Material Testing Lab Manual

Material Testing Lab. Manual Dept. of Mechanical Engg., B.I.
BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Mechanical Engineering
K. R. Road, V. V. Pura, Bangalore 560 004
LABORATORY MANUAL
MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY
Prepared By
Mr. Chetan Byrappa
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Lab Instructor
Mr. R. Narayan Swamy
Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Material Testing Lab. Manual Dept. of Mechanical Engg., B.I.T
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANGALORE 560 004
Certificate
Certificate that this is the bonafied record of work done in second year
Material Testing Laboratory prescribed by the Visveswaraya Technological
University for the . semester B.E. in the year.
Reference: Name of the Candidate ...

U. S. N: .
Batch No. ..
Signature of the Staff in charge

(Name: )
Date: . Signature of Head of the Department

MATERIALS TESTING LAB

[As Per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) Scheme]
Subject Code:15MEL37A/47A Number of Lecture Hrs / Week :01

IA Marks: 20 No of Practical Hours / Week :03
Exam Marks: 80 Exam Hours: 03
PART A
1. Preparation of specimen for Metallographic examination of different engineering materials. To report

microstructures of plain carbon steel, tool steel, gray C.I, SG iron, Brass, Bronze & composites.
2. Heat treatment: Annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering of steel. Metallographic specimens
of heat treated components to be supplied and students should report microstructures of furnace cooled,
water cooled, air cooled, tempered steel. Students should be able to distinguish the phase changes in a
heat-treated specimen compared to untreated specimen.
3. Brinell, Rockwell and Vickerss Hardness tests on untreated and heat-treated specimens.
4. To study the defects of Cast and Welded components using Non-destructive tests like: a) Ultrasonic
flaw detection b) Magnetic crack detection c) Dye penetration testing.
PART B
5. Tensile, shear and compression tests of steel, aluminum and cast-iron specimens using Universal
testing machine
6. Torsion Test on mild steel bar.
7. Bending Test on steel and wood specimens.
8. Izod and Charpy Tests on mild steel and aluminum specimen.
9. To study the wear characteristics of ferrous and non-ferrous materials under different parameters.
10. Fatigue Test (demonstration only).
Scheme of Examination:
ONE question from part -A: 25 Marks
ONE question from part -B: 40 Marks
Viva -Voice: 15 Marks
Total: 80 Marks

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY
List of Experiments:
Sl Page
Title
no no
1 Metallography or Microscopy 6
2 Wear Test 11
3 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) 16
4 Dye Penetrant Test (DPT) 19
5 Heat Treatment of Metals 21
6 Rockwell Hardness Test 23
7 Brinell Hardness Test 26
8 Vickers Hardness Test 28
9 Impact Test 30
10 Tensile Test 37
11 Compression Test 44
12 Shear Test 51
13 Bending Test 54
14 Torsion Test 59

MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY

GENERAL INSTRUCTION
The following instructions should be strictly followed by the students in the laboratory.
1. All the students are expected to come to the lab, with shoe, uniform etc., whenever they come for the
laboratory class.
2. For each lab class, all the students are expected to come with observation note book, record note book,
pencil, eraser, sharpener, scale, divider, graph sheets etc.
3. While coming to each laboratory class, students are expected to come with the observation book for the
class.
4. All the students are expected to complete their laboratory work including calculations and get it
corrected in the laboratory class itself.
5. All the equipments, tools, accessories are expensive. Therefore, students are expected to handle the
instruments with utmost care during the experiment.
6. The tools and accessories required for conducting the experiments can be obtained from the
Instructor/technician and the same should be returned as soon as the experiment over.
7. Breakage amount will be collected from the student(S) for causing damage to the instruments /
equipments due to wrong operation or carelessness.

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
METALLOGRAPHY OR MICROSCOPY
It consists of microscopic study of the structural characteristics of a metal or an alloy. It includes
the study of the microstructure of metals, the space arrangement of the atoms, heat treatment and
examination by X-rays.
METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE:
It is the most important tool of the metallurgist from both the scientific and technical standpoints.
It is possible to determine the grain size and the size, shape and distribution of various phases and
inclusions which have a great effect on the mechanical properties of the metal. The microstructure will
reveal the mechanical and thermal treatment of the metal, and it may be possible to predict its expected
behavior under a given set of conditions.
In comparison with biological type, the metallurgical Microscope differs in the manner by which
the specimen is illuminated. Since the metallographic sample is opaque to light, the sample must be
illuminated by reflected light.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
A horizontal beam of light from some light source is reflected, by means of a plane glass reflector,
downward through the microscope objective onto the surface of the specimen. Some of this incident light
reflected from the specimen surface will be magnified in passing through the lower lens system, the
objective, and will continue upward through the plane glass reflector and be magnified again by the upper
lens system, the eye piece. The initial magnifying power of the objective and the eyepiece is usually
engraved on the lens mount. When a particular combination of the object and eye piece is used at the
proper tube length, the total magnification is equal to the product of the magnification of the objective and
the eye piece.
The maximum magnification obtained about 2000X. The principal limitation is the wavelength of
visible light, which limits the resolution of fine details in the metallographic specimen.

ELECTRON & LIGHT MICROSCOPES:

The greatest advance in resolving power was obtained by the Electron Microscope. Under certain
circumstances, high-velocity electrons behave like light of very short wave length. The electron beam has
associated with it a wavelength nearly 100000 times smaller than the wavelength of visible light, thus
increasing the resolving power tremendously.
The lenses of Electron Microscope have powerful magnetic fields of the coils, and the image is
brought into focus by changing the field strength of the coils while the coils remain in a fixed position.
Since metallographic specimens are opaque to an electron beam, it is necessary to prepare a thin
replica of the surface to be studied. The specimen is polished and etched by following normal
metallographic practice. It is then placed on a hot plate with small pellet of suitable plastic on the etched
surface. As the temperature rises, the plastic begins to flow and pressure is applied to ensure intimate
contact between the plastic and surface. After cooling the replica is carefully peeled -off. The disk is then
placed over the opening in the specimen holder, which is inserted in the column of the instrument.
The electrons emitted by a hot tungsten filament cathode are accelerated, to form a high-velocity
beam, by the anode. This beam is concentrated on the replica by the condensing lens. Depending upon the
density and the thickness of the replica at each point, some of the electrons are absorbed or scattered while
the remainder passes through. The magnetic field of the objective lens focuses and enlarges the electron
beam that has passed through the replica. Some of the electrons in this image are brought into a second
focus on a fluorescent screen by the projector lens. It has magnification range of 1400 to 32000 X which
may be extended to 200000X with accessory lenses.
Although in principle, the Electron Microscope is similar to the Light Microscope; its appearance
is very much different. It is much larger because of the highly regulated power supplies that ay needed to
produce and control the electron beam. The entire system must be kept pumped to a high vacuum since
air would interfere with the motion of the electrons.

