MODULE 1

UNDERSTANDING THE CURRICULUM

This module will enable you to explore significant pieces of literature and theories that will help
curriculum workers, teachers, and students to understand basic concepts like curriculum, types of
curriculum, curriculum foundations, and curriculum conceptions. At the end of this module, you
should be able to:
1. define curriculum;
2. differentiate the different types of curriculum;
3. discuss curriculum conceptions
4. identify the elements of a curriculum and
5. discuss different curriculum foundations

Lesson 1 Key Concepts of Curriculum

Guide
Guide Questions:
Questions:
1. What is a curriculum?
2. How does the prescriptive and descriptive concepts differ from defining the curriculum?
3. What are the different types of curriculum?
4. What are the characteristics of a good curriculum?

A. Curriculum Defined

It is important that curriculum workers have a common understanding of what curriculum is.
Their personal definition of curriculum defines the curriculum product that they will produce. Many
curriculum projects fail, and many curriculum researches appear vague because of an unclear
understanding of the field of curriculum. Here are some of the definitions of curriculum:
 Curriculum as a list of subjects. This definition suggest that curriculum is the “permanent” or
the traditional subjects offered in the school curriculum such as Mathematics, Language,
Science, Music, Arts and others.
 Curriculum as learning experiences. This definition includes students’ curricular and co –
curricular activities and the learning experiences they encounter inside or outside the school.
This definition includes the hidden curriculum or those things learned by the students as a
result of their experiences in the school with their peers, schoolmates, teachers, school staff,
or the values they learned from a school program. In short, it includes the school culture.

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  Curriculum as intended learning outcomes. This definition includes a list of learning
competencies or standards that students should learn in school.
 Curriculum as planned learning experiences. This includes documents specifying contents;
objectives or general ideas of what students should know in schools or in specific discipline.
 Curriculum as a discipline. Curriculum as a discipline has its own principles, theories and
practices.
 Curriculum as content or subject matter. This definition views curriculum as a series of topics
under each subject area.
B. Curriculum Conceptions
Curriculum workers have different ideas about curriculum and curriculum development
processes. They have different points of view about curriculum concerns, goals of what curriculum
should accomplish and how a curriculum should be designed and constructed. These explain the
presence of various curriculum orientations or conceptions:
1. Academic Rationist Conception – considered as the oldest among the curriculum
conceptions. It stresses the importance of different bodies of knowledge, known as disciplines
or subject areas, as the focus of the curriculum.
2. Cognitive Processes Conception – seeks to develop a repertoire of cognitive skills that are
applicable to a wide range of intellectual problems. The subject matters are instruments or
tools for developing these cognitive skills that are lasting in the lives of individuals.
3. Humanistic Conception –
4. Social Reconstructionist Conception - views the school or schooling as an agency for social
change. Hence, it stresses that curriculum should respond to the different needs, issues,
problems, and demands of the society.
5. Technological Conception – is preoccupied with the development of means to achieve
curriculum or educational goals. It views schooling as a complex system that can be analyzed
into its constituent components.
6. Eclectic Conception – is where curriculum workers find themselves aligning their ideas with
two or more curriculum conceptions. Hence, this curriculum conception reiterates the realities
in curriculum development that each of the curriculum conceptions is to be considered and is
influential to a certain extent in designing the curriculum.

C. Changing Concept of Curriculum

Ever since the term curriculum was added to educators’ vocabularies, it has seemed to convey
different meanings to many people. To come, curriculum has meant a specific course, while
others would say that curriculum consists of all the planned experiences that the school offers as

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part of its educational responsibility. Whereas perceptions of the term may vary, it must be
recognized that curriculum encompasses more than just a simple definition. Curriculum, however,
can be defined as prescriptive, descriptive or both.

Prescriptive vs. Descriptive

Curriculum can be both prescriptive and descriptive. Prescriptive Curriculum definitions

provide us with what “ought” to happen, and they more often than not take the form of a plan, an
intended program, or some kind of expert opinion about what needs to take place in the course of
study. However, Descriptive Curriculum goes beyond the prescriptive terms as they force
thought about the curriculum “not merely in terms of how things ought to be… but how things are
in real classrooms” Another term that could be used to define the descriptive curriculum in
experience. The experienced curriculum provides “glimpse” of the curriculum in action.

To understand the nature and extent of curriculum diversity, it is important at this point too
examine the perspective and descriptive definitions offered by some of the past and present
experts in the field.

Prescriptive Definitions of Curriculum

Date Author Definitions

Curriculum is continuous reconstruction, moving from the child’s
present experience out into that represented by the organized bodies
1902 John Dewey
of truth that we call studies… the various studies… are themselves
experience – they are that of the race
Curriculum is the entire range of experiences, both directed and
1918 Franklin Bobbit
undirected, concerned in unfolding the abilities of the individual.
The curriculum is a succession of experiences and enterprises
having a maximum life – likeness for the learner… giving the
1927 Harold Rugg
learner that development most helpful in meeting and controlling
life situations.
The curriculum is composed of all the experiences of children have
Hollis Caswell
under the guidance of teachers
1935 in Caswell &
Thus curriculum is considered as a field of study representing no
Campbell
strictly limited body of content, but rather a process or procedure
1957 Ralph Tyler The curriculum is all the learning experiences planned and directed

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 by the school to attain its educational goals.
Curriculum is a sequence of content units arranged in such a way
that the learning of each unit may be accomplished as a single act,
1967 Robert Gagne
provided the capabilities described by specified prior units (in the
sequence) have already been mastered by the learner
Curriculum is all planned learning outcomes for which the school is
James Popham
1970 responsible.. Curriculum refers to the desired consequences of
and Eva Baker
instruction.
Curriculum refers to a written plan outlining what students will be
J.I. McBrien taught (a course of study).
1997
and R. Brandt Curriculum may refer to all the courses offered at a given school, or
all the courses offered at a school in a particular area of study.
Indiana Curriculum means the planned interaction of pupils with
2010 Department of instructional content, materials, resources and processes for
Education evaluating the attainment.

Descriptive Definitions of Curriculum

Date Author Definitions
1935 Hollis Caswell & All the experiences children have under the guidance of teachers
Doak Campbell
1941 Thomas Hopkins Those learnings each child selects, accepts, and incorporates into
himself to act with, on, and upon in subsequent experiences.
1960 W.B. Ragan All experiences of the child for which the school accepts responsibly.
1987 Glen Hass The set of actual experiences and perceptions of the experiences that
each individual learner has of his or her program of education
1995 Daniel Tanner & The reconstruction of knowledge and experience that enables the
Laurel Tanner learner to grow in exercising intelligent control of subsequent
knowledge and experience.
2006 D.F. Brown All student school experiences relating to the improvement of skills
and strategies in thinking critically and creatively, solving problems,
working collaboratively with others, communicating well, writing
more effectively, reading more analytically and conducting research
to solve problems.

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 D. Different Types of Curriculum
Several curriculum scholars cited nine types of curriculum in their books depending on how
curriculum is used in various institutions.
Ideal or Recommended Curriculum
This refers to what scholars propose as the most appropriate curriculum for the learners. For
example, different professional organizations or various programs oof study in the different
universities may propose curriculum innovations or alternative curriculum content as a result of their
researches.
Curriculum standards recommended by professional organizations are examples of ideal
recommended curriculum. Many of these various curriculum standards are recommended by
professional organizations as alternative to the current contents of the curriculum. Standards are
products of their latest researches on the nature of the different disciplines and the developments in
various academic fields.
Intended, Official or Written Curriculum
This refers to the official curriculum embodied in approved state guides. It is the curriculum
prescribed by the government agencies, these are the prescribed courses from different government
agencies; the Department of Education (DepEd), the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and
the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). Examples of this types of
curriculum are:
 - The Kindergarten Curriculum Standards
 - The K – 12 Curriculum
 - CHED Curriculum for General Education (Memorandum Order No. 20 s. 2013)
 TESDA Modules and Competencies
Implemented Curriculum
This type of curriculum refers to the actual implementation of the curriculum or what teachers
in the school teach. In many cases, teachers, modify and improve their curriculum based on the needs
of the students or whenever there are new ideas in various disciplines that are important to teacher to
the students. Academic freedom among faculty members in college may also influence how
professors plan and implement their courses.
Achieved Curriculum or Learned Curriculum
This refers to the result of the curriculum or what students actually learned in school. The
achieved curriculum reveals whether the students learned and whether the schools are successful in
attaining their curriculum goals and objectives.
Tested Curriculum

