ASHRAE CH 01 (HVAC System and Selection)
ASHRAE CH 01 (HVAC System and Selection)
ASHRAE CH 01 (HVAC System and Selection)
0 7 5 9 b 5 0 05Liô5bL 5 0 5
CHAPTER 1
System Constraints
SELECTING A SYSTEM
Once the goal criteria and additional goal options are listed,
The design engineer is responsible for considering various sys- many constraints must be determined and documented. These con-
tems and recommending one or two that will satisfy the goal and straints may include
perform as desired. It is imperative that the design engineer and the
owner collaborate on identifying and rating the criteria associated Performance limitations (Le., temperature, humidity, and space
with the design goal. Some criteria that may be considered are pressure)
Available capacity
Temperature, humidity, and space pressure requirements Available space
Capacity requirements Availability utility source
Redundancy Building architecture
Spatial requirements Construction budget
First cost
Operating cost Few Droiects allow detailed auantitative evaluation of all alter-
& -
Maintenance cost natives. Common sense, historical data, and subjective experience
Reliability can be used to narrow choices to one or two potential systems.
Flexibility Heating and air conditioning loads often contribute to the con-
straints, narrowing the choice to systems that will fit in the available
Life cycle analysis
space and be compatible with the building architecture. Chapter 28
Because these factors are interrelated, the owner and design of the 1997ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals describes methods
engineer must consider how these criteria affect each other. The rel- used to determine the size and characteristics of the heating and air
ative importance of factors, such as these, differs with different conditioning loads. By establishing the capacity requirement the
owners and often changes from one project to another for the same size of equipment can be determined, and the choice may be nar-
owner. For example, typical concerns of owners include first cost rowed to those systems that work well on projects within a size
compared to operating cost, the extent and frequency of mainte- range.
nance and whether that maintenance requires entering the occupied Loads vary over time due to the time of dayhight, changes in the
space, the expected frequency of failure of a system, the impact of weather, occupancy, activities, and solar exposure. Each space with
a failure, and the time required to correct the failure. Each of these a different use and/or exposure may require a different control zone
concerns has a different priority, depending on the owner’s goals. to maintain space comfort. Some areas with special requirements
may need individual systems. The extent of zoning, the degree of
Additional Goals control required in each zone, and the space required for individual
In addition to the primary goal to provide the desired environ- zones also narrow the system choices.
ment, the design engineer must be aware of and account for other No matter how efficiently a particular system operates or how
goals the owner may require. These goals may include economical it is to install, it can only be considered if it ( i ) main-
~
tains the desired building space environment within an acceptable
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 9.1, Large Building Air- tolerance under all conditions and occupant activities and (2) phys-
conditioning Systems. ically fits into the building without being objectionable.
1.1
COPYRIGHT American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AC Engineers
Licensed by Information Handling Services
' m0757b50 05Li8562 9 4 1 0
Cooling and humidity control are often the basis of sizing Each selection may require combining a primary system with a
HVAC components and subsystems, but the system may also be secondary system (or distribution system). The primary system
determined based on the ventilation criteria. For example, if large converts energy from fuel or electricity into a heating and/or cooling
quantities of outside air are required for ventilation or to replace air media. The secondary system delivers heating, ventilation, and/or
exhausted from the building, only systems that transport large air cooling to the occupied space. The two systems, to a great extent,
volumes need to be considered. are independent, so several secondary systems may work with a par-
Effective delivery of heat to an area may be an equally impor- ticular primary system. In some cases, however, only one secondary
tant factor in the selection. A distribution system that offers high system may be suitable for a particular primary system.
efficiency and comfort for cooling may be a poor choice for heating. Once subjective analysis has identified one or two HVAC sys-
This performance compromise may be small for one application in tems (sometimes only one choice may remain), detailed quantitative
one climate, but may be unacceptable in another that has more strin- evaluations must be made. All systems considered should provide
gent heating requirements. satisfactory performance to meet the owner's essential goals. The
HVAC systems and the associated distribution systems often design engineer should provide the owner with specific data on each
occupy a significant amount of space. Major components may system to make an informed choice. The following chapters in the
also require special support from the structure. The size and appear- ASHRAE Handbooks should be consulted to help narrow the
ance of terminai devices (Le., diffusers, fan-coil units, radiant pan- choices:
eis, etc.) have an affect on the architectural design because they are Chapter 8, 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals covers
visible in the occupied space. physiological principles, comfort, and health.