STEPS INVOLVED FOR PREPARATION OF A METALLOGRAPHIC SPECIMEN:
1. Sampling: The choice of a sample may be very important. If a failure is to be investigated, the
sample should be chosen as close as possible to the area of failure and should be compared with
one taken from the normal section. If the material is soft like non-ferrous metals and non-heated-
treated steels, the section may be obtained by manual hack sawing. If the materials are hard, the
section may be obtained by an abrasive cut-off wheel.
2. Rough grinding: whenever possible the specimen should be of a size that is convenient to handle.
It is continued until the surface is flat and free from nicks, burs, etc. And all scratches due to the
hacksaw or cut-off wheel are no longer visible.
3. Mounting: Specimens that are small should be mounted to facilitate intermediate and final
polishing. Wires, small rats, sheet metal specimen, thin sections, etc. must be appropriately
mounted in a suitable material or rigidly clamped in a mechanical mount. Resins used- synthetic
plastic material, bakelite molding powders, Lucite, etc.
4. Intermediate polishing: After mounting, the specimen is polished on a series of emery paper
containing successively finer abrasives (220 grit, 320 grit, 400 grit and 600 grit, from course to
fine) first, the specimen is ground on 220 grit paper, so that the scratches are produced roughly at
right angle to those exiting on the specimen grinding is then continued on 320 grit paper, again
turning the specimen through 90 and polishing until the previous scratch marks are removed. The
process is repeated with 400 and 600 grit papers.
5. Fine polishing: The time consumed and the success of fine polishing largely depends upon the
care that was taken during the previous polishing steps. The final approximation to a flat scratch
free surface is obtained by use of a wet rotating wheel covered with a special cloth that is charged
with carefully sized abrasives particles.
Abrasives used aluminum oxide for ferrous and copper based materials, cerium oxide for Al, Mg
and their alloys: diamond paste, chromium oxide and magnesium oxide.

The choice of a proper polishing cloth depends upon the material being polished and the purpose
of the metallographic study. Examples are synthetic polishing clothes (gravel and micro-cloth),
broad cloth, billiard cloth, velvet cloth, canvas duck, etc.
6. Etching: The purpose is to make visible the many structural characters tics of the metal or alloy.
The process must be such that the various parts of the microstructure may be clearly differentiated.
This is accomplished by use of an appropriate reagent which subjects the polished surface to
chemical action. The selection of the appropriate etching reagent is determined by the metal or
alloy and the specific structure desired for viewing as follows:
TABLE: Etching Reagents for Microscopic Examination:

ETCHING COMPOSITION USES REMARKS
REAGENT
Nitric acid White nitric acid -1 5ml. In carbon steels: Etching rate is increased,
(nital) Ethile or methyl alcohol(95% 1. to darken pearlite A selectivity decreased with
or absolute) (also amyl give contrast b/w pearlite increasing percentages of
alcohol)- 100ml colonies, HNO* Reagent 2
2. to reveal ferrite (picric acid) usually
foundries, superior Etching time
3. to differentiate ferrite is few seconds to one
from martensite minute or more.
Piric acid Piric acid -4gf Ethyl or For all grades of carbon More dilute solution
(picral) methyl alcohol -100ml steels: Annealed, occasionally useful. Does
(95% or absolute) normalized, and quenched. not reveal ferrite grain
& tempered spheroidized, boundaries as readily
austempered. For ail low- as nital. Etching time
alloy steels attacked by this a few seconds to one
reagent minute or more.

Ferric Ferric chloride -5g Structure of austenitic

chloride & Hydrochloride acid -50ml nickel & stainless steels
hydrochloric Water -1 00ml
acid
Ammonia Ammonia hydroxide -5 parts Generally used to copper Peroxide content varies
hydroxide & Water -5 parts Hydrogen and many of its alloys directly with copper
hydrogen peroxide 2-5 parts. content of alloy to be
peroxide etched immersion or
swabbing for about 1-
min. Fresh peroxide for
good results.
Ammonium Ammonium persulfate- l0g Copper, brass, bronze, Use either cold or boiling:
persulfate Water -90ml. nickel silver, aluminum immersion
bronze
Palmerton Chromic oxide -200g Sodium General reagent for zinc Immersion with
reagent oxide- 15g Water -1,000ml and its alloys gentle agitation
Ammonium Molybdic acid (85%)-100g

molybdate Ammonium hydroxide(sp Gr
0.9> 140 ml Water-240 ml
Filter & add to nitric acid (sp.
_gr. 1.32)-60ml
Hydrofluoric Hydrofluoric acid (cone) 0.5 General microscopic for Swab with soft cotton for
acid ml Water 99.5 ml aluminum & its alloys 15 Seconds
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT No. 2
WEAR TEST
AIM: To find out the wear coefficient of the materials of the given specimens (aluminum or brass)
APPARATUS: Pin and Disc Wear Testing machine with weight hanger, electronic weighing balance
loads.
THEORY: In materials science, wear is the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of
another substance. The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology. There are five
principal wear processes:
1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear
3. Surface fatigue
4. Fretting wear
5. Erosion wear
The definition of wear does not include loss of dimension from plastic deformation, although wear has
occurred despite no material removal. This definition also fails to include impact wear, where there is no
sliding motion, cavitations, where the counter body is a fluid, and corrosion, where the damage is due to
chemical rather than mechanical action.
Wear can also be defined as a process in which interaction of the surfaces or bounding faces of a solid
with its working environment results in dimensional loss of the solid, with or without loss of material.
Aspects of the working environment which affect wear include loads (such as unidirectional sliding,
reciprocating, rolling, and impact loads), speed, temperature, type of counter body (solid, liquid, or gas),
and type of contact (single phase or multiphase, in which the phases involved can be liquid plus solid
particles plus gas bubbles).
In the results of standard wear tests (such as those formulated by the respective subcommittees of
ASTM Committee G-2), the loss of material during wear is expressed in terms of volume. The volume
loss gives a truer picture than weight loss, particularly when comparing the wear resistance properties of