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 This is a set of learning that is assessed in teacher – made classroom tests, curriculum –
referenced tests, and in standardized tests.
Entitlement Curriculum
It refers to what the people or the general society believed the learners should expect to learn
in the educational system for them to become good members of the society.
Supported Curriculum
This refers to the curriculum that is reflected on and shaped by the resources allocated to
support or deliver the official curriculum. This includes resources – textbooks , computers , audio –
visual materials which support & help in the implementation of the curriculum .
Null or Censored Curriculum
This refers too various curriculum contents or topics that must not to be taught to the students.
Hidden Curriculum
This refers to various skills, knowledge and attitudes that students learn in school as a result
of their interaction with other students, staff, and faculty members. Although the hidden curriculum is
not actually taught in formal classroom learning, it’s also true that the hidden curriculum can be a
product of the students’ schooling. The hidden curriculum is very powerful in developing the school
culture.
Assessed Curriculum is a curriculum that which is tested & evaluated.
Taught Curriculum is what teachers implement or deliver in the classrooms & schools

E. Characteristics of a Good Curriculum

From the above discussions of the works of the curriculum experts, it can be derived that the
nature of curriculum includes its inherent characteristics and features which makes it relevant and
usable in the society that uses it. As such, the points below tell us the characteristics of a good
curriculum:
1. The curriculum is continuously evolving. It evolves from one period to another, to the
present. For a curriculum to be effective, it must have continuous monitoring and evaluation.
Curriculum must adapt its educational activities and services to meet the needs of a modern
and dynamic community.
2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the people. A good curriculum reflects the needs
of the individual and the society as a whole. The curriculum is in proper shape in order to
meet the challenges of the times and make education more responsive to the clientele it
serves. We plan the curriculum with people.
3. The curriculum is democratically conceived. A good curriculum is developed through the
efforts of a group of individuals from different sectors in the society who are knowledgeable
about the interests, needs and resources of the learner and the society as a whole. It is the
product of many minds and energies.

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 4. The curriculum is the result of a long-term effort. A good curriculum is a product of llong
and tedious process. It takes a long period of time in the planning, management, evaluation,
and development of a good curriculum.
5. The curriculum is a complex of details. A good curriculum provides the proper instructional
equipment and meeting places that are often most conducive to learning. It includes the
student -teacher relationship, guidance and counseling program, health services, school and
community projects, library and laboratories and other school related work experiences.
6. The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter. Learning is
developmental. Classes and activities should be planned. A good curriculum provides
continuity of experiences.
7. The curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs of the community.
The curriculum is responsive to the needs of the community. The school offers its courses in
the improvement and realization of ongoing programs of the community. There is cooperative
efforts between the school and the community towards greater productivity.
8. The curriculum has educational quality. Quality education comes through the situation of
the individual’s intellectual and creative capacities for social welfare and development. It
helps the learner to become the best that he can possibly be. Further, curriculum support
system is secured to augment existing sources for its efficient and effective implementation.
9. The curriculum has administrative flexibility. A good curriculum must be ready to
incorporate change whenever necessary. The curriculum is open to revision and development
to meet the demands of globalization and the digital age

F. Elements of a Curriculum
In general, a curriculum has four important elements. These elements must be present in all
curriculum documents or before a document can be called curriculum. These four elements are
curriculum intent, content, learning experiences and evaluation.

Curriculum Intent

Content

Learning Experiennces

Evaluation

1. Curriculum intent – is the term used by Print (1993) to mean the direction that curriculum
developers wish to take as a result of participating in the curriculum. It includes the aims,
goals, and objectives found in any curriculum documents.

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  Aims – are the broad statements of social or educational expectations. It include what is
hoped to be achieved by the entire curriculum.
 Goals – are statements more specific than aims. Goals are general statements of what
concepts, skills, and values should be learned in the curriculum.
 Objectives – are specific learning outcomes. Objectives include what specific concepts, skills,
and values should be learned by the students. Usually, objectives are used in making
decisions or planning about instructions.
2. Learning Experiences – include all instructional strategies that are useful for the
implementation of the curriculum. These may appear in the form of activities, strategies,
methods, or approaches that are useful in implementing the curriculum or in teaching the
content.
3. Evaluation – includes the different ways and tools used for evaluating whether or not the
curriculum intents were realized. Evaluation tools are also used to evaluate the performance of
the learners after they have undergone the curriculum.

Hilda Taba (1962) observed that all curricula, no matter what design they have are composed of
certain elements.
 A curriculum usually contains a statement of aims and specific objectives.
 It indicates some selection and organization oof content
 It either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching, whether because the
objectives demand them or because the content organization requires them.
 It includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes.
Understanding the different elements of curriculum will help curriculum workers especially the
teachers in designing curriculum and in analyzing the different curriculum materials that are offered
to schools and students.

Check your Understanding

Answer the following questions comprehensively. See attached rubrics for scoring (Appendix A).
(20 points).
1. Define curriculum (5 points).
2. Differentiate the types of curriculum (10 points).
3. What is the importance of curriculum in school? (5 points).

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Lesson 2 Major Foundations of Curriculum
Guide Questions:

1. What are the major foundations of a curriculum?

2. What are the philosophical foundations of curriculum?
3. Who are the proponents of the philosophical foundations of curriculum?
4. What are the psychological foundations of curriculum?
5. Who are the proponents of the psychological foundations of curriculum?
6. What are the historical foundations of curriculum?
7. What are the sociological foundations of curriculum?
8. What is the importance of knowing the foundations of curriculum?
Foundations of Curriculum
Curriculum development scholars like Tyler (1949), Taba (1962), Eisner (1985), Saylor,
Alexander and Lewis (1981), Print (1993), Sowell (1996) and Tanner and Tanner (2007) generally
identified three categories of sources for curriculum foundations:
1. Studies of learners and learning theory (psychology);
2. Studies of life (sociology and anthropology)’
3. Studies of nature and value of knowledge (philosophy).
These curriculum sources or foundations influenced curriculum developers in framing
different curriculum conceptions and in developing curriculum.
Psychology as a discipline deals about understanding human behavior; hence it is important in
curriculum development. According to Print (1993), psychology can provide information in five
important areas:
1. Educational objectives
2. Student characteristics
3. Learning processes
4. Teaching methods
5. Evaluation procedures
Meanwhile, studies about society and culture – sociology and anthropology. respectively –
affect all curriculum processes. Sowell (1996) pointed out that knowledge about society and its
culture is important in selecting content of the curriculum. It provides a clear understanding of the
context in which the curriculum is developed. Studies about the society and culture help curriculum
workers in understanding several social and educational issues that affect curriculum processes and
education in general.

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 On the other hand, philosophy as a foundation helps curriculum workers in understanding the
nature of knowledge and what subjects or topics are worthwhile. This is very important in making
decisions about the contents of the curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins (1993) mentioned that
philosophy provides curriculum workers with a framework or base for organizing schools and
classrooms. It also provides educators with a framework for broad issues and tasks, such as
determining the goals of education, the content and its organization, the teaching and learning
processes.

Lesson 2.1 Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy is a systematic & logical explanation of the nature, existence, purpose and
relationships of things including human beings in the universe. It provides educators, teachers &
curriculum makers with framework for planning , implementing & evaluating curriculum in schools.
Branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics deals with the origin and essence of things, causes and end of things.
a. Cosmology deals with the origin and development of nature.
b. Teleology elucidates whether there is purpose in the universe.
c. Ontology deals with the existence /beginning
2. Epistemology deals with knowledge and with ways of knowing.
a. Agnoticism
It is doctrine which claims that it is impossible for one to attain knowledge of something.
b. Skepticism
Skeptism claims that any true knowledge is impossible or that all knowledge is uncertain.
c. A Posteriori
It is a reasoning that states experiences come first & knowledge afterwards. It believes that
knowledge come from experience.
d. A Priori claims that knowledge can be acquired through reasons alone.
3. Axiology deals with purpose and values.
a. Ethics deals with the morality of human action (good & evil, right / wrong ) .
b.Aesthetics is a science concerned with beauty & standards of tests and values especially in arts.
4. Logic is the art of correct thinking and correct reasoning.
a. Induction is an argumentation that deals from particular to general
b. Deduction is an argumentation that deals from general to particular
c. Syllogism is an argumentation in which a conclusion is derived from two propositions called
premises.
d. Dialectics is a means of discovering the truth by proceeding from an assertion or thesis to a
denial or antithesis and finally reconciling the two through a synthesis.

