Lecture 17 – Numerical and

Digital Relays
Switchgear and Protection
(UEE603)
 Summary – Solid State Relays
• General Torque Equation
• Comparators
– Amplitude comparator
– Phase comparator
– Duality between amplitude and phase comparator
• Static Relays – Problems, Advantages and disadvantages
• Types of Amplitude Comparator
– Integrating comparators
– Instantaneous comparator
– Sampling comparator
• Types of phase comparators
– Coincidence type phase comparator
– Vector product type phase comparator
 Contents
• Digital Relays
• Numerical Relays
• Comparison of Digital Vs Numerical relays
• Comparison of Numerical Vs Electro-
mechanical relays
• Numerical overcurrent relay
 DIGITAL RELAYS
• Digital protection relays introduced a step change in
technology. Microprocessors and microcontrollers
replaced analogue circuits used in static relays to
implement relay functions.
• Early examples were introduced around 1980 and with
improvements in processing capacity are still current
technology for many relay applications.
• However, such technology could be completely
superseded by numerical relays.
• Compared to static relays, digital relays use analogue to
digital conversion (A/D) of all measured quantities and use
a microprocessor to implement the protection algorithm.
 Digital Relays
• The microprocessor may use a counting technique or use
Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFT) to implement the
algorithm.
• However, these microprocessors have limited processing
capacity and associated memory compared to numerical
relays.
• Therefore the functionality is limited mainly to the protection
function itself.
• Compared to a electromechanical or static relay, digital relays
have a wider range of settings, greater accuracy and a
communications link to a remote computer.
• Digital relays typically use 8 or 16-bit microprocessors that
were later used in modems, hard disk controllers or early car
engine management systems.
 Digital Relays
• The limited power of the microprocessors used in
digital relays restricts the number of samples of
the waveform that can be measured per cycle.
• This limits the speed of operation of the relay in
certain applications. Therefore a digital relay for a
particular protection function may have a longer
operation time than the static relay equivalent.
• However, the extra time is insignificant compared
to overall tripping time and possible effects on
power system stability.
Digital Relays
 Numerical relay
• Numerical relays are based on numerical (digital) devices e.g.
microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSP etc are the latest development in
the era of power system protection.
• In these relays, the analogy current and voltage signals monitored
through the primary transducer (CTs and VTs) are conditioned, sampled
at specified instants of time and converted to digital form for numerical
manipulation, display and recording.
• Thus, numerical relays, having monitored the current and voltage signals
through transducers, acquire the sequential samples of these ac
quantities in numeric (digital) data form through the data acquisition
system, and process the data numerically using an algorithm to calculate
the fault discriminates and make trip decisions.
• With the continuous reduction in digital circuit costs and increase in
their functionality, considerable cost-benefits ensure.
Numerical relay
 Digital relays Vs Numerical Relays
• The distinction between digital and numerical relays is
particular to Protection.
• Numerical relays are natural developments of digital
relays due to advances in technology.
• They use one or more digital signal processors (DSP)
optimised for real time signal processing, running the
mathematical algorithms for the protection functions.
• The continuing reduction in the cost and size of
microprocessors, memory and I/O circuitry leads to a
single item of hardware for a range of functions.
• For faster real-time processing and more detailed
analysis of waveforms, several DSPs can be run in
parallel.
 Digital relays Vs Numerical Relays
• Many functions previously implemented in
separate items of hardware can then be included
in a single item.
• A numerical relay has the functionality that
previously required several discrete relays,
therefore the relay functions such as overcurrent
or earth fault are referred to as ‘relay elements’.
• Each relay element is in software so with
modular hardware the main signal processor can
run a vast variety of relay elements.
 Digital relays Vs Numerical Relays
• The argument against putting many features into one
piece of hardware centres on the issues of reliability
and availability.
• A failure of a numerical relay may cause many more
functions to be lost, compared to applications where
different functions are implemented by separate
hardware items.
• Comparison of reliability and availability between the
two methods is complex as inter-dependency of
elements of an application provided by separate relay
elements needs to be taken into account.
 Newer developments – Numerical Relays
• With the experience gained with static and digital relays, most
hardware failure mechanisms are now well understood and
suitable precautions taken at the design stage.
• Software problems are minimised by rigorous use of software
design techniques, extensive prototype testing and the ability to
download updated software.
• Practical experience indicates that numerical relays are as
reliable as relays of earlier technologies.
• Intelligent numerical relays using artificial intelligence technique
such as artificial neural network (ANNs) and fuzzy logic systems
are presently used.
Newer developments – Numerical Relays
• The main features of numerical relays are their
– economy,
– compactness,
– flexibility,
– reliability,
– Self-monitoring and self checking capacity,
– adaptive capability,
– multiple function,
– metering and communication facilities,
– low burden on transducer and improved performance
over conventional relays.
 Hardware - Numerical relay
• The level of voltage and current signals of the power
system are reduced by voltage and current transformer.
• The out put of CT and VT are applied to the signal
conditioner which brings real-world signals into digitizer.
• The signal conditioner electrically isolate the relay from
the power system, reduces the level of input voltage,
convert current to equivalent voltage and remove the
high frequency components from the signals using
analog filters.
 Hardware - Numerical relay
• The output of the signal conditioner are applied to the analog
interface, which includes sample and hold circuit (S/H), analog
multiplexer and analog to digital (A/D) converter.
• The components sample the reduced level signals and convert
their analog levels to equivalent numbers are stored in memory
for processing.
• The acquired signals in the form of discrete numbers are
processed by a numerical relaying algoritham to calculate the
fault discriminants and make trip decisions. If there is a fault
within the defined protective zone, a trip signal is issued to the
circuit breaker.
Numerical relay
Typical numerical relay hardware architecture (From ALSTHOM Handbook on Protection)
Comparison between Electromechanical Relays
and Numerical relays
Comparison between Electromechanical Relays
and Numerical relays
 Advantages of numerical relays over static relays
• Several setting groups
• Wider range of parameter adjustment
• Communications built in (serial, Ethernet, tele-protection, etc.)
• Internal Fault diagnosis
• Power system measurements available
• Distance to fault locator
• Disturbance recorder
• Auxiliary protection functions (broken conductor, negative
sequence, etc.)
• CB monitoring (state, condition)
• User-definable logic
• Backup protection functions in-built
• Consistency of operation times - reduced grading margin
Numerical Over current Relay
 Numerical Overcurrent Relay
• The first step is to read the device current. Device
current is scaled down by a CT and then digitized
by an A/D converter.
• The magnitude of the fundamental component can
be estimated from current samples by using
various parameter estimation methods.
• In the next step, the input current is compared
with the reference current.
• If sign of Δ is positive, then it indicates possibility
of a fault. The ratio I/Iref is also known as Plug
Setting Multiplier (PSM).
Model Algorithm for overcurrent Relaying
 Summary
• Digital Relays
• Numerical Relays
• Comparison of Digital Vs Numerical relays
• Comparison of Numerical Vs Electro-
mechanical relays
• Numerical overcurrent relay