-z axis, respectively
For Box, Pipe, Rectangular and Circular sections:

1.7 0.6
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜓𝜓 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 1.7
� � + �� +� � � (EC9 Eq. 6.43)
𝜔𝜔0 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
where
𝜓𝜓 = 1.3 for Box and Pipe sections
𝜓𝜓 = 2.0 for Rectangular and Circular sections

3.4.4 Sections Subjected to Bending, Shear, and Axial Force

𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
For the design in which > 0.5, the D/C ratio are calculated as described in preceeding section
3.4.1 but with 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , and 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 reduced by the factor:
𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2
1 − �2 − 1� (EC9 Eq. 6.46 & 6.47)
3.4.5 Members Subjected to Bending and Axial Force

The D/C ratio for I-Shaped, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Angle and Double-Angle sections
subjected to bending and axial force is:
𝜉𝜉𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
� � + (EC9 Eq. 6.59)
𝜒𝜒𝑦𝑦 𝜔𝜔𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜉𝜉𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧

� � +� � (EC9 Eq. 6.60)
𝜒𝜒𝑧𝑧 𝜔𝜔𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 𝛾𝛾𝑐𝑐 𝜉𝜉𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
� � +� � +� � (EC9 Eq. 6.63)
𝜒𝜒𝑧𝑧 𝜔𝜔𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝜔𝜔𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
where
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 applied moments about y-y and z-z axis, respectively
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 applied axial force
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 section moment capacity about y-y and z-z axis, respectively
𝛾𝛾𝑐𝑐 = 𝛾𝛾0
𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 = 𝜂𝜂0 𝜒𝜒𝑧𝑧 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 ≥ 0.8
𝜉𝜉𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜉𝜉0 𝜒𝜒𝑦𝑦 𝜉𝜉𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ≥ 0.8
𝜉𝜉𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝜉𝜉0 𝜒𝜒𝑧𝑧 𝜉𝜉𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 ≥ 0.8
𝜔𝜔𝑥𝑥 = 𝜔𝜔0 = 1 for section without welds or holes
𝜒𝜒𝑦𝑦 , 𝜒𝜒𝑧𝑧 reduction factor for axial flexural buckling about y-y and z-z axis,
respectively
𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling
For Box, Pipe, Rectangular and Circular sections:

1.7 0.6
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜓𝜓𝑐𝑐 1 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 1.7
� � + �� +� � � (EC9 Eq. 6.62)
𝜒𝜒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
where
𝜓𝜓𝑐𝑐 = 0.8

APPENDICES
37
Appendix A
P-Delta Effects
Modern design provisions are based on the principle that the member forces are
calculated by a second-order elastic analysis, where the equilibrium is satisfied
on the deformed geometry of the structure. The effects of the loads acting on the
deformed geometry of the structure are known as the second-order or the P-Delta
effects.
The P-Delta effects come from two sources: global lateral translation of the
frame and the local deformation of members within the frame.
Consider the frame object shown in Figure A-1, which is extracted from a story
level of a larger structure. The overall global translation of this frame object is
indicated by ∆. The local deformation of the member is shown as δ. The total
second order P-Delta effects on this frame object are those caused by both ∆ and
δ.
The program has an option to consider P-Delta effects in the analysis. When you
consider P-Delta effects in the analysis, the program does a good job of capturing
the effect due to the ∆ deformation (P-∆ effect) shown in Figure
B-1, but it does not typically capture the effect of the δ deformation (P-δ
effect), unless, in the model, the frame object is broken into multiple elements
over its length.
38
P-Delta Effects
∆
Original position of frame
element shown by vertical
line δ
Final deflected position of the
frame element that includes the
global lateral translation, ∆, and
the local deformation of the
Position of frame element
element, δ
as a result of global lateral
translation, ∆, shown by
dashed line
δ
Figure A-1 P-∆ and P-δ effects
In design codes, required strengths are usually required to be determined using