Other architectural factors that limit the selection of some sys- Chapter 30, 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals covers
tems include methods for estimating annual energy costs.
. Acceptable noise levels in the occupied space
Space available to house equipment and its location relative to the
Chapter 34, 1999 ASHRAE Handbook-Applications
methods for energy management.
covers
The report should include an HVAC system selection matrix that for this shortcoming. Thus, a life cycle cost analysis is very impor-
identifies the one or two suggested HVAC system (primary and sec- tant when evaluating central versus decentralized systems.
ondary when applicable) selections, system constraints, and other Operating cost. A central system usually has the advantage of
constraints. In completing this matrix assessment, the engineer larger, more energy efficient primary equipment when compared to
should have the owner’s input to the analysis. This input can also be decentralized system equipment.
applied as weighted multipliers. Maintenance cost. The equipment room for a centrai system
Many grading methods are used to complete an analytical matrix provides the benefit of maintaining its HVAC equipment away from
analysis. Probably the simplest grading method is to rate each item the occupants in an appropriate service work environment. Access
ExcellentlVery Good/Gocd/Fair/Poor. A numerical rating system to the building occupant workspace is not required, thus eliminating
such as O to 10, with 10 equal to Excellent and O equal to Poor, can disruption to the space environment, product, or process. Another
provide a quantitative result. The HVAC system with the highest advantage may be that because of its larger capacity, there is less
numerical value then becomes the recommended HVAC system to HVAC equipment to service.
accomplish the goal. Reliability. Central system equipment can be an attractive ben-
The system selection report should include a summary that pro- efit when considering its long service life.
vides an overview followed by a more detailed account of the
Flexibility. Redundancy can be a benefit when selecting standby
HVAC system analysis and system selection. This summary should
equipment that provides an alternative source of HVAC or backup.
highlight the key points and findings that led to the recommenda-
tion(s). The analysis should refer to the system selection matrix Among the largest central systems are those HVAC plants serv-
(such as in Table 1) and the reasons for scoring. ing groups of large buildings. These plants provide improved diver-
A more detailed analysis, beginning with the owner’s goal, sity and generally operate more efficiently with lower maintenance
should immediately following the summary. With each HVAC sys- costs than individual centrai plants. The economics of these larger
tem considered, the design engineer should note the criteria associ- central systems require extensive analysis. The utility analysis con-
ated with each selection. Issues such as close temperature and siders multiple fuels and may also include gas and steam turbine-
humidity control may eliminate some HVAC systems from being driven equipment. Multiple types of primary equipment using mul-
considered. System constraints and other constraints, noted with tiple fuels and types of HVAC generating equipment (Le., centrifu-
each analysis, should continue to eliminate HVAC systems. Advan- gal and absorption chillers) may be installed in combination in one
tages and disadvantages of each system should be noted with the plant. Chapter 12, Chapter 13, and Chapter 14 provide design
scoring from the HVAC system selection matrix. This process details for central plants.
should reduce the HVAC selection to one or two optimum choices
to present to the owner. Examples of installations for other owners Decentralized System Features
should be included with this report to endorse the design engineer’s
Some of the criteria associated with this concept are as follows:
final recommendation.This third party endorsement allows the
owner to inquire about the success of these other HVAC systems. Temperature, humidity, and space pressure requirements. A
decentralized system may be able to fulfill any or all of these design
HVAC SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT parameters.
HVAC systems may be central or decentralized. In addressing Capacity requirements. A decentralized system usually
the primary equipment location, the design engineer may locate this requires each piece of equipment to be sized for the maximum
equipment in a central plant (either inside or outside the building) capacity. Depending on the type and location of the equipment,
and distribute the air and/or water for HVAC needs from this plant. decentralized systems cannot take as much benefit of equipment
The other option is to decentralizethe equipment, with the primary sizing diversity when compared to the centrai system diversity fac-
equipment located throughout the building, on the building, or adja- tor potential.
cent to the building. Redundancy. A decentralized system may not have the benefit
of backup or standby equipment. This limitation may need review.