materials with large differences in density. For example, a weight loss of 14 g in a sample of tungsten
carbide + cobalt (density = 14000 kg/m) and a weight loss of 2.7 g in a similar sample of aluminum alloy
(density = 2700 kg/m) both result in the same level of wear (1 cm) when expressed as a volume loss.
Adhesive wear
Adhesive wear is also known as scoring, galling, or seizing. It occurs when two solid surfaces slide
over one another under pressure. Surface projections, or asperities, are plastically deformed and eventually
welded together by the high local pressure. As sliding continues, these bonds are broken, producing
cavities on the surface, projections on the second surface, and frequently tiny, abrasive particles, all of
which contribute to future wear of surfaces.
Abrasive wear
When material is removed by contact with hard particles, abrasive wear occurs. The particles either
may be present at the surface of a second material (two-body wear) or may exist as loose particles between
two surfaces (three-body wear). Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass by the Taber Abrasion
Test according to ISO 9352 or ASTM D 1044.
Surface fatigue
Surface fatigue is a process by which the surface of a material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is
one type of general material fatigue.
Fretting wear
Fretting wear is the repeated cyclical rubbing between two surfaces, which is known as fretting,
over a period of time which will remove material from one or both surfaces in contact. It occurs typically
in bearings, although most bearings have their surfaces hardened to resist the problem. Another problem
occurs when cracks in either surface are created, known as fretting fatigue. It is the more serious of the
two phenomena because it can lead to catastrophic failure of the bearing. An associated problem occurs
when the small particles removed by wear are oxidized in air. The oxides are usually harder than the
underlying metal, so wear accelerates as the harder particles abrade the metal surfaces further. Fretting
corrosion acts in the same way, especially when water is present. Unprotected bearings on large structures

like bridges can suffer serious degradation in behavior, especially when salt is used during winter to deice
the highways carried by the bridges. The problem of fretting corrosion was involved in the Silver Bridge
tragedy and the Mianus River Bridge accident.
PROCEDURE:
1. Insert the given specimen in the proper position after initially weighing it.
2. The hanger facilitates loading of required load.
3. The disc is driven by a motor. The speed of the motor is controlled by dimmer stat. The speed is
adjusted to the required value. The machine is run for 15 minutes.
4. The specimen is removed from the holder and weighed again.
5. The loss in volume is noted.
6. The experiment may be repeated for different materials, loads and speeds.
Figure 2.1: Setup of Pin On Disc Wear Testing

Figure 2.2: Specimen For Wear Testing
Machine

OBSERVATIONS:
Dia. Of the
Track Radius
Sl.No. Specimen Specimen d
R in mm
in mm
1 Brass
2 Aluminum
TABULATION:
Weight (gms) Wear

Load based on Wear rate
Trail No. Specimen in weight loss W= P/A.S
gms W1 W2 (W1 - W2) gmm-3
(gms)
1
Brass
2
1
Aluminum
2

CALCULATIONS:
The wear volume is related to wear coefficient as follows:
W = P/A.S
Where
W= Wear based on weight loss (gms) (W1 - W2)
A = * d 2 / 4
S= V*T
S= Sliding distance
N = Revolutions per min
T=Time duration in Sec.
V= 2 RN/60
Sliding Pressure: Force /Area
RESULTS:
Weight in Wear rate
Sl.No. Specimen
Kg gmm-3
1
Brass
2
1
Aluminum
2
GRAPHS:
a. Weight loss v/s Sliding Distance.
b. Wear rate v/s Sliding Pressure
CONCLUSION: The wear rate of given specimen is ...

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MPI)
Aim: To understand the Principal method of detecting Flaws in materials using a Magnetic Particle
Inspection
Apparatus: Magnetic Particle Inspection unit, Red Iron Powder etc.
Theory: Magnetic Particle Inspection method uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles to detect
surface defects or near surface defects in ferrous materials. This method is a relatively simple and easy
technique. It is almost free from any restriction as to size, shape, and composition.
When a piece of metal is placed in a magnetic field and the lines of magnetic flux get intersected
by a discontinuity such a crack or slag inclusion in a casting, magnetic poles are induced on either side of
the discontinuity. The discontinuity causes an abrupt change in the path of magnetic flux-floating through
the casting normal to the discontinuity, resulting a local flux leakage field and interference with the
magnetic lines of force. This local flux-disturbance can be detected by its affect upon magnetic particles
which collect on the region of discontinuity and pile up and bridge over the discontinuity.
A surface crack is indicated by a line of fine particles following the crack outline and a surface
detect by a fuzzy collection of the magnetic particles on the surface near the discontinuity.
Steps involved in the inspection process

1. Magnetizing the part: The part to be inspected is cleaned thoroughly and held on the table. Circular
magnetization is produced by circular fields. A conductor carrying an electric current is surrounded by a
magnetic field which form closed circles in a plane at right angles to the direction of current flow. Circular
magnetization may be produced with the help of prods or contacts. Prods are used to inspect small areas
of large casting by changing the position of prods symmetrically; the entire surface of the large casting
can be surveyed.
2. Applying magnetic powder (particles): The magnetic powder of iron or black magnetic iron oxide
base and having elongated individual particles is used for the purpose; metallic iron particles are coated
to prevent oxidation and sticking. The powder is available in two colours-red and block; a colour which
shows up to best advantage on the part to be inspected is selected. Dry powder is applied in form of a

colour or spray. The dry powder is better for locating near surface defects; more ever all the powder can
be recovered after the test.
3. Locating the defects: Fig shows magnetic flux fields in a magnetized bar containing
a) Surface discontinuity b) Subsurface discontinuity
In the magnetized bar or casting if a void interrupt a magnetic field, the magnetic field gets
distorted. The magnetic permeability of air being too low in comparison with iron, the magnetic flux
spreads out to get around the void. Some of the magnetic flux lines extend outside of the metal in the air
over the discontinuity and the discontinuity is noticed or located distinctly because the magnetic particles
collect and pile at any discontinuity or crack.

CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
DYE PENETRANT TEST (DPT)
Aim: To understand the Principal method of detecting Flaws in a both ferrous and non-ferrous material
using a Dye penetrant test.
Apparatus: Dye penetrant test unit, cleaner, red dye penetrant etc.
Theory: This method of inspection is used for testing parts made with ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
The process is preferred for parts with discontinuities like cracks, porosity, shrinkage etc. that are clear
and open to the surface.
Steps involved in the inspection process:
Clean the surface of the component free of dust and dirt with a piece of cloth.
Spray the cleaner to remove oil, grease etc.
Apply the dye penetrant (by spraying) ad equating to cover the area to be inspected. Allow 3 to 5
minutes or more for dye to penetrate in to the cracks.
Wipe off the excess penetrant on the surface with a rag.
Again spray the surface with the cleaner to remove the remnants of the red dye.
Spray the developer evenly on the surface to give a thin even layer absorbs the penetrant from a
visible indication of the flaws.
The crack if any will be indicated with the red dye absorbed by the white absorbent.

