Strength of Materials

Mechatronics Department
2nd Year
Dr. Furat Ibrahim Hussein Al-Najjar
Reference

Mechanics of Materials,
Eight Edition,
R. C. HIBBLER,
Pearson, 2011.
 Why Mechanics of Materials? SAFETY and COST !!
Anyone concerned with the strength and physical performance of
natural/man-made structures should study Mechanics of Materials
Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that
studies the behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types
of external loading and the resulting internal effects of stresses
and strains in a solid body that is subjected to an external
loading.
The main objective of the study of mechanics of
materials is to provide us with the means of
analyzing and designing various machines and
load bearing structures.

Both the analysis and design of a given structure

involve the determination of stresses and
deformations.
 Compression Tension (stretched) Bending Torsion (twisted) Shearing

Stress is associated with the strength of the material from

which the body is made, while strain is a measure of the
deformation of the body.
 A bundle of Properties
Stress
strain
deformation
Elasticity
Plasticity (inelasticity)
Young's Modulus
load-carrying capacity
Brittleness
Ductility
Stress-Strain Test
 Stress-Strain Curve

The largest stress for which this

occurs is called the elastic limit.

If the strain disappears when the

stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.
When the strain does not return to zero
after the stress is removed, the material is
said to behave plastically.
Ductile Materials
Brittle Materials
Ductile vs. Brittle
Ductile Fracture
Brittle Fracture
 External and Internal Forces

External forces represent the action of other

bodies on a rigid body under consideration.

Surface Forces due External forces developed

to direct contact of when a body exerts a force
one body with the on another body without
surface of another. direct contact physical
contact between the bodies
such as the effects caused
Concentrated linear by the earth's gravitation
force distributed or its electromagnetic field
load
.
 Equilibrium of Deformable Body

In general, if the support

prevents translation in a
given direction, then a force
must be developed on the
member in that direction.
Likewise, if the rotation is
prevented, a couple moment
must be exerted on the
member
Equations of Equilibrium
Equilibrium of a body requires both a balance of forces to prevent the body
from translating or having accelerated motion along it straight or curved
path, and it balance of moment to prevent the body from rotating. The
loading on a body can be represented as system coplanar forces (x-y plane):
Problem Solving

 Draw the free-body diagram

 Check your diagram
 Calculate the unknowns
 Check your working
 Compute the problem Both the analysis and design of a various
 Check your working machines and load bearing structures
 Write the solution involve the determination of stresses and
deformations.
• The structure is designed to
support a 30 kN load

• The structure consists of a

boom and rod joined by pins
(zero moment connections)
at the junctions and supports

• Perform a static analysis to

determine the internal force in
each structural member and
the reaction forces at the
supports
• Conditions for static equilibrium:
 M C  0  Ax 0.6 m   30 kN 0.8 m 
Ax  40 kN
 Fx  0 Ax  C x
C x   Ax  40 kN
 Fy  0  Ay  C y  30 kN  0
Ay  C y  30 kN

• Ay and Cy can not be determined from

these equations
• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
 M B  0   Ay 0.8 m 
Ay  0
substitute into the structure equilibrium
equation
C y  30 kN

• Results:
A  40 kN  Cx  40 kN  C y  30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along boom

and rod
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at member ends

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to

to an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:

 FB  0
FAB FBC 30 kN
 
4 5 3
FAB  40 kN FBC  50 kN
 Can the structure safely support the 30 kN
load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
• At any section through member BC, the
internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P 50 103 N
 BC    159 MPa
A 31410-6 m 2

• From the material properties for steel, the

allowable stress is
 all  165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate
• Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod from
aluminum all= 100 MPa). What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50 103 N
 all  A   500 10 6 m 2
A  all 100 106 Pa
d2
A
4

d
4A


4 500 10 6 m 2   2.52 102 m  25.2 mm
 

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is

adequate
 Classification of Materials
good electrical and thermal conductivity, high
melting points, high strength, high stiffness,
ductility, formability and shock resistance.

high melting temperatures, high electrical

resistivity, a broad range of thermal
conductivity (some ceramics are excellent
insulators), high Strength, high hardness and
brittleness.
very good electrical resistivity, good thermal
isolation, good resistance to corrosion and
corrosive chemicals, lower strength, very good
ductility and good strength to weight ratio.
They are not suitable for use at high
temperatures.
Composites
Have two phases :
• The reinforcing phase is the
fibers, sheets, or particles that
are embedded in the:
• matrix phase.
Simple Stresses and Strains
YOUNG’s MODULUS, E
 YIELD STRESS, σy, and
TENSILE STRENGTH, UTS
 Deformation of a body due to force acting on it
Tensile stress
When a section is subjected to two equal
and opposite pull forces, as a result the body
tends to lengthen.

Compressive stress
When a section is subjected to two equal
and opposite push forces, as a result the
body tends to shorten.