Central System Features Space requirements. A decentralized system may or may not
Some of the criteria associated with this concept are as follows: have in equipment rooms. Due to the space restrictions imposed on
the design engineer or architect, equipment may be located on the
Temperature, humidity, and space pressure requirements. A roof and/or the ground adjacent to the building.
central system may be able to fulfill any or ali of these design
First cost. A decentralized system probably has the best first cost
parameters.
benefit. This feature can be enhanced by phasing in the purchase of
Capacity requirements. A centrai system usually allows the
decentralized equipment on an as-needed basis (Le., purchasing
design engineer to consider HVAC diversity factors that reduce the
equipment as the building is being leasedloccupied).
installed equipment capacity. In turn, this offers some attractive first
cost and operating cost benefits. Operating cost. A decentralized system can emphasize this as a
Redundancy. A central system can accommodate standby benefit when strategically starting and stopping multiple pieces of
equipment of equal size or of a preferred size that decentralized con- equipment. When comparing energy consumption based on peak
figurations may have trouble accommodating. energy draw, decentralized equipment may not be as attractive when
Spatial requirements. The equipment room for a central system compared to larger, more energy efficient central equipment.
is normally located outside the conditioned area-in a basement, Maintenance cost. A decentralized system can emphasize this
penthouse, service area, or adjacent to or remote from the building. as a benefit when equipment is conveniently located and the equip-
A disadvantage with this approach may be the additional cost to ment size and associated components (Le., filters) are standardized.
furnish and install secondary equipment for the air and/or water When equipment is located on a roof, maintainability may be diffi-
distribution. A second consideration is the access and physical cult because it is difficult to access during bad weather.
constraints throughout the building to furnish and install this sec- Reliability. A decentralized system historically has reliable
ondary distribution network of ducts and/or pipes. equipment, although the estimated equipment service life may be
First cost. A central system may not be the least costly when less than that of centralized equipment.
compared to decentralized HVAC systems. Historically, central sys- Flexibility. A decentralized system may be very flexible because
tem equipment has a longer equipment service life to compensate it may be placed in numerous locations.
In addition, ASHRAE Standard 15, Safety Code for Mechanical vertical shafts are electric conduitsklosets, telephone cablingklos-
Refrigeration should be consulted for special equipment room ets, plumbing piping, fire protection piping, pneumatic tubes, and
requirements. conveyers.
Most air-conditioned buildings require a cooling tower or con- Vertical shafts should be clear of stairs and elevators on at least
denser unit. If the cooling tower or air-cooled or water-cooled con- two sides to permit access to ducts, pipes, and conduit that enter and
denser is located on the ground, it should be at least 30 m away from exit the shaft while allowing maximum headroom at the ceiling. In
the building ( I ) to reduce tower noise in the building, (2) to keep general, duct shafts having an aspect ratio of 2: 1 to 4: 1 are easier to
discharge air and moisture carry-over from fogging the building’s develop than large square shafts. The rectangular shape also makes
windows and discoloring the facade of the building, and ( 3 ) to keep it easier to go from the equipment in the fan rooms to the shafts.
discharge air and moisture carry-over from contaminating outdoor In multistory buildings a vertical distribution system with mini-
air being introduced into the building. Cooling towers should be mal horizontal branch ductwork is desirable because it is ( I ) usually
kept the same distance from parking lots to avoid staining car fin- less costly; (2) easier to balance; ( 3 ) creates less conflict with pipes,
ishes with water treatment chemicals. Chapter 35 and Chapter 36 beams, and lights; and (4)enables the architect to design lower
have further information on this equipment. floor-to-floor heights. These advantages also hold for vertical water
It is often economical to locate the heating plant and/or refriger- and steam pipe distribution systems.
ation plant at an intermediate floor or on the roof. The electrical ser- The number of shafts is a function of building size and shape. In
vice and structural costs are higher, but these may be offset by larger buildings, it is usually more economical in cost and space to
reduced costs for heating piping, condenser and chilled water pip- have several small shafts rather than one large shaft. Separate
ing, energy consumption, and a chimney through the building. Also, HVAC supply air, return air, and exhaust air duct shafts may be
the initial cost of equipment may be less because the operating pres- desired to reduce the number of duct crossovers. The same can be
sure is lower. said for steam supply and condensate return pipe shafts because the
Applicable regulations relative to both gas and fuel oil systems pipe must be pitched in the direction of flow. From 10% to 15%
must be followed. Gas fuel may be more desirable than fuel oil. Fuel additional shaft space should be allowed for future expansion and
oil storage has specific environmental and safety concerns. In addi- modifications. This additional space may also reduce the initial
tion, the cost of oil leak detection and prevention may be substantial. installation cost.
Oil pumping presents added design and operating problems.