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Educational Philosophy
Philosophy provides educators, especially curriculum workers with a framework or
frameworks for organizing schools and classrooms. It helps them answer what schools are for, what
subjects are of value, how students learn, and what methods and materials to use. It provides them
with a framework for broad issues and tasks, such as determining the goals of education, the content
and its organization, the process of teaching and learning and in general what experiences and
activities they wish to stress in schools and classrooms.
1. Perennialism aims to educate the rational person, to cultivate the intellect.
Role of Education – teachers help students think with reason.
Focus in the Curriculum – classical subjects, literary analysis and curriculum is constant
Curriculum Trends:
 Use of great books & return to liberal arts.
 Allowing students to take electives such as vocational and life adjustment subjects
 At secondary and university level – perennialists were against reliance on textbooks and
lecture in communicating ideas. Emphasis is on teacher – guided seminars, where students
and teachers engage in dialogue and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance understanding great
ideas and concepts that have stood the test of time.
 Students should learn to learn and not to be evaluated.
 School should teach religious values and ethics. The difference between right and wrong
should be emphasized so that students will have definite rules that they must follow.
2. Essentialism aims to promote the intellectual growth of the individual & educate a competent
person.
Role of Education – the teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field
specialization
Focus in the Curriculum – Essential skills of the 3R’s & essential subjects of English ,
Natural Science , History , Mathematics, Literature & Foreign Language
Curriculum Trends:
 Excellence in education , back to “basics” & cultural literacy
 Disapprove of vocational , life – adjustment other courses with “watered down” academic
content.
 Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities and interests for both fast and
slow learners.
 Advocates of longer school day, a longer academic year and more challenging textbooks
 Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as means of evaluating
progress.

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  Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students learn to
respect authority in both school and society.
  is to equip students with common core or the "basic" of information and skills needed for
the promotion of citizenship.

3. Progressivism aims to promote democratic & social living

Role of Education – knowledge leads to growth & development of lifelong learners who actively
learn by doing by John Dewey
Focus in the Curriculum – subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative & interactive.
- students’ interest, human problems & affairs.
- Emphasize the study of the natural and social sciences
- Includes industrial arts and home economics.
Curriculum Trends:
 School reforms, relevant & contextualized curriculum, humanistic education
 Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological and social developments.

4. Reconstructionism aims to improve & reconstruct society. It is education for change.

Role of Education – teachers act as agents of change & reform in various educational projects
including research
Focus in the Curriculum – focus on present & future trends and issues of national & international
interests
Curriculum Trends:
 Equality of educational opportunities in education, assess to global education
 It was not enough to analyze, interpret and evaluate social problems but to take action to
bring about constructive change.
 Curriculum is based on social and economic issues as well as social service.
 Engage students in critical analysis of the local, national and international community.

5. Idealism stresses spiritual rather than physical fact or material value. It claims that education
must provide for the development of the mind of every person. To realize this , the school
must concentrate on the intellectual , moral and aesthetic development of the students, expect
teachers to be role models to their students of intellectual , moral , aesthetic and vocational
excellence and should teach by example. In idealism, each person’s mind must strive to
realize itself. Education is seen by the idealist as the means to an end.
Idealist educator:
 shows great concern for the moral & spiritual values in the society.

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  teaches self – control, creativity , social responsibility and regard.
 emphasizes the importance of rationality and the need for the cultivation of reason

6. Naturalism views the whole reality is nature. It regards scientific data as final. This is a
philosophical
generalization of science.
Naturalism believes:
a. Education must satisfy the inborn needs of the individual
It is the role of education to satisfy the basic needs of man as there are fundamental forces
within the individual that seek satisfaction.
b. Education is geared to the individual growth of each child
Each child follows a logical pattern of growth development and education must be attuned to
these natural patterns. Activities are reflected according to the developing maturity level of
individual.
c. Education is not simply mental in nature
It advocates the education of both minds and body. It encourages the development of moral
character, self – discipline & physical well-being.
d. Students educate themselves
It claims that education involves self – activity. Thus, activities are offered for exploratory
purpose & for the development of natural aesthetic & self – expressions
e. The teacher has an understanding of the laws of nature
Aware that the nature is responsible for differences therefore , each child has distinct learning
needs that require individual type of learning activities.

6. Pragmatism asserts that the test of truth lies in its practical consequences & that the purpose
of thinking is to arrive at a general purpose of conduct. It claims that society cannot fulfill an
educational task without an institution designed for this purpose. It also believes that the
learner is the center of the educational processes.
Pragmatism believes that:
 Education is life
 Education is the construction of human experience
 Education is growth
 Education is a social process
7. Existentialism put emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual. Accdg. to Soren
Kierkegard , human existence was marked off from all other kinds by a person’s power to

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 choose. It believes that the classroom should be a market of free ideas that would guarantee
complete individual freedom.

Check your Understanding

1. Based on the learned schools of thought, describe the following teachers: (5 pts each – See
Appendix A for the scoring rubric)
a. Idealist
b. Pragmatist
c. Progressivist
d. Existentialist
e. Naturalist
f. Reconstructionist
g. Progressivist
h. Perennialist
i. Essentialist

Lesson 2.2. Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Guide Questions:

1. Is studying human behavior as a teacher important? Why?

2. What are the different psychological school of thought?
3. How does the different psychological foundations of education be applied in the classroom?

Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche which means soul. It is a discipline
devoted to the study of behavior, mind and thought. Specifically, it deals with the study of mental
processes that determines a person’s behavior and thinking. When applied to teaching and learning, it
provides the basis for understanding how students learn and understand a body of knowledge. The
curriculum developer has to know how students’ learn and to take into consideration individual
differences when designing a curriculum. It is only when students learn and gain from the curriculum
will the curriculum be considered to be successful.

Different Psychological Schools of Thought

1. Behaviorism
2. Humanism

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 3. Constructivism
4. Cognitivism

A. Behaviorism

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory in Germany dedicated to scientific
study of human thought processes which is often used as the beginning pf modern psychology. His
approach to using experiments to studying the human mind moved psychology from the domain of
philosophy to the laboratory. The behaviorist approach in studying learning can be traced to thee
philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes, and Locke. They argued that behavior can be
conditioned by altering the environment. Motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by drives such
as hunger, rewards and punishment.

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea
that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the
environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions. The
following are the different foundations and proponents in educational psychology:

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning (Bell and Dog Experiment)

Ivan Pavlov investigated the capacity of animals to learn to new stimuli and connect them to
natural reflexes, allowing non – natural cues to elicit a natural reflex. He named his experiment as
Stimulus – Response Relationship which has the following factors:
1. Frequency of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus pairings
2. Timing of stimulus presentation
3. Similarities between one type of conditioned stimulus & another
Pavlov’s Observations:
1. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and
gradually strengthened. During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral
stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
2. Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has been conditioned.8 For example, if a dog has been
conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, the animal may also exhibit the same response
to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
4. Stimulus Discrimination

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 Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other
stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
5. Extinction – a process when the conditioned response could be eliminated gradually.

6. Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge even after a period of extinction.
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period
of lessened response.

Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of
learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that
behavior. For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet
as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a
result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light.

But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while
training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and
punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such as
classrooms or therapy sessions. It is where the organism is in the process of “operating” on the
environment. “Operating” which in ordinary terms means it is bouncing its world, doing what it does.
There is a special kind of stimulus that an organism encounters during operating has the effect of
increasing the operant which is called as the reinforcing stimulus (reinforcer).

The operant is the behavior occurring just before the reinforcer.

Shaping is the method of successive approximation
Averse Stimuli is the opposite of a reinforcing stimulus, something we might find unpleasant or
painful

Types of Behaviors
Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors

1. Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your
hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't
have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily.

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 2. Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may occur
spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then
influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and
the consequences of that action make up an important part of the learning process.

Components of Operant Conditioning

There are several key concepts in operant conditioning.
Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two
kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In
positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a
direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a
positive reinforcer.
Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the
display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something
considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but
stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition,
negatively reinforcing.

