Module 2

Virtue Ethics

Doing what is good or right falls under the realm of ethics. For Aristotle, education plays an
important role in the development of the moral agent: how can education form the human person
to become good individuals? Here, it is presupposed that the more one knows, the better he/she
is able to do that which is right. Morality is seemingly bound up with knowledge.

For Aristotle, knowledge of the good must therefore be taught. For Socrates and Plato, ethics,
which is the practical science that deals with the morality of human acts, is an important element
in moral education. Ethical growth and maturity, as a continuous process of development
requires constant practice.

At the end of Module 2, you are expected to:

1. Demonstrate a clear understanding of “the good” in relation to man’s telos;

2. Demonstrate competence in performing excellent actions; and

3. Demonstrate competence in integrating Aristotelean virtue ethics in shaping your

Lesson 1
 What is Virtue Ethics?

Virtue Ethics is a perspective in ethics that focuses on the character of individuals as the most
significant element in making moral decisions. The uniqueness in the individual’s character is
emphasized when a moral choice is made rather than the rules concerning the acts themselves
(deontology) or the possible consequences (consequentialism) that may arise from the act.

Aristotle is one of the famous Greek philosophers who influenced different fields of knowledge.
Aristotle was a naturalist. In his philosophy, he emphasized that we must understand first how
nature works before we begin to make theories. He stressed the importance of natural facts in
his philosophy.

Reflect on this:

1. Who were the most important or influential persons in your life who taught you how to live an
ethical life?

2. What values and/or virtues did they teach you? How were these values taught?

3. How did you practice these values and/or virtues in your day-to-day life? Was it easy or
difficult?
Socrates clearly pointed out that “he who knows the good does the good”, which means that the
activity of knowing would inevitably lead to the practical activity of doing. The more one knows,
the more one does the good. In other words, the more one knows, the better he is able to do
that which is right. That is why for Socrates, those who do bad things are people who are either
ignorant (i.e., those who lack knowledge) or those who do not know at all (Stumpf, 2003: 38-9).

Moral education, therefore, refers to “how a person both thinks and behaves. To be judged as a
moral person I must not only be capable of rendering sound moral judgments, but I must also
act in particular moral ways” (Miranda, 2001: 75). The critical relationship between ethics and
education lies in the question “what ought I do with what I know?” Thus, a hermeneutical cycle
is formed between knowledge, moral commitment and action.

Eudaimonia as the Highest Good

The beginning of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics reads: “Every art or applied science and every
systematic investigation, and similarly every action and choice, seem to aim at some good; the
good, therefore, has been well defined as that which all things aim for” (cited in Bostock, 2000:
11).
For Aristotle, The Good is defined at the outset in terms of the goal, purpose, or aim to which
something or somebody moves. To call something “good” is to say that it is under certain
conditions sought or aimed at (MacIntyre, 1966: 58). Human beings have numerous activities,
numerous ends, and hence, numerous goods. For example, you eat the right food in order to
have a healthy body. Having a healthy body will allow you to function normally and do the
necessary activities in life. These activities include performing daily tasks or chores, going to
school (if you are a student) or going to work (if you are employed). All of these activities are not
only good in themselves, but they likewise envision a higher purpose: to achieve a greater good,
i.e., to live well and to be happy in life.

But there is one supreme good, the ultimate good which is also considered the ultimate end of
our actions. This “supreme good” is what Aristotle calls eudaimonia which is usually translated
as “happiness”, “virtue”, “well-being” or “human flourishing”. David Bostock offers a translation
which he believes is very much close to the original Greek understanding of eudaimonia—“living
well and doing well” which literally means “a good life” (Bostock, 11). However, eudaimonia is
something which is long term. As Bostock puts it: “one cannot be eudaimon just for an hour or
so. For example: ‘I was happy when I got up, but at breakfast I feel depressed.’” The concept of
eudaimonia is similar to asking somebody questions like “are you happy with your family life?”
or “Are you happy with your job?” which are questions which involve a long period of time (and
sometimes a lifetime).