Penetrant seep Developer draws

Into flaw Penetrant onto
Surface
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS
AIM: - To perform the following heat treatment process on steel

a) Annealing b) Normalizing c) Hardening and Tempering of steel and checking its hardness
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. Heat treatment furnace with temperature controller.
2. Carbon steel specimens (3 Nos each 50mm long & 20 mm diameter) containing about 0.6%C
(specimen no1 for annealing, No2 for Normalizing and No3 for hardening and tempering)
3. Quenching bath, fan for cooling.
4. Hardness testing machine.
5. Hammer, number punches, pair of tongs
THEORY:
HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS:
1. Heating the metal to the predetermined temp.
2. Soaking the metal at that temperature until the structure becomes uniform throughout the metal.
3. Cooling the metal at some pre-determined rate to cause the formation of desired structure with in
the metal for desired properties.
PROCEDURE:
1. Keep the Specimen inside the furnace and close the door.
2. Switch on the furnace, set the temperature control knob to given temperature.
3. The specimen kept in the furnace allowed heat between 35 min to 1 Hr.
4. The specimen is taken out and any of the following steps are adopted as required
a) Normalizing:
The specimen is cooled against the air blower or fan.
After the specimen reaches the room temp, clean with an abrasive paper.
Measure the hardness and record it in the observation table.
b) Hardening:
The specimen is allowed to cool suddenly by quenching in cold water or oil bath
or salt bath.
Dry the specimen, with the help of a piece of cloth and an abrasive paper is used
to remove the fins or scales adhere to the surface.
Measure the hardness and record it in the observation table.

c) Tempering:
After the normalization, the specimen is subjected for reheating between 150 to
4000C.
Now remove it from the furnace and quench it in the quenching bath.
Clean it, measure its hardness and record it in the observation table.
d) Annealing:
The furnace is switched off and the specimen is cooled slowly inside the furnace.
After the specimen reaches the room temp, measure the Rockwell hardness and
record it in the observation table.
OBSERVATIONS:
Speci RHN RHN
men Before heat treatment After heat treatment
No Heat treatment
process
Average Average
1 2 3 1 2 3
value value
1 Annealing (8200C)
2
Normalizing (8200C)
3 Hardening (8200C)
4 Tempering (4000C)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Clean the specimen properly before testing the hardness.
2. The specimen should be heated to the correct temperature and should be kept in the furnace as
required for the particular heat treatment operation.
3. The specimen should be cooled at the correct rate as required for the particular heat treatment.
4. Care should be taken to measure the type of hardness of the specimen before and after the heat
treatment process.
5. Heated specimen should be removed carefully from the furnace with the help of right tongs.
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
AIM: To determine the hardness number of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
APPARATUS: Hardness testing machine, Stop watch.
THEORY: Stanley Prichard Rockwell (1886 1940) invented the Rockwell hardness test. Hardness
represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and cutting, hardness after gives clear
indication of strength. In all hardness tests, a define force is mechanically applied on the piece, varies in
size and shape for different tests. Common indentors are made of hardened steel or diamond. Rockwell
hardness tester presents direct reading of hardness number on a dial provided with the m/c. principally
this testing is similar to Brinell hardness testing. It differs only in diameter and material of the indentor
and the applied force. Although there are many scales having different combinations of load and size of
indentor but commonly C scale is used and hardness is presented as HRC. Here the indentor has a
diamond cone at the tip and applied force is of 150 kg. Soft materials are often tested in B scale with a
1.58 mm dia. Steel indenter at 100kg.
PROCEDURE:
1. Select the indentor type, Scale and major load accordingly as given in the load test table.
2. Place the specimen on the anvil, and raise the anvil by the elevating screw until the specimen
comes in contact with the tip of the indentor.
3. Continue to rise slowly until the initial load (minor load) is applied i.e. 10 kg. Here the small
pointer in the dial moves and stops over SET RED MARK.
4. For about six seconds, apply the major load by operating the handle.
5. After the major load application, gently bring back the load lever to the initial position.
6. Read the position of the pointer on B or C scale of the dial, which directly gives the Rockwell
Hardness.
7. Make three trials on each specimen.

Figure 6.1: Rockwell hardness equipment
Figure 6.2: Rockwell hardness indentor

OBSERVATIONS AND SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

Sl no. Time RHN
Type of Type of Load
Type of duration
material Scale Indenter in Kg 1 2 3 Avg.
(sec.)
CONCLUSION: Rockwell hardness of given specimen is

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
AIM: To determine the Hardness Number of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

APPARATUS: Brinell hardness testing machine, Stop watch, Brinell's microscope.
THEORY: In Brinell hardness testing, steel balls are used as indentor, diameter of the indentor and the
applied force depend upon the thickness of the test specimen because for accurate results, depth of
indentation should be less than 1/8th of the thickness of the test pieces. According to the thickness of the
test piece increase, the diameter of the indentor and force are changed.
SPECIFICATION OF HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE AND INDENTORS:

A hardness test can be conducted on Brinell testing machine, Rockwell hardness machine or Vickers
testing machine. The specimen may be a cylinder, cube, think or thin metallic sheet. Its specification are
as follows:
1. Ability to determine hardness upto 500BHN.
2. Diameter of ball (as indentor) used D = 2.5mm, 5mm, 10mm.
3. Maximum application load = 3000 kg.
4. Method of load application = Lever type
5. Capability of testing the lower hardness range = 1 BHN on application of 0.5Dload
6. Take 5 mm ball indentor for ferrous material and 10 mm ball indentor for non-ferrous material
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the specimen on the anvil so that its surface will be normal to the direction of the applied
load.
2. With the hand wheel, raise the anvil until the specimen just makes contact with the ball.
3. Select the load, ball diameter and time of application of the load according to the material to
be tested as given in the load test table apply the load gradually and maintain it for the
specified time.
4. Release the load and remove the specimen. Measure the diameter of impression (indentation)
left by the ball indentor by using Brinell's microscope.
5. Make three trials for each specimen for calculating the hardness number.

Where P= Load in Kgs

D= Steel ball diameter in mm
d = Diameter of Indentation in mm
Figure 7.1: Brinell hardness

Sl Material Dia. Of Load
Time Diameter of Indentation
No. Constant Indenter Applied
Type of Material (mm)
K D mm P= K x duration
(sec.)
D2 d1 d2 Avg =d1+d2/2
1 Cast iron 30
2 Mild steel 30
3 Brass 5
4 Copper 5
5 Aluminums 5
CONCLUSION: The Brinell hardness number of the specimen is

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
Aim: To determine the Vickers hardness number of the given material
Apparatus: Vickers hardness tester, Diamond pyramid indentor
Theory: Vickers hardness is a measure of the hardness of a material, calculated from the size of an
impression produced under load by a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter.
The indenter employed in the Vickers test is a square-based pyramid whose opposite sides meet at the
apex at an angle of 136. The diamond is pressed into the surface of the material at loads ranging up to
approximately 120 kilograms-force, and the size of the impression is measured with the aid of a
calibrated microscope.
The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is calculated using the following formula:
VHN = 1.854(P/D2)
with P being the applied load in Kg and D is the arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1and d2 in
mm.
Figure 8.1: Vickers hardness machine

Procedure:
1. Place the polished specimen on the platform.
2. Raise the platform till the surface of the specimen is focused on the microscope screen.
3. Select the load by pressing the load selector button.
4. Apply a load of P= 30 kg for ferrous & P=20kg for nonferrous materials.
5. Wait till the handle on the left side of frame comes to rest position and after that allow the load to
act for 15 seconds for ferrous materials and 30 seconds for nonferrous materials.
6. Press the handle down without any jerk to release the load and to bring objective lens back in to
position.
7. Measure the length of the diagonals (d1 and d2) using the travelling micrometer and calculate the
average D
8. For each material make at least three indentations and measure the length of diagonals
9. Using the formula calculate the Vickers hardness number for each trail and calculate their
average.
Observations:
Indentor: Diagonal square pyramid ...