Examples of Negative Reinforcement

1. Removing strict parental controls on the internet or tv when a child proves herself responsible
enough to handle more mature content.
2. Allowing a child to go out without a chaperone when she stops pushing the boundaries of her
parents’ rules.
3. Removing responsibility for a household chore in order to reward a child for completing her
other chores to her parents’ satisfaction.

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.

Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an

unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is
an example of punishment by application.

17
 Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event
or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following
misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors
that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found that when and
how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition. In other
words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and
how old behaviors were modified.
Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant
conditioning processes:
1. Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs.
Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also
occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
2. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after
a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response
rate.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs
only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start
to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the
reinforcement has been delivered.
4. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing
behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow
extinction rates.
5. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described.
This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed.
This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning

Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one
another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between
behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Necessary Conditions for Effective Modeling

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 1. Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes
distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s
characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect
attention.
2. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental
images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
3. Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation
of reproduction.
4. Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional
behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the
reinforced model)

Edward Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead
to the development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning
depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the
consequences of our behavior.
Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in
which he used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning.

He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish
placed outside.  Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape.   The cats
experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish. Eventually they would
stumble upon the lever which opened the cage.  When it had escaped it was put in again, and once
more the time it took to escape was noted.  In successive trials the cats would learn that pressing the
lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly
quick at pressing the lever.

Laws of Learning:

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 1. Law of Effect
Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and weakened
when associated with an unpleasant feeling. It takes place properly when it results in satisfaction
and the learner derives pleasure out of it.
2. Law of Exercise
Things most often repeated are best remembered. Students do not learn complex tasks in a
single session.
3. Law of Readiness
Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn, and
they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning
4. Law of Primacy
Things learned first create a strong impression.
5. Law of Recency
Things most recently learned are best remembered.
6. Law of Intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more it is likely learned.
7. Law of Freedom
Thing freely learned are best learned. The greater the freedom enjoyed by the students in the
class, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by them.

Behaviorism in the Classroom

The following is a list of behaviorist principles applied in teaching and learning:
 Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviors and learning
 When learning factual material provides immediate and frequent feedback for complex and
difficult concepts.
 Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts.
 Break down complex task into smaller manageable sub skills
 Sequence materials to enhance understanding
 Model the behavior students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when necessary
 Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behavior
 State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and students
 Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will be given.

Check your Understanding

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 1. Cite and discuss 1 example of each of the given psychological theories that can be observed
in the classroom: (5 points each – See Appendix A for the scoring rubric)
a. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
b. B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
c. Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
d. Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

B. Cognitivism

Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or

intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop intellectually"
(Cognitivism) and is also known as cognitive development. The underlying concepts of cognitivism
involve how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves examining learning, memory,
problem solving skills, and intelligence. Cognitive theorists may want to understand how problem
solving changes throughout childhood, how cultural differences affect the way we view our own
academic achievements, language development, and much more. (Feldman, Cognitivism).

Cognitivism is a learning theory which deals with, in particular, how people perceive and
remember information, solve problems and ultimately learn. ... A key concept of cognitivism is that
learning constructs mental maps in the brain and learning process is the means by which these mental
structures are understood.

Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and
comprehension. These cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and
problem-solving. 1 These are higher-level functions of the brain and encompass language,
imagination, perception, and planning.

Cognitivism is Seen from Different Viewpoints

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Levels of Development

Jean Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a
mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded
cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the
environment. Piaget theorized that there are four stages of Cognitive Development.

1. Sensorimotor Period (birth to 2 years old)

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 The first is a sensorimotor stage. This stage typically lasts until a child is about two years old.
During the sensorimotor stage, a child explores the world through his senses: taste, touch, sight,
sound, and smell. Infants/ toddlers “think” with their eyes, ears, hands and other sensorimotor
equipment. A child’s cognitive system is limited to motor reflexes at birth, but the child builds on
these reflexes to develop more sophisticated procedures.
In this stage, children learn to generalize their activities to a wider range of situations and
coordinate them into increasingly lengthy chains of behavior
2. Preoperational Thought (2 to 6/7 years)
Children acquire representational skills in the area of mental imagery and especially language.
They are self – oriented and have an egocentric view. They can use these representational skills only
to view the world form their own perspective.
3. Concrete Operations (6/7 to 11 / 12 years)
Children are able to take into account another person’s point of view and consider more than
one perspective simultaneously, with their thought process being more logical, flexible, and organized
than in early childhood. They can also represent transformations and static situations. Although, they
can understand concrete problems but they are not able to consider all the logical possible outcomes.
They would have the ability to pass conservation (numerical), classification, seriation and spatial
reasoning tasks.
4. Formal Operations (11/12 to adult) The final stage of Piaget's theory is known as the formal
operational stage. The formal operational stage begins around age twelve and lasts
throughout our adult lives. During this stage we develop both logical and abstract thinking.
Our thought process is ever changing. They are capable of thinking, logically and abstractly.
They can also reason theoretically. The ultimate stage of development. Although children
would still have to revise their knowledge base, their way of thinking is powerful as it would
get.

For example, if you ask a four year old girl why she eat apples, she may say, "they're
yummy." Asking the same question to a twelve year old girl may get you a response such as, "they're
good for me" Asking a college student in a nutrition class why a person eats apples can lead to an
entire discussion on what foods you should eat and what they do for you. During each stage we gain
life experiences and increase our knowledge through them. Piaget also believed that a child who
hadn't completed certain developmental stages could not learn things from higher developmental
stages. For example, a child who has not learned language could not think logically.

Metacognition

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 This term was coined by John Flavell (1979-1987). It is awareness or analysis of one’s own
learning or thinking process. It is acquired knowledge about cognitive process. It is about
“Thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”.
Three Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowledge of Person Variables
Knowledge about how human beings
learn and process information.

Knowledge of Task Variables

Knowledge about the nature of task. It is
about knowing what exactly needs to be
accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the
kind of effort it will demand for you.
Knowledge of Strategy Variables
It involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic.
1. Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task at hand.
2.Meta-memory is your awareness of specific strategies that work best for you.

Omrod, includes the following in the practice of metacognition:

 Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities.
 Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of
time.
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not.
 Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
 Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material.
 Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension.
 Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to
ensure that a goal is met.

Cognitivism in the Classroom

The following is a list of cognitivist principles that may me practiced in the teaching and
learning of various subject area:
Gain the student’s attention
 Use cue to signal when you are ready to begin

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  Move around the room and use voice inflections (changing tone)
Bring to mind relevant prior learning
 Review previous day’s lesson
 Have a discussion about previously covered content
Point out important information
 Provide handouts
 Write on board or use transparencies
Present information in an organized manner
 Show aa logical sequence to concepts and skills
 Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
Show students how to categorize (chuck) related information
 Present information in categories
 Teach inductive reasoning
Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information
 Connect new information to something already known
 Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists
 Use mnemonic device
 Use mental imagery techniques such as keyword method
Provide repetition of learning
 Review of the previous lesson
 State important principles several time in different ways

C. Constructivism
Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or make
their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner’ (Elliott et al.,
2000, p. 256).
Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build new
knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior knowledge influences what new or
modified knowledge an individual will construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).

Jerome Bruner Theory of Instruction

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in
which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner
selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a

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cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and
organization to experiences and allows the individual to “go beyond the information given”.

4 Major Aspects of the Theory of Instruction

1. Predisposition towards learning
2. The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily
grasped by the students
3. The most effective sequences in which to present material
4. The nature and pacing of punishments & rewards
His view is : “Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying , generating ,
new proposition , and increasing the manipulation of information .”
Example:
This example is taken from Bruner (1973): “The concept of prime numbers appears to be
more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans
cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a
single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to
fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go
from this step to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a record sheet of quantities in
completed mutiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction
that can be visualized.”

Principles on Learning
 Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing
and able to learn (readiness).
 Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).
 Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond
the information given).

Lev Vygotsky’s Socio – Cultural Theory

Socio - Cultural Theory - Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued
that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive development. Piaget and Gesell believed
development stemmed directly from the child, and although Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic
development, he argued that it is the language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture that
elicit the highest level of cognitive thinking (Crain, 2005). He believed that the social interactions
with adults and more learned peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning. Without this

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interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far as their knowledge
would be based only on their own discoveries.