Virtue as Excellence

Moral theories are intricately linked with doing right actions. However, virtue ethics changes the
kind of questions asked about ethics. Whereas, deontology and consequentialism concern
themselves with the purpose or outcome of certain actions, virtue ethics is concerned with the
good life and what kind of person you ought to become which is directly linked with the final end
of the human person. A virtue is a good habit. To influence your lives in a deeper way, norms
need to be internalized into your character (Gensler, 2011, p. 139).

Aristotle claimed that the good life for any person is “an activity of the soul in accordance with
excellence.” Here, “excellence” is oftentimes translated as “virtue”. Pojman and Fieser (2012)
define virtue as “trained behavioral dispositions that result in habitual acts of moral goodness”.
The opposite of virtue is vice, which is “trained behavioral disposition that results in habitual acts
of moral wrongness” (Pojman & Fieser, 2012, p. 167). Human beings, like any other species,
move toward his/her end, “and his end can be determined simply by considering what
distinguishes him/her from other species” (Mac Intyre, 63).
The good of man is defined as the activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, or, as Mac Intyre
explains, “if there are a number of excellences or virtues, in accordance with the best and most
perfect of them.” According to Aristotle, the proper function of the human person “consists in
conformity with a rational principle” which is equivalent to “an individual who sets high standards
for himself” (Aristotle, Book I). For example, the function of a flute player is to play the flute; the
function of the flute player who has high standards is to play the flute well. The same is true with
the shoemaker. The function of a shoemaker is to make shoes; but the function of an excellent
shoemaker is to make the best shoes.

Virtue as Praxis

The attainment of happiness involves a lifetime activity. Virtue is not inborn, but a consequence
of training. You become virtuous by acquiring the habit and continually performing the acts. One
becomes a good guitar player through rigorous training and discipline. If you possess the
character trait of kindness, you are expected to act kindly in all sorts of situations, towards all
kinds of people, and over long periods of time, even if it is difficult to do so. A person with a
certain character can be relied upon to act consistently over time.

It is important to recognize that moral character develops over a long period of time. People are
born with all sorts of natural tendencies. Some of these natural tendencies will be positive, such
as having a placid and friendly nature, and some will be negative, such as being hot-tempered
and always jealous. These natural tendencies can be encouraged and developed or discouraged
and thwarted by the influences a person is exposed to when growing up.

The habitual doing of virtuous actions will develop in you a second nature (it has become a “skill”
or “craft”) so that being just need not exert much effort to become just. Being just comes out
naturally for you. In the same way, a good person is somebody who is “good at doing good.”
Hence, the purpose of virtue ethics is to produce “excellent persons, who act well out of
spontaneous goodness, and serve as an example to inspire others (Pojman & Fieser, 2012, p.
147).

In addition to this, Aristotelean virtue is, importantly, about a state of being and doing. It is about
having the appropriate inner states. For example, the virtue of kindness involves the right sort of
emotions and inner states with respect to your feelings towards others. Character is also about
doing. Aristotelean virtue ethics is a theory of action, since having the virtuous inner dispositions
will also involve being moved to act in accordance with them. Realizing that kindness is the
appropriate response to a situation and feeling appropriately kindly disposed will also lead to a
corresponding attempt to act kindly. As Dr. Garrett expounds: “a character is formed as a result
of more or less freely selected actions of a certain kind.”
Lastly, Aristotle believes that the highest good “rightly belongs to the most sovereign and most
comprehensive master of science” which is politics. Aristotle sees politics as something good,
“for the end of politics is the good of man” (Aristotle, 1094 b: 5). The State exists in order to serve
its citizens. For Aristotle, ethics is a branch of politics, that is to say, “it is the duty of the
statesman to create for its citizens the best possible opportunity of living the good life” (Thomson,
2008: 26).