Least count of travelling microscope = ..mm
Tabular Column
Sl Material Standard Diagonal width (mm)
No Load P (Kg) d1 Avg d2 Avg
CONCLUSION: The VHN of given material is found to be

EXPERIMENT NO. 9
IMPACT TEST
AIM: To determine the Impact Strength of given specimen and to study the behavior of materials under
dynamic loading.
APPARATUS: Pendulum type impact testing machine, Slide caliper and scale.
THEORY:
In manufacturing locomotive wheels, coins, connecting rods etc. The components are subjected to impact
(shock) loads. These loads are applied suddenly. An impact test signifies toughness of material i.e. ability
of material to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Impact test is a dynamic test in which a selected
notched specimen is struck and broken by a single blow in a specially designed machine and the energy
absorbed in breaking the specimen is measured and gives a quality of the material, particularly its
brittleness. Highly brittle materials have low impact strength.
Two general types of notches are used in impact tests, the U-notch and the V-notch. Two types of
specimens are used, the Charpy and the Izod. The Charpy specimen is placed in the vice so that it is a
simple beam supported at the ends. The Izod specimen is placed in the vice so that the one end is free and
is therefore a cantilever beam.
The machine has a swinging pendulum of fixed weight, which is raised to a standard height (angle of
drop) depending upon the type of specimen tested. At that height, with reference to vice, the pendulum
has a definite amount of potential energy. When the pendulum is released, this energy is converted to
kinetic energy until it strikes the specimen. The Charpy specimen will be hit behind the U-notch, while
the izod specimen, placed with the V-notch facing the pendulum, will hit above the V-notch. In either
case, some of the energy of the pendulum will be used to rupture the specimen so that the pendulum will
rise to a height lower than initial height on the opposite side of the machine. The weight of the pendulum
times the difference in heights will indicate the energy, absorbed by the specimen, or the notched impact
strength.
It is used by the aircraft and automobile industries, which have found by experience that high impact
strength by test generally will give satisfactory service where shock loads are encountered.

SIGNIFICANCE OF NOTCH IN IMPACT TEST SPECIMEN:

1. The stress acting in the material is raised to a peak value (At the base of the notch, determined by
elastic stress concentration factor.
2. The yield stress for the material is raised by the action of elastic and Plastic Constraints.
Combination of these effects makes brittle fracture. The part played by stress concentration is to
raise the stress at the root of the notch and provide the large stress necessary to produce fracture.
NOTCH SENSITIVITY:
The tendency of some ductile materials to behave in a brittle nature in the presence of notch is
called notch sensitivity.
Specification of machine and specimen details:
Its specifications along-with their typical values are as follows:
Impact capacity = 164joule
Least count of capacity (dial) scale = 2joule
Weight of striking hammer = 18.7 kg.
Swing diameter of hammer = 1600mm.
Angle of hammer before striking = 90
Distance between supports = 40mm.
Striking velocity of hammer = 5.6m/sec.
Specimen size for Izod test = 75x10x10 mm, for Charpy test =55x10x10 mm
Type of notch = V-notch for Izod test, U-notch for Charpy test
Angle of notch = 45
Depth of notch = 2 mm.
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen at full section and at the notch.
2. With no specimen on the anvil, raise the pendulum to its full level and release it. Note the initial
reading Ri on the graduated scale.
3. Place the specimen accurately in the tension zone.
4. Raise the pendulum to the initial level and release the pendulum
5. Note the reading Rf at the specimen's rupture.
6. Calculate the impact strength.

Figure 9.3:(a) Specimen dimensions and (b) Loading method for Izod impact test

OBSERVATIONS AND TABULATION:

IZOD TEST:
1) Length of the Specimen l = .m
2) Breadth of the Specimen b = .m
3) Depth of the Specimen d = .m
4) Depth of the Groove dg =..m
5) Initial reading on the graduated scale Ri = ..
6) Final reading on the graduated scale Rf = ..
Trail Type of Thickness of Area of the Energy Impact

No. Specimen the Specimen Specimen Absorbed Strength
t = (d- dg) in A = (b*t) V = (Rf Ri) = V/A
mm in mm2 in N N/mm2
1.
2.
Specimen Calculations:
a) Thickness of the Specimen t = (d- dg) mm

b) Area of the Specimen A = (b*t) mm2
c) Energy Absorbed (V) = (Rf Ri) = . N
d) Impact Strength =Energy Absorbed(V)/C/s area of Specimen at Notch Place A
e) Least Count of the Vernier Caliper(LC) : 1MSD/ Total No. of VSD
f) Max. Impact Energy of the Pendulum =
g) Angle of Drop of Pendulum = ..
h) Effective Weight of Pendulum =.
i) Min. Value of scale graduation =.

b) CHARPY TEST:
1. Length of the Specimen l = .mm
2. Breadth of the Specimen b = .mm
3. Depth of the Specimen d = .mm
4. Depth of the Groove dg =..mm
5. Initial reading on the graduated scale Ri = ..
6. Final reading on the graduated scale Rf = ..
Trail Type of Thickness of Area of the Energy Impact
No. Specimen the Specimen Specimen Absorbed Strength
t = (d- dg) in A = (b*t) V = (Rf Ri) = V/A
mm in mm2 in N N/mm2
1.
2.
Specimen Calculations:
a) Thickness of the Specimen t = (d- dg) ..mm
b) Area of the Specimen A = (b*t) .mm2
c) Energy Absorbed (V) = (Rf Ri) = . N
d) Impact Strength =Energy Absorbed(V)/C/s area of Specimen at Notch Place A
e) Least Count of the Vernier Caliper(LC) : 1MSD/ Total No. of VSD
f) Max. Impact Energy of the Pendulum =
g) Angle of Drop of Pendulum = ..
h) Effective Weight of Pendulum =.
i) Min. Value of scale graduation =.

RESULTS:
Impact Strength
a. For IZOD Specimen:

i. Mild Steel: .. J/mm2
ii. Alluminum: .. J/mm2
b. For CHARPY Specimen:

i. Mild Steel: .. J/mm2
ii. Aluminum: .. J/mm2
CONCLUSION: Strain energy of given specimen is .