3 Aspects of Socio – Cultural Theory

1. More Knowledgeable Other (Mko)
2. Zone or Proximal Development (ZPD)
3. Scaffolding

More Knowledgeable Other (Mko)

It refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner,
with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. They must have (or be programmed with) more
knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

It is the distance between the students ability to perform a task under adult guidance and /or
with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently

Scaffolding
It refers to providing support and resources to help a child learn new skills, and then gradually
removing the support as the child improves. As the students develop skills in those areas, the
supports are gradually removed so the student can accomplish a task with no assistance.
Constructivism in the Classroom
1. Student autonomy and initiative re accepted and encouraged
2. High – level thinking is encouraged
3. Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and with each other
4. Students are engaged in experience that challenge hypotheses and encourage discussion
5. Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to include the
parts
6. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with experience.

Check your Understanding

Discuss the key concept of constructivism based on the following theories and cite 1 example
on each: (10 points each – See Appendix A for the scoring rubric).
1. Jerome Bruner’s Theory of Instruction
2. Lev Vygotsky’s Socio – Cultural Theory

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 D. Humanism
The humanistic learning theory was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and
James F. T. Bugental in the early 1900’s. Humanism was a response to the common educational
theories at the time, which were behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Abraham Maslow is considered
the father of the movement, with Carl Rogers and James F.T. Bugental adding to the psychology
later down the line.
This theory and approach in education takes root in humanistic psychology, with the key
concepts focusing on the idea that children are good at the core and that education should focus
on rational ways to teach the “whole” child. This theory states that the student is the authority on
how they learn, and that all of their needs should be met in order for them to learn well. For
example, a student who is hungry won’t have as much attention to give to learning. So schools
offer meals to students so that need is met, and they can focus on education. The humanistic
theory approach engages social skills, feelings, intellect, artistic skills, practical skills, and more
as part of their education. Self-esteem, goals, and full autonomy are key learning elements in the
humanistic learning theory.

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

At times it can be confusing to apply theory into the practical realities of a classroom. So,
let's talk specifics. Teachers may have a limited influence on your home lives. Though once you
enter our school, teachers have the opportunity to assess you and then work to adapt our instruction to
your needs. Below are the general stages in order and descriptions of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:

Are any of you entering the classroom without their Physiological needs met? Are you
getting all of their basic physical needs met? These basic needs include food, water, sleep, oxygen,
and warmth.

If all of you have these needs met, the next stage is Safety. How safe and secure does this
student feel in their home? What about in our school, and specifically in our classroom?

Do all of you have a feeling of Love & Belonging in our classroom? Does each one of you
feel that you belong to a group? Do you have strong relationships with their peers? The next stage is
Esteem. Do all of you feel good about themselves? Are the teachers giving powerful verbal feedback
to support your self-esteem? Do you believe that your peers think positively about you?

Maslow's final stage is Self-Actualization. In theory, if you have all of the previous stages
met, they can achieve and create at their full potential. Do teachers automatically assume that all of

27
you should be achieving at their full potential once they enter the classroom? We know that this is not
a reality, we just need to look at ourselves when we're impacted by any of the characteristics noted
above.

Carl Rogers’ Experiential Learning

Rogers distinguished two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and experiential

(significant). The former corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary or
multiplication tables and the latter refers to applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order
to repair a car. The key to the distinction is that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of
the learner. Rogers lists these qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement, self-initiated,
evaluated by learner, and pervasive effects on learner.

To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels
that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such
learning. This includes:
(1) setting a positive climate for learning,
(2) clarifying the purposes of the learner(s),
(3) organizing and making available learning resources,
(4) balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning, and
(5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.

Arthur Combs

Arthur Wright Combs (1912-1999) championed humanistic counseling and education. He

proposed a theory that incorporated humanistic values and cognitive factors. Effective and ineffective
teachers could be clearly discriminated on the basis of their perceptual organizations or belief
systems.

From these studies, it is apparent that good teaching is a product of attributes in five major areas:
1. Empathic qualities. Good teachers are phenomenologically oriented. They are keenly aware of the
perceptions of other people and use this understanding as the primary frame of reference for guiding
their own behavior.
2. Positive self-concept. Good teachers see themselves in essentially positive ways.
3. Beliefs about other people. Good teachers characteristically see other people in positive ways as
able, trustworthy, friendly, and so on.

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4. Open, facilitating purposes. The purposes of good teachers are primarily broad, facilitating, and
process-oriented.
5. Authenticity. Good teachers are essentially self-revealing and genuine. (p. 558)

Some examples of humanistic education in action include:

 Teachers can help students set learning goals at the beginning of the year, and then help
design pathways for students to reach their goals. Students are in charge of their learning, and
teachers can help steer them in the right direction.

 Teachers can create exciting and engaging learning opportunities. For example, teachers
trying to help students understand government can allow students to create their own
government in the classroom. Students will be excited about learning, as well as be in-charge
of how everything runs.

 Teachers can create a safe learning environment for students by having snacks, encouraging
students to use the bathroom and get water, and creating good relationships with students so
they will trust speaking to their teacher if there is an issue.

 Teachers can utilize journaling to help students focus on self-evaluation and their feelings as
part of learning. Using prompt questions can help students better understand their feelings and
progress in learning.

Check your Understanding

Discuss comprehensively the different humanistic views on education according to the

following: (5 pts each)
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
2. Carl Rogers' Experiential Learning
3. Arthur Combs

Lesson 2.3. Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Guide Questions:

1. How does the curriculum in our country evolve?

2. What are the changes that occurred in our country’s curriculum?

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 3. What is the impact of such changes in our educational system?

Key Periods in Educational History

Below are key periods in educational history from 7000 B.C. to AD 1600. Study the table
thoroughly. The notes should make you see that education and school are a function of society and
schools reflect the nature and character of society itself. What society considers important is what
education focuses on to preserve society.
Table 1. Points of Emphasis on Education in History
Key Periods in Educational History, 1000 BC to A.D. 1600
Historical Educational Curriculum Agents Influences on
Group or Period Goals Western
Education
Primitive To teach group Practical skills of Parents, tribal Emphasis on the
societies survival skills; to hunting, fishing, elders, and role of informal
7000 B.C.— cultivate group food gathering, priests education in
5000 B.C. cohesiveness stories, myths, transmission of
songs, poems, skills and values
dances
Greek To cultivate civic Athenian: reading, Athens: private Athens: The
1600 B.C.— responsibility and writing, teachers and concept of well-
300 B.C. identity with city- arithmetic, drama, schools; rounded, liberally
state; music, physical Sophists; educated person
education, philosophers
Athenian: to literature, poetry Sparta: The
develop well Sparta: military concept of
rounded person teachers, drill military state
Spartan: drill, sergeants
Spartan: to military songs and
develop soldiers tactics
and military
leaders
Roman To develop sense Reading, writing, Private schools Emphasis on
750 B.C.— civic arithmetic, Laws and teachers; ability to use
A.D. 450 responsibility for of Twelve Tables, schools of education for
republic and then law, philosophy rhetoric practical
empire; to administrative
develop skills; relating

30
 administrative education to civic
and military skills responsibility
Arabic To cultivate Reading, writing, Mosques; court Arabic numerals
A.D. 700— religious mathematics, schools and computation;
A.D. 1350 commitment to religious re-entry of
Islamic beliefs; to literature; classical materials
develop expertise scientific studies on science and
in mathematics, medicine
medicine, and
science
Medieval To develop Reading, writing, Parish, chantry, Establishing the
A.D. 500— religious arithmetic, liberal and cathedral structure, content,
A.D. 1400 commitment, arts; philosophy, schools; and organization
knowledge, and theology; crafts; universities; of the university
ritual; to re- military tactics apprenticeship; as a major
establish social and chivalry knighthood institution of
order; to prepare higher education;
persons for institutionalization
appropriate roles and preservation
of knowledge
Renaissance To cultivate a Latin, Greek, Classical An emphasis on
A.D. 1350— humanist who classical literature, humanist literary
A.D. 1500 was an expert in poetry, art educators and knowledge,
the Classics— schools such as excellence, and
Greek and Latin; lycée, style as expressed
to prepare gymnasium, in classical
courtiers for Latin grammar literature; a two-
service to school track system of
dynastic leaders schools
Reformation To cultivate a Reading, writing, Vernacular A commitment to
A.D. 1500— sense of arithmetic, elementary universal
A.D. 1600 commitment to a catechism, schools for the education to
particular religious concepts masses; provide literacy to
religious and ritual; Latin classical the masses; the
denomination; to and Greek; schools for the origins of school
cultivate general theology upper classes systems with
literacy supervision to

31
 ensure doctrinal
conformity

The History of the Philippine Educational System

Let us also see how the nature and character of the Philippine society are reflected in the
education process in different periods or Philippine history.
As you study the summary of the Philippine educational system, just remember this
sociological concept, which is the focus of this lesson – that education is a function of society and
as such what are taught in schools arise from the nature and character of society itself. What
society considers important is what schools teach. Be ready to answer this question at the end:
What was/were the focus/ foci of education or schools during the:
1) pre-colonial period,
2) Spanish period,
3) American regime,
4) Japanese occupation and
5) post- colonial period.