Energy recovery systems can reduce the size of the heating Equipment Access
plant and/or refrigeration plant. Well-insulated buildings and elec- Properly designed mechanical and electrical equipment rooms
tric and gas utility rate structures may encourage the design engi- must allow for the movement of large, heavy equipment in, out, and
neer to consider several energy conservation concepts such as through the building. Equipment replacement and maintenance can
limiting demand, free cooling and thermal storage. be very costly if access is not planned properly.
Because systems vary greatly, it is difficult to estimate space
Fan Rooms requirements for refrigeration and boiler rooms without making
The fan rooms house the HVAC fan equipment and may include block layouts of the system selected. Block layouts allow the engi-
other miscellaneous equipment. The room must have space for re- neer to develop the most efficient arrangement of the equipment
moval of the fan shaft and coil. Installation, replacement, and main- with adequate access and serviceability. Block layouts can also be
tenance of this equipment should be considered when locating and used in preliminary discussions with the owner and architect. Only
arranging the room. then can the engineer obtain verification of the estimates and pro-
Fan rooms may be placed in a basement that has an airway for vide a workable and economical design.
intake of outdoor air. In this situation the placement of air intake
louver(s) is a concern because of debris from leaves and snow may AIR DISTRIBUTION
fill the area. Also, if parking areas are close to the building, the qual- Ductwork should deliver conditioned air to an area as directly,
ity of outdoor air may be compromised. quietly, and economically as possible. Structural features of the
Fan rooms on the second floor and above, have easier access for building generally require some compromise and often limit the
outdoor air. exhaust air, and equipment replacement. The number of depth of the space available for ducts. Chapter 9 discusses air dis-
fan rooms required depends largely on the total floor area and tribution design for small heating and cooling systems. Chapter 32
whether the HVAC system is centralized or decentralized. Buildings of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals discusses space
with large floor areas may have multiple decentralized fan rooms on air distribution and duct design.
each floor or a large central fan unit serving the entire area. High- The designer must coordinate duct design with the structure as
rise buildings may also opt for decentralized fan rooms for each well as other mechanical, electrical, and communication systems. In
floor; or they may have a more central concept with one fan room commercially developed projects, a great effort is made to reduce
serving the lower 10 to 20 floors, one serving the middle floors of floor-to-floor dimensions. The resultant decrease in the available
the building, and one at the roof serving the top floors. interstitial space for ductwork is a major design challenge. In insti-
Life safety is a very important factor in fan room location. Chap- tutional buildings, higher floor-to-floor heights are required due to
ter 5 1 of the 1999ASHRAE Handbook-Applications discusses fire the sophistication and complexity of the mechanical, electrical, and
and smoke management. In addition, state and local codes have communication distribution systems.
additional fire and smoke detection and damper criteria.
Air Terminal Units
Vertical Shafts In some instances, such as in low velocity, all-air systems, the
Vertical shafts provide space for air distribution and water and air may enter from the supply air ductwork directly into the condi-
steam (pipe) distribution. Air distribution includes HVAC supply tioned space through a grille or diffuser. In medium and high veloc-
air, return air, and exhaust air ductwork. If the shaft is used as a ity air systems, an intermediate device normally controls air
return air plenum, close coordination with the architect is necessary volume, reduces duct pressure, or both. Various devices are avail-
to insure that the shaft is airtight. Pipe distribution includes hot able, including (1) a fan-powered terminal unit, which uses an inte-
water, chilled water, condenser water, and steam supply and con- gral fan to accomplish the mixing rather than depending on the
densate return. Other mechanical and electrical distribution found in induction principle; (2) a variable air volume (VAV) terminal unit,
which varies the amount of air delivered to the space (this air may ASHRAE Standard 90.1 and Chapters 24 and 33 of the 1997
be delivered to low-pressure ductwork and then to the space, or the ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals have information regarding
terminai may contain an integral air diffuser); (3) an all-air induc- insulation and the calculation methods.
tion terminal unit, which controls the volume of primary air,
induces return air, and distributes the mixture through low-velocity SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
ductwork to the space; and (4) an air-water induction terminal,
which includes a coil in the induced airstream. Chapter 17 has System management is an important factor in choosing the opti-
more information'about air terminai units. mum HVAC system. It can be as simple as a time clock to start and
stop the equipment or as sophisticated as a computerized facility
Insulation management software system serving large centralized HVAC mul-
tiple systems, decentralized HVAC systems, a large campus, etc.