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
TENSILE TEST
AIM: To conduct tension test on the given specimen and to determine:
1 Yield strength
2 Ultimate strength
3 Breaking strength
4 Percentage elongation
5 Percentage reduction in area
6 Youngs modulus
APPARATUS: Universal testing machine, Extensometer, Vernier caliper, Scale and Gripping devices
(Shackles).
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT: U.T.M. can be used to conduct tension, compression, bending and
shear tests. This machine mainly consists of testing unit and control unit. Testing unit consists of four
cross heads (lower, middle, Upper and top guide cross heads) and a deformation-measuring device.
Control unit consists of a hydraulic system, load measuring device and an automatic diagram recorder.
THEORY:
Tensile testing is one of the more basic tests to determine stress strain relationships. A simple uniaxial
test consists of slowly pulling a sample of material in tension until it breaks. Test specimens for tensile
testing are generally either circular or rectangular with larger ends to facilitate gripping the sample. The
typical testing procedure is to deform or stretch the material at a constant speed. The testing machine
will apply the load and an extensometer will record the corresponding strain during experimentation. The
unit will record the load deformation data during the experiment so this data can be plotted once the
procedure is complete. The required load that must be applied to achieve this displacement will vary as
the test proceeds. During testing, the stress in the sample can be calculated at anytime by dividing the load
over the cross-sectional area =P/A
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter at three locations and take the average value. Similarly, note down the
lengths of the specimen.
2. Fix the specimen hi the jaws of the UTM.
3. Fix the extensometer on the specimen and note the gauge length of the extensometer.
4. Set the extensometer and side scale to read zero.

5. Apply the load gradually making observations at regular intervals of load, the corresponding
reading on extensometer.
6. Observe the yield point load indicating a slight kickback of the load pointer.
7. Remove the extensometer noting its reading at the yield point.
8. Further load the specimen. Start measuring the change in length with the help of side scale reading
on the UTM. Observe the maximum & breaking load.
9. Remove the broken specimen and measure its final length & diameter at the neck formation.
NOTE: Upto yield point, use gauge length of the given extensometer for calculating the strain and after
the yield point, use the full length of the specimen for calculating the corresponding strain.
Figure 10.1: Universal testing machine

Figure 10.2: Tensile specimen nomenclature
Figure 10.3: Tensile specimen dimensions

A. FERROUS MATERIAL(Mild Steel):
1. Initial Diameter (D0) = mm
2. Diameter at fracture (Df) = mm
3. Initial area of cross section (A0) = mm2
4. Final area of cross section (Af) = mm2
5. Initial Length ( L0) = mm
6. Final Length ( Lf) = mm
7. % e = (L0-Lf) / L0 * 100 =
8. % RA = (A0 Af) / A0 * 100 =

TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Load Extensometer readings Youngs
No. F Stress = F/A0 Modulus
Strain=l/L
in Left Dial Right Dial Avg. (KN/mm2) = / E
KN N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

Sl. Measured Calculated

Details Formula used
No. Value Value
Initial area of Cross section

1 A0= D02 /4
(A0)
Yield Point (YP)

Yield Stress (YS)
2 YS=YP / A0
Upper Yield Stress
Lower Yield Stress
Max. Load (UL)
3 Ultimate Tensile Stress UTS=UL/A0
(UTS)
Breaking Load (BL)

4 BS=BL/A0
Breaking Stress (BS)
5 % Elongation ( % e) %e=(L0-Lf) / L0 * 100
Cross Sectional area at Af= Df2 /4

fracture (Af)
6
% Reduction in Area ( % %RA= (A0-Af) /A0
RA) *100
Youngs Modulus ( E)
E= /
7 Slope of Linear portion of
the curve
CONCLUSION:
B. NON- FERROUS MATERIAL(Aluminum)

1. Initial Diameter (D0) = mm
2. Diameter at fracture (Df) = mm
3. Initial area of cross section (A0) = mm2

4. Final area of cross section (Af) = mm2

5. Initial Length ( L0) = mm
6. Initial Length ( Lf) = mm
7. % e = (L0-Lf) / L0 * 100 =
8. % RA = (A0 Af) / A0 * 100 =
TABULAR COLUMN
Load F Extensometer readings Stress = F/A0 Strain=l/L Youngs Modulus
in KN Left Dial Right Dial Avg. (KN/mm2) = / E N/mm2

CONCLUSION:
Measured Calculated
Sl.No. Details Formula used
Value Value
Initial area of Cross

1 A0= D02 /4
section (A0)
Yield Point (YP)

2 Yield Stress (YS) YS=YP / A0
0.2% Offset
Max. Load (UL)
3 Ultimate Tensile Stress US=UL/A0
(UTS)
Breaking Load (BL)

4 BS=BL/A0
Breaking Stress (BS)
5 % Elongation ( % e) %e=(L0-Lf) / L0 * 100
Cross Sectional area at Af= Df2 /4

fracture (Af)
6
% Reduction in Area ( % %RA= (A0-Af) /A0
RA) *100
Youngs Modulus ( E)
7 Slope of Linear portion E= /
of the curve

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
COMPRESSION TEST
AIM: To study the behavior of different materials under direct compression and to determine.
(a) Young's Modulus
(b) % reduction in length
(c) % increase in area
(d) Ultimate Compressive Stress
(e) Breaking stress
APPARATUS: Universal testing machine, Slide caliper, Dial gauge, and Scale
THEORY:
The compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce
size. A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The specimen is
compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain are calculated and
plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point,
yield strength and, for some materials, compressive strength.
The following materials are typically subjected to a compression test.
Concrete
Metals
Plastics
Ceramics
Composites
Corrugated Cardboard
Purpose of compression tests

The goal of a compression test is to determine the behavior or response of a material while it experiences
a compressive load by measuring fundamental variables, such as, strain, stress, and deformation. By
testing a material in compression, the compressive strength, yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic limit,
and the elastic modulus among other parameters may all be determined. With the understanding of these

different parameters and the values associated with a specific material it may be determined whether or
not the material is suited for specific applications or if it will fail under the specified stresses.
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter at three locations and take the average value using dial cause Similarly,
note down the lengths of the specimen
2. Place the specimen between the platens of the UTM
3. Adjust the dial gauge to read zero
4. Gradually apply the load and read the corresponding value from the dial gauge
5. Note down the maximum point and breaking point.
BAUSCHINGER EFFECT:
If a specimen is deformed plastically beyond the yield stress in one direct in tension and then after
unloading to zero stress it is reloaded in the opposite direction E.g., in compression, it is found that the
yield stress on reloading is less than the yield stress. This dependence of yield stress on loading path and
direction: Bauchinger effect. It is commonly ignored in plasticity theory, and it is usual to that the yield
stress in tension & compression are same.