Education during the Pre- colonial period

Education was informed and unstructured, decentralized. This education basically prepared their
children to become good husband and wives.
 Fathers taught their sons how to look for food and other means of livelihood.
 Mothers taught their girls to do the household chores.
 Children were provided more vocational training but lesser academics.
 Teachers were tribal tutors (Babaylan or Katalonan).
Education During the Spanish Era
During the early years of Spanish colonization, education was mostly religion- oriented and
controlled by the Roman Catholic Church. It was formal and organized. It was authoritarian in nature.
 Tribal tutors of the pre-Spanish period were replaced by Spanish missionaries.
 Pupils attended formal schooling in the parochial school. Instruction was Religion-oriented.
 Christian doctrines, sacred songs and music and prayers were taught because they were
required for confession and communion.
 There was a separate school for boys and girls.
 Wealthy Filipinos or the ilustrados were accommodated in the schools.
The Educational Decree of 1863

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 This law gave Filipinos a complete system of education from elementary to the collegiate
level. The law provided for the establishment of the elementary schools in all municipalities in the
country.
 Although religion was the core of the curriculum, the curriculum included subjects:
- reading,
- writing,
- arithmetic,
- history
- Christian doctrine,
- Spanish language,
- vocal music,
- agriculture for the boys and
- needlework for the girls.
 Attendance in school was compulsory between ages of seven and twelve.
Education during the American Regime 1898- 1946
The Americans promoted democratic ideals and the democratic way of life. The schools
maintained by the Spaniards for more than three centuries were closed but were reopened on August
29, 1898 by the Secretary of the Interior.
 A system of free and compulsory elementary education was established by the Malolos
Constitution.
 University of the Philippines was found in 1908. UP was the first state school of university
status.
 Philippine Normal School was established
 Thomasites - group of professionals sent by the United State Government who were assigned
to teach English language
The Commonwealth Period (1935- 1942)
 Education focuses on moral character such as personal discipline, civic consciousness,
vocational efficiency, duties of citizenship, filipinization of education
 Adaptation of Tagalog as national language Executive Order No. 134 (of 1936) was signed by
Pres. Manuel L. Quezon
 Local dialect as the auxiliary medium of instruction (primary grades)
 Character education- separate subject
 Observance of patriotic calendar
 Preparatory military training 
 Adoption of double-single sessions in the primary grade with one teacher one class
assignment of intermediate teachers.

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 The Education Act of 1940 (C.A. 586) was approved by the Philippine Assembly on August
7, 1940, which provided for the following:
- Reduction of the 7-year elementary course to 6 years
- Fixing the school entrance age at 7
- National support for elementary education
- Compulsory attendance of primary children enrolled in Grade I

The Japanese Occupation

Japanese Era is concerned on the spread of New Asian Order. The aims of education during Japanese
occupation:
 Abolition of the English as a medium of instruction
 Censored and revised all textbooks
 Make the people understand the position of the Philippines as a member of the East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere

Post-colonial Philippines
- Education aimed at the full of realization of the democratic ideals and way of life.
- The Civil Service Eligibility of teachers was made permanent pursuant to R.A. 1079 in
June 15, 1954.
- A daily flag ceremony was made compulsory in all schools including the singing of the
National Anthem pursuant to R.A. 1265 approved on June 11, 1955.
- Curricular offerings in all schools, the life, the works and writings of Jose Rizal especially
the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo shall be included in all levels.
- Elementary education was nationalized and matriculation fees were abolished.
- Magna Carta for Teachers was passed into law by virtue of R.A. 4670
New Society
During the 1970’s, the Marcos Administration, through its efforts of making the Philippines
“great again”, mandated that the teaching of subjects:
 Sciences - English
 Liberal Arts – Filipino
Philippine Republic
 restore Grade VII, double-single session was abolished and more textbooks were written by
Filipino authors.
Other Developments
- Integration of values in all learning areas
- Emphasis on mastery learning

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- YDT and CAT introduced as new courses Media of Instruction- Bilingual Education
Policy: Mandates the use of English and Filipino separately as media of instruction in
schools.
- Education Act of 1982- created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports.
- NCEE- National College Entrance Examination introduced
- Executive Order No. 117 – President Corazon C. Aquino renamed Ministry of
Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) in 1987.
- Creation of Board of Professional Teachers composed of 5 under PRC
- Replacement of PBET (Professional Board Examination for Teachers) by LET (Licensure
Examination for Teachers)
- Transfer of authority of administering the LET from CSC and DECS to the Board of
Professional Teachers under PRC
- Trifocalization of Education System
- The trifocal education system refocused DECS’ mandate to basic education which covers
elementary, secondary and nonformal education, including culture and sports. TESDA
training and development R.A. 7796- Technical Education and Skills Development Act of
1994.
- CHED is responsible for higher education. R.A. 7722- Higher Education Act of 1994
- In August 2001, Republic Act 9155, otherwise called the Governance of Basic Education
Act, was passed transforming the name of the Department of Education, Culture and
Sports (DECS) to the Department of Education (DepEd) and redefining the role of field
offices (regional offices, division offices, district offices ad schools). RA 9155 provide
the overall framework for (i) school head empowerment by strengthening their leadership
roles and (ii) school- based management within the context of transparency and local
accountability. The goal of basic education is to provide the school age population and
young adults with skills, knowledge, and values to become caring, self- reliant,
productive and patriotic citizens.
- Governance of Basic Education Act (R.A. 9155); was passed renaming DECS to DepEd
and redefining the role of field offices which include the regional offices, division offices,
district offices and schools.
- Values Education is offered as a separate subject in NSEC and integrated in all subject
areas in both curricula- Implementation of New Secondary Education Curriculum
(NSEC).
- R.A. 10157, Jan 20, 2012 – Kindergarten Act, an act institutionalizing the kindergarten
education into the basic education system.

35
 - K to 12 Program (R.A. 10533), May 15, 2013 – The K to 12 Program covers
Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six years of primary education, four years
of Junior High School, and two years of Senior High School [SHS]) to provide sufficient
time for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates
for tertiary education, middle- level skills and development, employment, and
entrepreneurship.
Check your Understanding

Discuss comprehensively (20 points – See Appendix A for the scoring rrubric).
1. What is the importance of studying the historical perspectives of the curriculum as a future
educator? (10 points)
2. How does the historical foundations of curriculum create an impact on our current curriculum
today? (10 points)

Lesson 2.4. Sociological Foundation of Curriculum

Guide Questions:

1. How does the society affect the curriculum?

2. What is the relationship of sociology and education?
3. What are the sociological aspects of education?

The man is born in society and has to develop his personality in the society. According to
Ross "Individuality is of one value and personality is a meaningless apart from social environment. In
the social environment individual interact with forces which influences him and he also influence the
society. An individual can learn very little by himself. In his learning, society contribute very
significantly.
Man lives in the society, acquires socialization through his contact with family, his
relatives ,friends. He learns basic things with mutual behavior through this contact. If individual is left
alone without any companions and society then his learning will not take place, therefore for
education the presence of other people, means society is very necessary.
Society is a general body of people, communities or nations constituting civilized mankind. It
is a body of processes associated with one another for common objectives. Therefore, curriculum
should be designed in light of the main trends and development of society. Any curriculum worth of
it’s safe should try to reflect the cultural and social needs of that particular society. Culture is simply
the way people live including their intellectual, discipline, dressing and training. Therefore,
curriculum developers should look into moral and artistic development of its society [Taba 1962].