a second-order analysis that considers both P-∆ and P-δ effects. Approximate
second-order analysis procedures based on amplification of responses from
first-order analysis for calculating the required flexural and axial strengths are
common in current design codes but are not specified in the Aluminum Design
Manual 2015. Therefore, second-order analysis considering both P-∆ and P-δ
effects should be run (the program has the capability of performing this rigorous
second-order analysis) before the aluminum frame design is carried out. In this
case, the required strengths are determined directly from the analysis results.
To properly model the P-δ effect in a finite element analysis, each element,
especially column elements, must be broken into multiple finite elements.
Although a single element per member can capture the P-δ effect to some extent,
the program considers that inadequate. For practical reasons, the software
internally divides the column elements into two members. The user must provide
additional subdivisions where a column is expected to have multiple inflection
points.
In general, aluminum frame design requires consideration of P-Delta effects in

the analysis before the check/design is performed. Although two elements per
line object are generally adequate to model the P-∆ effect, it is recommended to
use more than two elements per line object for the cases where both P-∆ and P-
δ effects are to be considered for a member having multiple points of inflection.
However, explicit manual breaking of the member into elements has other
consequences related to member end moments and unbraced segment end
moment. It is recommended that the members be broken internally by the
39
P-Delta Effects
program. In this way, the member is recognized as one unit, ends of the members
are identified properly, and P-∆ and P-δ effects are modeled better.
40
Appendix B
References
EN 1990:2002 (2002). Eurocode 0 — Basis of Structural Design (includes

Amendment A1:2005), European Committee for Standardization, rue de Stassart,
36, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
EN 1993-1-1:2005 (2005). Eurocode 3 – Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-1:

General Rules and Rules for Buildings, European Committee for
Standardization, rue de Stassart, 36, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
EN 1993-1-5:2007 (2007). Eurocode 3 — Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-5:

Plated Structural Elements, European Committee for Standardization, rue de
Stassart, 36, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
EN 1999-1-1:2007 (2007). Design of Aluminum Structures – Part 1-1: General

Structural Rules, European Committee for Standardization, rue de Stassart, 36,
B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
Hughes, A. F., Iles, D. C., and Malik, A. S (2011). Design of Aluminum Beams
in Torsion in Accordance with Eurocodes and UK National Annexes, SCI
Publication, P385, SCI, Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire.
UK NA EC0:2002 (2004). UK National Annex for Eurocode 0 – Basis of

Structural Design, British Standards Institute, London, UK.
UK NA EC9-1:2005 (2008). UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of

Aluminum Structures – Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, British
Standards Institute, London, UK.
UK NA EC3-5:2005 (2008). UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of

Aluminum Structures – Part 1-5: Plated Structural Elements, British Standards
Institute, London, UK.
41
Appendix C
Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs)
This appendix provides a listing of the Nationally Determined Parameters

(NDPs) used by default for the various country implementations. Several of these
parameters can be modified either through the design preferences or the design
overwrites.
C.1 CEN Default

Table C.1: CEN Default NDP Values
Code Clause NDP Default Value
EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 1.10
EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 1.25
EC0 6.4.3.2 Combinations equation Eq. 6.10
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1.35
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1.00
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 1.5
EC0 Table A1.1 Ψ0,i 0.7 (live load)
0.6 (wind load)
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝜉𝜉 0.85
EC0 Table A1.1 Ψ2,i 0.3 (assumed office/residential)
C.2 Bulgaria
Table C.2 lists the NDP values for the Bulgarian National Annex, where they
differ from the CEN Default values listed in Table C.1.
Table C.2: Bulgaria NDP Values

EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 1.05
EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 1.05
42
Aluminum Frame Design Overwrites
C.3 Slovenia
The NDP values for the Slovenian National Annex are the same as the CEN
Default values listed in Table C.1.
C.4 United Kingdom

Table C.3 lists the NDP values for the United Kingdom National Annex, where
they differ from the CEN Default values listed in Table C.1.
Table C.3: United Kingdom NDP Values

EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 1.10
0.5 (wind load)
C.5 Norway
Table C.4 lists the NDP values for the Norwegian National Annex, where they
Table C.4: Norway NDP Values

EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 1.05
EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 1.05
43
C.6 Sweden
Table C.5 lists the NDP values for the Sweden National Annex, where they differ
from the CEN Default values listed in Table C.1.
Table C.5: Sweden NDP Values