Figure 11.1: Compression specimen after loading
OBSERVATIONS & TABULATIONS:

do: Original Diameter of the Specimen
df : Final Diameter of the Specimen
l0: Original Length of the Specimen
lf : Final Length of the Specimen

Original Diameter Final Diameter df Original Length Final Length

Material
d0in mm in mm l0in mm lf in mm
CAST IRON
MILD STEEL
ALUMINIUM
FERROUS MATERIAL:
a) CAST IRON:
Stress Stress
Sl. Load F Load F Strain Sl. Load F Load F Strain
= F/A0 = F/A0
No. in Kgs in KN = l /l0 No. in Kgs in KN = l /l0
N/mm2 N/mm2
1 21
2 22
3 23
4 24
5 25
6 26
7 27
8 28
9 29
10 30
11 31
12 32
13 33
14 34
15 35
16 36
17 37
18 38

19 39
20 40
SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
1 Initial Area A0 = /4 * d02 = mm2
2 Final Area Af = /4 * d02 = mm2
% decrease in length ( %
3 =
DL) = (l0-lf) / l0*100
% increase in diameter ( %
4 =
ID) = (df-d0) / d0*100
Ultimate Compressive Stress
5 = N/mm2
(UCS) = Ultimate Load /A0
Youngs Modulus (E) =
Slope from the graph = /
6 = N/mm2
(* From Linear portion of the
graph)
RESULTS:
Measured Calculated
Sl.No. Details
Value Value
Initial Length (l0)
1 Final Length (lf)
% Decrease in Length (%DL)
Initial Diameter (d0)
2
Initial Area (A0)
Final Diameter (f0)
3 Final Area (Af)
% increase in Dia.(%ID)
4 Ultimate Load (UL)

Ultimate Compressive Stress (UCS)

Youngs Modulus (E) * Slope of Linear
5
portion of the curve
CONCLUSION:
b) MILD STEEL:
Stress Stress
= F/A0 = F/A0
N/mm2 N/mm2
1 19
2 20
3 21
4 22
5 23
6 24
7 25
8 26
9 27
10 28
11 29
12 30
13 31
14 32
15 33
16 34
17 35
18 36

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
1. Initial Area (A0) = mm2
Ultimate Compressive Stress (UCS)

2. = N/mm2
UCS= Ultimate Load /A0
3. Youngs Modulus (E) = Slope from the graph = / = N/mm2
C :Aluminum
Stress Stress
= F/A0 = F/A0
N/mm2 N/mm2
1 19
2 20
3 21
4 22
5 23
6 24
7 25
8 26
9 27
10 28
11 29
12 30
13 31
14 32
15 33
16 34
17 35
18 36

CONCLUSION:
Sl.No. Property Cast Iron (CI) Mild Steel (MS) Aluminum (Al)
1. Yield Stress
2. Ultimate Compressive Stress
3. % Increase in Diameter
4. % Reduction in Length
5. Youngs Modulus
6. Breaking Stress
COMPARAISON OF UTS AND UCS:

Sl.No. Material UTS (N/mm2) UCS (N/mm2)
1. Cast Iron (CI)
2. Mild steel (MS)
3 Aluminum (Al)

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
SHEAR TEST
AIM: To determine the ultimate shear stress of the given material in single shear and double shear.
APPARATUS: UTM, Slide Caliper
THEORY: A type of force which causes or tends to cause two contiguous parts of the body to slide
relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact is called the shear force. The stress
required to produce fracture in the plane of cross-section, acted on by the shear force is called shear
strength. Place the shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment consists of cutter. The
specimen is inserted in shear test attachment & lift the lower table so that the zero is adjusted, then apply
the load such that the specimen breaks in two or three pieces. If the specimen breaks in two pieces then it
will be in single shear & if it breaks in three pieces then it will be in double shear
PROCEDURE:
1. The average diameter of the given specimen is measured.
2. For single shear test, fix the specimen as shown in fig. (a) And apply the load gradually. Note
the fracture load.
3. For double shear test, fix the specimen as shown in fig. (b) And apply the load gradually. Note
the fracture load.
Ultimate shear strength = Load/ C/s area of the specimen (single shear)
= Load / 2 x C/s area of the specimen (double shear)

Figure 12.1: Shear testing on UTM

OBERSEVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
Sl.No. Specimen Material Aluminum Mild Steel
1. Diameter of the Specimen (d A) =
Area of the Specimen

2. A = * d 2A / 4 =

Ultimate
Sl. No. Type of Shear Shear Strength ( N mm2)
Load(F)
Double Shear
Single Shear
Note: Shear Strength (N-mm2)

i) For Single Shear (F/A)
ii) For Double Shear (F/2A)
Where A = Area of the Specimen
CONCLUSION: Shear strength of the specimen N/mm2

EXPERIMENT NO. 13
BENDING TEST
AIM: To determine the behavior of a given material or specimen under bending stress for a given load
and also to find out the bending modulus and bending of the structure.
APPARATUS: Universal Testing Machine (UTM), Extensometer, Bending Bar, Vernier Caliper
THEORY: The bending test is done to know the behavior and mechanical properties of a material.
And also, one can know the bending structure of material that at what limit the material can bend. This is
done by placing the specimen on the roller simply supported beam and then applying the load at the center
of the specimen and hence the bending will take place. If a beam is simply supported at the ends and
carries a concentrated load at its centre, the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the
original position of the beams and its position after bending at different points along the length of the
beam, being maximum at the centre in this case. This difference is known as deflection
PROCEDURE:
1. Take the given specimen and measure the dimensions i.e. (length, width (breadth),
thickness by using the steel rule and Vernier caliper.
2. Mark the center of the specimen by using pencil and steel rule.
3. Place the specimen on the fixed jaw of UTM i.e. on roller, simply supported beam.
4. Place the load divider bar in case of double bending or else simply bar can be placed.
5. And then start the UTM and gradually apply the load on the specimen.
6. Note down the deflection readings with reference to the application of load at each
equal interval, until the material breaks or bends.
7. Tabulate the readings in the tabular column and calculate the necessary calculations
and find out the bending modulus and bending structure.

Sl. Load Dial gauge Deflection = Bending Bending stress

No. Kg Newton reading Dial Gauge * Moment b = M b / Z ss
0.01 M b = Wl/4 N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

Figure 13.1 Load versus deflection curve for single point bending
Tabular Column: Two Point Loading
Sl. Load Dial gauge Deflection = Bending Bending stress

No. Kg Newton reading (Dial Gauge x Moment b = M b / Z ss
0.01) M b = Wl/4 N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Figure 13.2: Load versus deflection curve for two-point bending
Specimen calculation;
General Formula for Bending
M/I=/y=E/R
1. Distance from Neutral axis, ymax = d/2 mm =

2. Moment of Inertia, I = bd3 / 12 mm4

3. Section modulus, Zss = bd2 / 6 mm3
4. Maximum bending stress, max = Mbmax / Zss
5. Youngs modulus, E = (dw / d) x l3 / 48I
Figure 13.3: Pictures showing final shape of the specimen after Bending Test
CONCLUSION:
Single Point Loading:
1) Youngs Modulus = . N/mm2

2) Maximum Bending Stress = N/mm2
Double Point Loading:
1) Youngs Modulus = N/mm2