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 Education and society are interdependent and complimentary to each other. No educational
system can be understood without looking at the canvass of society. Society can never progress
without the sound system of education. Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. It
influences society through its curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape
and mold society and society in turn can impact the curriculum.
The sociological foundation of the school curriculum affects the development of the
curriculum in the sense that there are certain factors which intervene in the curriculum development
process due to cultural beliefs, societal expectations, values, norms and traditions emanating from the
background of stakeholders.

Meaning of Sociology
Sociology can be defined as the study of man and his environment in their relation with each
other. In 1837 French philosopher Auguste Comte first coin the word sociology. By sociology, he
meant the application of scientific method in the study of the relationship between the society and
individual.
1) E.T.Hiller: "Sociology is the study of relations between individuals, their conduct and
reference to one another and standard by which they regulate their association.
2) Moor and Cole :" Sociology studies plural behaviour". By plural is meant that behavior of
individuals which is performed in relation to other individuals.
3) Max Weber: Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of
social actions.
4) According to Duncan :-“ Sociology is the scientific study of the processes of interactions of
Persons”.
5) E.Durkheim expain :“sociology as the science of collective representation”

From above we can say that sociology is concerned with human relationships, Thus
Sociology may be roughly defined as a systematic study of the individual and society in an inter -
acting and inter-learning relationship with each other. It is the study of social relationships. It studies
the human behavior in groups, the social structure and social phenomenon. In the study of sociology
different interactions are involved.

Meaning, Nature of Educational Sociology

A man is social animal and live in society and society is made up of network of human
relationships. Their style of living, idea, attitudes are similar. Sociology is a science that studies the
relationship of men and their environment. Educational sociology is one of the branches of sociology .
It tries to tell the meaning of education through the sociological point of view.

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Education as a Social System:
The education system is composed of many distinct sub-system or parts, each with their own
goals. Together these parts makeup a functioning whole. Each part is dependent on the other for
smooth functioning.
Willard Waller gives five reasons for education to be regarded as social system:
• In education, different personnel are working, who contributes towards educational goals.
• Education has a social structure as the result of social interaction within the school.
• It has bound by strong social relationship.
• It is bound by a feeling of belonging
• It possesses its own culture, tradition, and way of doing things.

Education helps in transmitting folkways, more institutional patterns in social organization.

Thus, we can say that an education in school is a social system. It has a close relationship with the
environment and they complement each other. Education in school prepare students with living skills ,
knowledge and expertise necessary for the society .The education is provided with resources ,building
and personnel (parents ,teachers ,students) in order to functioning.

Society and Curriculum

According to educational sociology, Curriculum is organized so that it may help in
achievement of social aims. The social progress of the society and the nation depends upon the
curriculum in the schools and colleges. Due to this reason, the sociologist consider it is essential to
organize the curriculum carefully and properly. In the word of eminent educationist, "Education is not
to be confined to the study of a few subjects alone is to be present any epitomized study of the
diversified social life.
Following sociological principles should be kept in view while construction curriculum

• The curriculum should be such that it helps in achievement of the social aim of education.
• The curriculum should be chosen on the basis of the problems and the needs of society. But it
should also pay the attention to the real problems and interest of the pupils.
• Curriculum should be so organized and its relationship with instructional methods should be
such that the curriculum becomes effective medium to keep a control over society.
• Through curriculum the cultural values should be brought to light and through it the high
ideals of the society should be transmitted to the new generation.
• The curriculum should be such that it develops an attitude of respect to all vocations It should
develop a sense of dignity of labour among students.
• The stress should be on a futuristic social change rather than bringing immediate change in
individuals behaviour.

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• The curriculum should be dynamic flexible and changing in nature.
• The curriculum should able to develop a problem solving attitude among the students .they
should understand and solve the problem independently.
• There should be provision of social programs for participation in social life
• The curriculum should be flexible and changeable .It should change continuously according
to changing social objectives.
• Curriculum planning should be based on the problems and need of society on the immediate
concerns, problems and interest of pupils.
• The curriculum should reflect the basic cultural values of the society and should be an agent
in the transmission of the highest values.
• Curriculum should include subjects like music, art, vocational subjects,physical education,
language,physical sciences as well as biological sciences.

Relation of Education with Society

The relation of Education with society and culture is very deep. Both are dependent on each
other. The relationship between education and society has been summed up by the international
commission on the development of education (1972) as, " In our view, there is a close correlation
between changes, in the socio-economic-environment and the structures and forms of action of
education, which we believe makes a functional contribution to historical movement. Moreover it
seems to us that through the knowledge it provides of the environment in which it operates, education
may help society to become aware of its problems."
1. Education is an instrument of social and cultural change. It can impart knowledge, training
and skills as well as inculcate new ideas and attitudes among the young. On the other hand, it
is culture and society in which education germinates flowers. It is the culture also upon which
education exerts in turn, a nourishing influence.
2. The most important function of education is socialization. The people have no knowledge
about the culture of their society. They must learn them and they must learn the way which
their society is functioning. Hence the children as they grow up must be introduced into the
culture which they are going to face.
Society therefore, consciously devices its instructional programs to fulfil personal and
social needs rather than leaving the learning to change. Education provides a conscious teaching
program to inculcate values, norms and social skills that will fit the individuals for their adult role
in society. Society creates educational institutions such as school and colleges to perform certain
functions in accomplishing this general end.
3. Man becomes a “human being" only as a member of society. By nature he cannot live alone.
According to Samuel Koening, Education may also be defined as the process whereby the
social heritage of a group is passed on from one generation to another as well as the process

39
 whereby the child becomes socialised, i.e learns the rules of behaviour of the group into
which he is born.
4. Society is a group of people who coexist in organized manners. The term 'social' refers to the
interactions and relations that take place between people. Therefore, to live within society is
to be social. Society includes all aspects of life that people choose to share, work, home, life,
religion, school and politics are all aspects of society. Groups of people who organize their
time around these things are called communities may be exclusive societies as well as part of
a larger society.

Social Functions of Education

Education as social institution plays a vital role in our society. The function of education is
multidimensional within the school system and outside it. It performs the function of socializing the
individual for a variety of social roles and development of personality.
1. Socialization:
The most important function of education is socialization. The people have no knowledge
about the culture of their society. They must learn them and they must learn the way which their
society is functioning.
Though people learn a great deal from their parents or in clubs and among groups of friends
they learn more of the culture of their society through educational system. Through education, the
child is able to develop reasoning in social relations, cultivates social virtues and thus becomes
socially efficient as says Dewey. When he speaks about social efficiency, and he calls of it
“Socialization of individual." Thus, education may be only part of the process of socialization, but it
is a very important part.

Agents of Child Socialization

a. Family: For children, the process of socialization begins in the family. Family is the first
source through which child commence their social communication. Things such as
competition, conflict and co-operation as well as the concept of hierarchy and egalitarianism
can be learned and combined through a peer group.
b. School: Children spend about seven to eight hours in school. So school bears an important
and lifelong impact on their socialization process. In school, children belonging to different
families read together, interact various patterns and imbibe various tradition of society.
Besides this their participation in educational and social functions of the school also
inculcates in children, social qualities, attitudes habits and patterns of behaviour which brings
about their socialization.

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 c. Religion: It is the most powerful agents of socialization of a child. Each religion has its
specific virtues, rituals, dogma and cosmologies. As the child interacts belonging to his own
religion and people having faith in other religions, this interaction inculcates in him
sympathy, Cooperation, respect for the sentiment of others, fellow feeling attitude of
adjustment leading to socialization in the true sense of the term.
d. Mass Media: These are methods of communication that direct message and entertainment at a
wide audience. News paper, magazines television, radio, the internet and movies are all forms
mass media. Numerous sociological studies attest to the profound influence of mass media on
socialization of children.
e. Games and sports: Every child is fond of play. There is more effective interaction in games
and sports than is organised teaching in a class. When child plays, they inculcate various
social qualities namely-sympathy, cooperation, fellow-felling, selfless service, scarifies, team
spirit and many other socially desirable values develop in children to make their socialization
more effective and purposeful.