In new construction and renovation upgrade projects, HVAC
supply air ductwork should be insulated in accordance with energy
code requirements. ASHRAE Standard 90.1, Section 9.4, and
Automatic Controls
Chapter 32 of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals have Basic HVAC system management is available in electric, pneu-
more information about insulation and the calculation methods. matic, or electronic temperature control systems. Depending on the
application, the design engineer may recommend a simple and basic
Ceiling Plenums management strategy as a cost-effective solution to an owner's heat-
Frequently, the space between the suspended ceiling and the ing, ventilation, and refrigeration needs. Chapter 45 of the 1999
Boor slab above it is used as a return air plenum to reduce the dis- ASHRAE Handbook-Applications and Chapter 37 of the 1997
tribution ductwork. Refer to existing regulations before using this ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals discuss automatic control in
approach in new construction or a renovation because most codes more detail.
prohibit combustible material in a ceiling return air plenum. The next level of HVAC system management is direct digital
Some ceiling plenum applications with lay-in panels do not work control either with or without pneumatic control damper and valve
well where high-rise elevators or the stack effect of a high-rise actuators. This automatic control enhancement may include energy
building create a negative pressure. If the plenum leaks to the low- monitoring and energy management software. The configuration
pressure area, the tiles may lift and drop out when the outside door may also be accessible by the building manager via telephone
is opened and closed. modem to a remote computer at an off-site location. Chapter 40 of
Raised floors with a plenum space directly below are another the 1999 ASHRAE Handbook-Applications covers building oper-
way to provide horizontal air distribution and/or a return air plenum. ating dynamics.
The return air temperature in a return air plenum directly below Using computer technology and associated software the design
a roof deck is substantially higher during the air conditioning season engineer and the building manager can provide complete facility
than in a ducted return. This can be an advantage to the occupied management. This comprehensive building management system
space below because the heat gain to the space is reduced. Con- may include HVAC system control, energy management, operation
versely, return air plenums directly below a roof deck have substan- and maintenance management, fire alarm system control, and other
tially lower return air temperatures during the heating season than a reporting and trending software. This system may also be integrated
ducted return and may require supplemental heat in the plenum. and accessible from the owner's information technology computer
network and the Internet.
PIPING
System Management Interface
Piping should deliver refrigerant, hot water, chilled water, con-
denser water, condensate drains, fuel oil, gas, steam, and condensate Today, system management includes the purchasing of auto-
to and from HVAC equipment as directly, quietly, and economically matic controls that come prepackaged and prewired on the HVAC
as possible. Structural features of the building generally require equipment. In the analysis and selection of a system, the design
mechanical and electrical coordination to accommodate pipe pitch, engineer needs to include the merits of purchasing prepackaged
draining of low points in the system, and venting of high point in the automation versus traditional building automation systems. Current
system. Chapters 33 of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamen- HVAC controls and their capabilities need to be compatible with
tals covers pipe distribution and pipe design. other new and existing automatic controls. Chapter 38 of the 1999
ASHRAE Handbook-Applications discusses computer applica-
Pipe Systems tions and ASHRAE Standard 135 discusses interfacing building
HVAC piping systems can be divided into two parts; (1) the pip- automation systems.
ing in the central plant equipment room and (2) the piping required Other interfaces to be considered include the interface and com-
to deliver refrigerant, hot water, chilled water, condenser water, patibility of other mechanical and electric control and management
condensate drain, fuel oil, gas supply, steam supply, and condensate systems. Building systems, such as the fire alarm, medical gas sys-
return to and from HVAC and process equipment throughout the tems, and communication systems are just three of the management
building. Chapters 10 through 14 discuss piping for various heating interfaces that an owner may want to work in unison with the HVAC
and cooling systems. Chapters 1 through 4 and 32 of the 1998 ASH- control system. Predictive and preventive maintenance using com-
RAE Handbook-Refrigeration discuss refrigerant piping practices, puterized maintenance management software (CMMS) also en-
The major piping in the central plant equipment room includes hances the management and should be considered.
refrigerant, hot water, chilled water, condenser water, condensate
drains, fuel oil, gas supply, steam supply, and condensate return STANDARDS
connections. ASHRAE Stundurd 15-1994. Safety code for mechanical refrigeration.
Insulation ASHRAEíiESNA Standard 90.1-1999. Energy efíicient design of new
buildings except low-rise residential buildings.
In new construction and renovation upgrade projects, W A C ASHRAE Standard 135-1995. BACnet-A data communication protocol
piping may or may not be insulated based on existing code criteria. for building automation and control networks.