2) Maximum Bending Stress = N/mm2

EXPERIMENT NO. 14
TORSION TEST
Aim: To conduct torsion test in the given material and to plot torque vs angle of twist and hence
determine ultimate shear strength, resilience, toughness and ductility.
Apparatus: Given Standard Specimen, Vernier Caliper, Torsion Testing Machine, Torsion shackles.
Figure 14.1: Schematic of a Torsion Test

Theory:
Like bending, torsion is an important type of loading that can produce critical stresses in engineering
applications. Under torsion, shear stresses are produced. The stiffness under shear stress is called the
modulus of rigidity G (MPa). It is also called shear modulus. Torsion tests aim to measure the shear
modulus (G) of a material. Although torsion testing is not common, it is a useful experiment and an
important partner for tensile testing in determining the mechanical properties of a material. Torque is a
moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal axis. Its effect is of primary concern in the
design of axles or drive shafts used in vehicles and machinery.
Many products and components are subjected to torsional forces during their operation. Products such as
shaft, switches, fasteners, and automotive steering columns are just a few devices subject to such torsional

stresses. By testing these products in torsion testing machine, manufacturers are able to simulate real life
service conditions, check product quality, verify designs, and ensure proper manufacturing techniques.
A torsion test can be conducted on most materials to determine the torsional properties of the material.
These properties are modulus of elasticity in shear, yield shear strength, ultimate shear strength, and
modulus of rupture in shear and ductility. The torsion test generates the "torque versus angle" diagram
that looks very similar to a "stress versus strain" curve in a tensile test. They are not the same however
they are analogous to properties that can be determined during a tensile test.
Procedure:
1. First take the standard specimen and measure the diameter and length of the
specimen using the screw gauge.
2. Fix the specimen in the two jaws of the torsion testing machine and tight it.
3. Now start the machine and apply the load gradually by rotating the movable jaw
against the fixed jaw.
4. Now note down the angle of twist in radians at some equal intervals.
5. Now note down the torque at each equal interval of () twist in degrees.
6. Then tabulate the all readings in a tabular column and calculate the torsional
shear stress, rigidity modulus, by using the formula.
7. Plot a graph of torque vs angle of twist and determine the Modulus of rigidity.
Figure 14.2 Dimensions of specimen
The simple torsion equation is T/J = /r = G/L
T = Torque applied in N-mm;

J = Polar moment of inertia in mm4;

= Shear stress in N/mm2

r = Radius of shaft in mm
G = Modulus of rigidity in N/mm2
= Angle of twist
l = gauge length of shaft in mm
D = Diameter of specimen in mm
Figure 14.3: Description of specimen

To measure torque, convert the mass to Newton. (Take the mass in kg and multiply by 9.81 for gravity).
Now multiply by the perpendicular distance to the axis of the rod to get torque in N-mm.
Shear Modulus: It is the ratio of shear stress and shear strain of the material.
Shear Stress
G= = (1)
Shear Strain
This formula only works when the material is stressed in its elastic region.
Polar Moment of Inertia: A higher polar moment of inertia shows that the beam or specimen can resist
a higher torsion or twisting force. The diameter of the beam determines polar moment of inertia.
D4
J=
32 (2)
Equation (3) is in above figure
Tl
=
GJ (4)
Shear Stress
The theoretical shear stress for a solid circular bar is
TD
=
2J (5)
Shear Strain
r
=
G l (6)
Rearrange shear modulus:
(TD) / 2 J
G
(r ) / l (7)

TABULAR COLUMN
Sl. No Torque in Angle of twist () Angle of twist () Modulus of rigidity
N-mm in degrees in radians N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
CONCLUSION: Modulus of rigidity of the shaft

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. How do you define the word 'Engineering Material?

2. Write brief classification of materials.
3. List out the properties of materials?
4. What are the types of tests on materials with examples?
5. What are the purposes of conducting the following tests?
a). Tensile test b). Compression test c). Shear test d). Impact test c). Hardness test.
6. What is Bauschinger effect?
7. What is the nature of failure for brittle and ductile materials in tensile test?
8. What is the nature of failure for brittle and ductile materials in compression test?
9. What is hardness test? What are the types of hardness measurements? Mention its uses.
10. Mention the different types of hardness testing methods?
11. Give the equation for the calculation of BHN
12. What should be the minimum thickness of material for Brinell hardness testing?
13. Define the following terms:
Proportionality limit, Modulus of elasticity, Hookes law, Elastic limit, Gauge limit, Yield point,
Ultimate strength, Rupture strength, % of elongation, reduction in area, Resilience, Toughness,
Ductility, elasticity, Plasticity, Brittleness, malleability, stress, strain, Super plasticity.
14. What are the advantages Rockwell test over Brinell's test.?
15. How do you define single shear and double shear?
16. How do you place the specimen in the tension test.?
17. What is the significance of notch in the impact test.?
18. What is meant by notch sensitivity?
19. What is metallographic?
20. What are the types of metallurgical microscope?
21. What are the steps involved in preparation of metallographic specimen?
22. What is the purpose of conducting the wear test.?
23. Mention the different types of wear.
24. What are the factors affecting the wear?
25. What are the techniques of surfacing protection in wear?

26. What is the importance of creep?

27. Differentiate between Izod and Charpy impact test
28. Define gauge length, what is its importance?
29. What is MS? What is CI? Give the composition and practical application.

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Material Testing Lab. Manual Dept. of Mechanical Engg., B.I.

BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Reference: Name of the Candidate ...

Signature of the Staff in charge

Date: . Signature of Head of the Department

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

MATERIALS TESTING LAB

Subject Code:15MEL37A/47A Number of Lecture Hrs / Week :01

1. Preparation of specimen for Metallographic examination of different engineering materials. To report

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

ELECTRON & LIGHT MICROSCOPES:

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

STEPS INVOLVED FOR PREPARATION OF A METALLOGRAPHIC SPECIMEN:

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

TABLE: Etching Reagents for Microscopic Examination:

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Ferric Ferric chloride -5g Structure of austenitic

Ammonium Molybdic acid (85%)-100g

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Figure 2.1: Setup of Pin On Disc Wear Testing

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Weight (gms) Wear

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

CONCLUSION: The wear rate of given specimen is ...

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Steps involved in the inspection process

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Penetrant seep Developer draws

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

AIM: - To perform the following heat treatment process on steel

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

AIM: To determine the hardness number of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

APPARATUS: Hardness testing machine, Stop watch.

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Figure 6.1: Rockwell hardness equipment

Figure 6.2: Rockwell hardness indentor

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

OBSERVATIONS AND SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

CONCLUSION: Rockwell hardness of given specimen is

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

AIM: To determine the Hardness Number of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

SPECIFICATION OF HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE AND INDENTORS:

Chetan. B, Asst. Prof., Dept. of Mech. Engg.

Where P= Load in Kgs