EC0 6.4.3.2 Combination equation Eq. 6.10a/b
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 Class 1 = 0.83, Class 2 =
0.91, Class 3 = 1.0
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1.35𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 1.5𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑
0.3 (wind load)
C.7 Finland
Table C.6 lists the NDP values for the Finland National Annex, where they differ
Table C.6: Finland NDP Values

EC0 6.4.3.2 Combinations equation Eq. 6.10a/b
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 Class 1 = 0.9, Class 2 = 1.0,
Class 3 = 1.1
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1.35𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 0.9
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 1.5𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
C.8 Denmark
Table C.7 lists the NDP values for the Denmark National Annex, where they
Table C.7: Denmark NDP Values

EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 1.20
EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 1.35
EC0 6.4.3.2 Combination equation Eq. 6.10a/b
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 Class 1 = 0.9, Class 2 = 1.0,
Class 3 = 1.1
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1.2 / 1.0 (Eq. 6.10a /
6.10b)* 𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1.0 / 0.9 (Eq. 6.10a / 6.10b)
44
EC0 Table A1.2(B) 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 1.5𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

0.6 (wind load)
EC0 Table A1.1 Ψ2,i 0.2 (assumed
office/residential)
C.9 Portugal
The NDP values for the Portugal National Annex, are the same as the CEN
C.10 Germany
The NDP values for the German National Annex, are the same as the CEN
C.11 Singapore
Table C.10 lists the NDP values for the Singapore National Annex, where they
Table C.10: Singapore NDP Values

EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 1.1
C.12 Poland
Table C.11 lists the NDP values for the Poland National Annex, where they differ
Table C.11: Poland NDP Values

EC9 6.1(1) 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 1.1
45
46

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Aluminum Frame

ISO SAP010122M51 Rev. 0

Copyright  Computers and Structures, Inc., 1978-2022

No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any

Further information and copies of this documentation may be obtained from:

Computers and Structures, Inc.

info@csiamerica.com (for general information)

CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE INTO THE

THIS PRODUCT IS A PRACTICAL AND POWERFUL TOOL FOR STRUCTURAL

THE INFORMATION PRODUCED BY THE SOFTWARE MUST BE CHECKED BY

1.2 Axes Notation 2

1.3 Stress Check 2

2.1 Check Capability 3

2.2 Check Stations 3

2.3 Demand/Capacity Ratios 4

2.4 Design Load Combinations 4

2.5 Member Unsupported Lengths 5

2.6 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 7

2.7 Effective Length Factor (K) 8

3.2 Design Loading Combinations 15

3.3 Calculation of Nominal Strengths 16

3.3.4 Nominal Flexure Strength 26

3.4 Design of Members for Combined Forces 34

Appendix A P-Delta Effects 38

Appendix C Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) 42

 Reference to the EN 1999-1-1:2007 code is identified with the prefix “EC9.”

 Reference to the EN 1993-1-5:2007 code is identified with the prefix “EC3-5.”

1.2 Axes Notation

1.3 Stress Check

2.1 Check Capability

• Web crippling strength

• All strengths of welded members

2.2 Check Stations

2.3 Demand/Capacity Ratios

2.4 Design Load Combinations

2.5 Member Unsupported Lengths

Member Unsupported Lengths 5

Figure 2-2 Unsupported lengths l33 and l22

Member Unsupported Lengths 6

2.6 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements

Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 7

2.7 Effective Length Factor (K)

𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏

Effective Length Factor (K) 8

Effective Length Factor (K) 9

Effective Length Factor (K) 10

𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Effective cross-sectional area, mm2

𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 Gross cross-sectional area, mm2

𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 Net area of the cross-section, mm2

𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 Area of the web, mm2

𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 Shear area, mm2

𝑏𝑏 Width of the element of the section, mm

𝑏𝑏𝑤𝑤 Height of the web excluding the fillet radius, mm

𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , 𝐶𝐶3 Bending coefficient dependent on moment gradient used in

𝐷𝐷 Diameter to mid-thickness of pipes, mm

𝐸𝐸 Modulus of elasticity, N/mm2

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 Shear strength considering buckling, N/mm2

𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 Ultimate strength, N/mm2

𝑓𝑓0 Base yield strength, N/mm2