As the child grows older, he learns number of socially desirable qualities namely love,
sympathy, tolerance and cooperation etc. Therefore, it is vital how parents treat their children and also
how parents behave in front of them, because it is through these interactions that a child will perceive
and develop a sense of self. There is no denying fact that family is the fountain head of the
socialization process.
f. Peer Groups: After the family, peer groups are like a wider and enlarged family. A peer
group is a group of people of approximately the same age, sharing similar interests and
probably belonging to similar background. Peer groups of a child may include his school
mates, his friends at the sports club and the children staying in his neighborhood. Even
through, all these groups are different he may mingle with them every single day. It enables a
child to engage in experiences, which he/she would otherwise never experience within his/her
family.

2. Development of Personality:
Education plays an important role in the development of personality. The objective of as said
Durkheim “is to awaken and develop in the child those physical intellectual and moral states which
are required of him both by his society as a whole and by the milieu for which he is specially
designed”. Education helps the development of the qualities of an individual, such as physical, mental
and emotional make-up as well as his temperament and character.
The self, the core of personality, develops out of the child's interaction with other.
Subsequently, the habits, traits, altitudes and ideals of an individual is patterned by the process of

41
education. A learner's personality is encouraged to form his own attitudes and values by studying
outstanding people in history and literature.

3. Social Control:
Education plays a vital role in regulating individual behaviors through transmitting a
way of life and communicating ideas and values to the new generation. Boltomore says, one
way that education contributes to the regulations of social conduct, " is in the early
socialization of the child”: In order to transmit its social heritage and survive as a social order
all societies develop educational system to train its younger generations. Through the process
of education society, regulates the behaviours of its members and enforces conformity to its
norms.
“Education in a broad sense" as says Boltomore, “From infancy to childhood, is thus a vital means of
social control." Formal Education in modern societies Communicate ideas and values which play a
part in regulating behaviour. The new generations are instructed to observe the social norms the
violation of which may invite punishment.

4. Social Integration:
Education, by imparting values, also integrates people into the broader society. The
curriculum of the school, its 'extra curricular' activities and the informal relationship among
student and teachers communicate certain values and social skills such as corporation team-
spirit obedience fair play.

5. Determination of Status:
Determination of status of an individual is an important function of education.
Amount of education is a good indicator of socio-economic status, from lower working class
to upper class, education leads to economic opportunity. It is through education, young people
secure higher status jobs than their parents, with higher incomes they come to associate with
the persons of higher status, and thus, education provides the channel to better socioeconomic
status.

6. Provides Route for Social Mobility:

Educational qualifications increasingly form the basis for the allocation of individuals
to social status and social mobility. There has been steady move from one status to other due
to educational attainment. The educational system is expected to provide opportunity for
social and economic mobility by selecting and training in lower ones.

7. Social Development:

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 Skills and values learned in education are directly related to the way to which the economy
and the occupational structure operate. Education trains the individuals in skills that are required by
the economy. In modern planned economy, the output of skilled people must be consciously geared to
the economic and social parties of the society. That explains the vital role of education in social
development

Check your Understanding

1. Discuss how education and society are interdependent and complimentary to each other? (5
points).
2. Cite and discuss an example on each agent of socialization (5 points each).

References:
Ackerman, R & Mackenzie, S (2006). Uncovering teacher leadership. Educational Leadership, 63(8),
66-70
Ornstein, A. C. & Hunkins, F.P. (2009). Curriculum foundations, principles and issues (5 th ed.),
Boston, MA: Pearson
Pollack, J. (2007). Improving student learning one at a time. Arlington. VA: Association of
Superviision and Curriculum Development.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863
https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
https://www.academia.edu/28590402/
Philosophical_Psychological_and_Socio_Historical_Foundations_of_Education_Educ201A_Compila
tion_of_Reports_of_the_Students_in_Master_of_Arts_in_Education_
https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794859

Learning Activities
Lesson 1 Key Concepts of Curriculum
Check Your Understanding

43
 Answer the following questions comprehensively. See attached rubrics for scoring (Appendix A).
(20 points).

1. Define curriculum (5 points).

2. Differentiate the types of curriculum (10 points).

3. What is the importance of curriculum in school? (5 points).

Lesson 2 Major Foundations of Curriculum

Lesson 2.1. Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum

Check Your Understanding

1. Based on the learned schools of thought, describe the following teachers: (5 pts each – See
Appendix A for the scoring rubric)
a. Idealist
b. Pragmatist
c. Progressivist
d. Existentialist
e. Naturalist
f. Reconstructionist
g. Progressivist
h. Perennialist
i. Essentialist
Lesson 2.2. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Check Your Understanding

Discuss comprehensively the different humanistic views on education according to the
following: (5 pts each)
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
2. Carl Rogers' Experiential Learning
3. Arthur Combs

Lesson 2.3. Historical Foundation of Curriculum

44
Check Your Understanding
Discuss comprehensively (20 points – See Appendix A for the scoring rrubric).

1. What is the importance of studying the historical perspectives of the curriculum as a future
educator? (10 points)
2. How does the historical foundations of curriculum create an impact on our current curriculum
today? (10 points)

Lesson 2.4. Sociological Foundation of Curriculum

1. Discuss how education and society are interdependent and complimentary to each other? (5
points).
2. Cite and discuss an example on each agent of socialization (5 points each).

Assessment:

Lesson 1: Key Concepts of Curriculum

Identification. Write the correct answer on the blank provided before each number. (1 point each)
(20 points).

_____________1. It refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in
society as well.
_____________2. It was recently formulated became the anchor of reforms in education from the
basic to higher education.
_____________3. It is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to
learn.
_____________4. He views curriculum as “permanent studies” ( grammar, reading, rhetoric & logic
& mathematics)
_____________5. An essentialist who believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual
training.
_____________6. It is the sole source of curriculum according to Joseph Schwab
_____________7. It is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual which is anchored on
John Dewey’s definition of experience & education.
_____________8.- 9. They viewed curriculum as “ all experiences children have under the guidance
of teachers” .
_____________10-11 They view curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are
planned & enacted by the teacher & also learned by the students.
_____________12. It is the advance arrangement of learning opportunities for a particular population
of learners.
_____________13.It is a written curriculum plan
_____________14.It is the process whereby these arrangements of curriculum plans or learning
opportunities are created.
_______________15. It is defined as the process of selecting, organizing,executing & evaluating
learning experiences on the basis of needs , abilities , interests of learners & the nature of the society

45
_______________16. A place or workshop where curriculum materials are gathered or used by
teachers or learners of curriculum
_______________17. An official guide prepared for use by the administrators , supervisors &
teachers of a particular school
_______________18. A type of curriculum which is proposed by scholars & professionals
_______________19. A curriculum which appears in school, district , division or country documents.
_______________20. A type of curriculum what teachers implement or deliver in the classrooms &
schools

Lesson 2.1. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Identification. Write the correct answer on the blank provided. (1 point each) (25 points).

_______________1.It is a systematic & logical explanation of the nature , existence , purpose and
relationships of things including human beings in the universe.
_______________2.It deals with the origin and essence of things ,causes and end of things.
_______________3.It deals with the origin and development of nature.
_______________4.It elucidates whether there is purpose in the universe.
_______________5. It deals with the existence /beginning
_______________6.It deals with knowledge and with ways of knowing.
_______________7. It states that any true knowledge is impossible or that all knowledge is uncertain.
_______________8. It believes that knowledge can be acquired through reasons alone.
_______________9. A doctrine which claims that it is impossible for one to attain knowledge of
something.
_______________10. It is the art of correct thinking and correct reasoning.
_______________11. It is a means of discovering the truth by proceeding from an assertion or thesis
to a denial or antithesis and finally reconciling the two through a synthesis.
_______________12. Its aim is to educate the rational person , to cultivate the intellect .
_______________13. A philosophy that promotes the intellectual growth of the individual & educate
a competent person.
_______________14.A philosophy that aims to promote democratic & social living
_______________15.It aims to improve & reconstruct society Education for change
_______________16.It stresses spiritual rather than physical fact or material value .
_______________17. They show great concern for the moral & spiritual values in the society
_______________18. It regards the whole reality is nature and scientific data as final
_______________19. It asserts that the test of truth lies in its practical consequences & that the
purpose of thinking is to arrive at a general purpose of conduct
_______________20. A philosophy that put emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual
21. In idealism, teachers should teach by ___________________.
22.Perennialist teachers help students to think with ___________________.
_______________23. He is the proponent of progressivism.

46
24. Naturalist teachers serve as ___________________ in the intellectual person.
25. Reconstructionist educators are agents of _________________.

Lesson 2.2. Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

47