W. D. Ross puts it brilliantly when he said that Aristotle’s ethics is social and his politics are
ethical: “for he (Aristotle) does not forget that the individual man is essentially a member of
society, and that the good life of the state exists only in the good lives of its citizens” (Ross,
1961: 183). However, it should be noted that the highest good of the citizens will be the business
of the citizens themselves, i.e., individual citizens must strive to attain their highest good. The
role of the state is just to provide conditions protecting the individual in the personal pursuit of
the good.

Aristotle’s 12 virtues

Aristotle’s 12 virtues are a great checklist to understand the different morals, values, and virtues
that you could cultivate or restrain in your life. It’s like an ancient Greek personality test.

Moderation in all things, including moderation: Aristotle was clear that too much (excess) of any
virtue is just as bad as lack (deficiency). You must find the mean, the right balance.

For example, too much courage is foolhardy and could get you killed. Too little courage and you
avoid healthy risks and are seen as a coward. Too much modesty and you may be seen as shy
and withdrawn. Too little modesty and you become irritating and boastful. And so on.

1) Courage – bravery

2) Temperance – moderation

3) Liberality – spending
4) Magnificence – charisma, style

5) Magnanimity – generosity

6) Ambition – pride

7) Patience – temper, calm

8) Friendliness – social IQ

9) Truthfulness – honesty, candidness

10) Wit – humor, joy

11) Modesty – ego

12) Justice – sense of right / wrong, indignation

Aristotle also gave specific labels to each virtue when it was either excessive or deficient.
1. How important is Aristotle’s virtue ethics in the moral development of the human person?
2. How can Aristotle’s virtue ethics help you to become a better citizen? How can it help in nation
building?

House Bill 6052, titled “An Act Strengthening the Juvenile Justice System in the Philippines”
seeks to lower the age of criminal responsibility from 15 to 12 years old. Proponents of the bill,
headed by House Committee on Justice panel chair Rep. Salvador Leachon argued that the bill
will not put children in jail “but in reformative institutions to correct their ways and bring them
back to the community.” On the other hand, opponents of the said bill, including women and
children’s rights groups called the bill anti-children and anti-poor for it will only target children
from poor communities. UNICEF calls it an “act of violence against children”. The Psychological
Association of the Philippines (PAP) expressed its long condemnation of the said Bill providing
solid research-based arguments to prove its claim.

1. Read the Statement of Psychological Association of the Philippines (PAP) on House Bill
6052 (see link below). What are the main points of PAP in opposing the said Bill?

2. Are the arguments presented by PAP consistent with Aristotle’s virtue ethics? Why? Why
not? Support your answer by using references from books and journals.

3. Using virtue ethics, are you in favor or against the said Bill? Support your answer by
citing authoritative sources (books, journals, articles)
https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/lowering-age-criminal-responsibility-against-
child-rights-unicef

https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/19/19/unicef-lowering-age-of-criminal-liability-act-of-
violence-against-children

https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/01/22/1887209/highlights-house-panels-bill-age-
criminal-responsibility

https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1059559

https://www.pap.org.ph/position-paper/amendment-juvenile-justice-and-welfare-act

https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/in-depth/222628-reason-experts-strongly-opposing-
lowering-minimum-age-criminal-responsibility

https://kevinhabits.com/aristotles-12-virtues-from-courage-to-magnificence-patience-to-wit/

Bostock, D. (2000). Aristotle’s Ethics. NY: Oxford University Press, 11

Garrett, J. (2009). Virtue Ethics: A Basic Introductory Essay. Available online in

Gensler, H. (2011). Ethics: A Contemporary Introduction, 2nd Edition. NY: Routledge, 139.

Mac Intyre, A. (1966). A Short History of Ethics. NY: Mc Millan Publishing Co., 58

Miranda, E. (2001). Philosophy of Education: A Collection of Essays. Manila: Rex Bookstore, 75

Ross, W. (1961). Aristotle: A Complete Exposition of his Works and Thought. Cleveland:
Meridian Books, 183

Stumph, S. (2003). Philosophy: History and Problems. NY: McGraw-Hill, 2003, 38-39.