Body deformation δL will be

 Axial

Transverse Lateral
generally in 0 < ν < 0.5

Poisson ratio Longitudinal

 Deformation of a body is subjected to a
number of forces acting on its outer edges

the load is split up and their effects are

considered on individual sections
Deformation of a multi sections body
δL is the summation of the deformations of each individual section

or both cases at the same time?

Example 3.1: A hollow cylinder 2 m long has an outside diameter of 50 mm and
inside diameter of 30 mm. If the cylinder is carrying load of 25 kN, find the stress
in the cylinder. Also, find the deformation of the cylinder, if the value of the
modulus of elasticity for the cylinder material is 100 GPa.

Example 3.2: A load of 5 kN is to be raised with the help of a steel wire. Find the
minimum diameter of the steel wire, if the stress not exceeds 100 MPa.

Example 3.3: The rectangular specimen, 16 mm wide and 2 mm thick,

carries a tensile load of 1200 N. The axially oriented extensometer
measures an elongation of 0.014 mm over a gage length of 26 mm. The
transversely oriented extensometer measures a contraction of 0.0018
mm over a gage length of 10 mm. From the measured load, the
extensometer readings, and the dimensions, determine the elastic
modulus and the Poisson ratio, assuming the material is linear elastic.
Example 3.4: Two wires, one of steel and the other from copper, are of the same
length and are subjected to the same tension. If the diameter of the copper wire is 2
mm, find the diameter of steel wire, if they are elongated be the same amount. Take
E for steel as 200 GPa and that for copper as 100 GPa.

Example 3.5: Determine the stress in each section of the bar shown in the figure
below when subjected to an axial tensile load of 20 kN. The central section is 30
mm square cross-section; the other portions are of circular section, their diameters
being indicated. What will be the total extension of the bar. Take E for the bar
material as E = 210 GN/m2.
Example 3.6: The 8 kg lamb is supported by two rods AB
and BC as shown in the figure. If it AB has a diameter of l0
mm and BC has a diameter of 8 mm. determine the average
normal stress in each rod.

Example 3.7: A steel bar of cross section 500 mm2 is acted upon by the forces
shown in the figure below. Determine the total elongation of the bar. For steel,
consider E = 200 GPa.

Example 3.8: The bar in the figure below has a constant width of 35 mm and
thickness of 10 mm. Determine the maximum average normal stress in the bar when
it is subjected to the loading shown.
Example 3.9: The pinned members shown below carry
the loads P and 2P. All bars have cross-sectional area A.
Determine the stresses in bars AB and AF.

Example 3.10: A steel bar ABCD 4 m long is subjected to forces P1, P2, P3 and P4
as shown in the figure below. Find the elongation of the bar. Take E for the steel as
200 Gpa.
Example 3.13: A compound bar ABC 1.5 m long is
made of two parts aluminum and steel, the cross
sectional area of Al is twice of the st. bar. The rod
is subjected to an axial tensile load 200 kN. If the
elongations of Al and st. are equal, find the lengths Example 3.14: A steel bar 2 m long and
of the two parts of the compound bar. Take E for 40 mm in diameter is subjected to an
the steel as 200 GPa and for the Al as one third of axial pull of 80 kN. Find the length of
E for steel. the 20 mm diameter bore, which be
centrally carried out, so that the total
elongation should increases by 20%
under the same pull. Take E for the bar
material as 200 Gpa.
Example 3.15: A circular steel road
ABCD of different cross sections is loaded
as shown in the figure. Find the maximum
load induced in the rod and its deformation.
Take E as 200 GPa. Quiz: A bar of steel, having a rectangular
cross-section 7.5 cm by 2.5 cm, carries an axial
tensile load of 180 kN. Estimate the decrease in
the length of the sides of the cross-section if
Young’s modulus, E, is 200 GN/m2 and
Poisson’s ratio, ν, is 0.3.
Quiz: The piston of a hydraulic ram is 40 cm diameter, and the
piston rod 6 cm diameter. The oil pressure is 1 MN/m2. Estimate the
stress in the piston rod and the elongation of a length of 1 m of the rod
when the piston is under pressure from the piston-rod side. Take Young's
modulus as E = 200 GN/m2.
Deformation of a body due to its weight
For a slice of length dx and area A the applied
Load is:

Derive this

Where w is the specific weight of the material (N/m3),

the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume

Unlike density, specific weight is not absolute.

It depends upon the value of the gravitational
acceleration, which varies with location.
Deformation of bars of uniformly
tapering circular sections
Consider a circular bar of uniformly tapering section:

Let
P = Force applied on bar (N)
L = Length of the bar (m)
d1 = Diameter of the bigger end of the bar (m), and
d2 = Diameter of the smaller end of the bar (m)

a small element of length dx, of the bar, at a distance x

from the bigger end

Derive this
Stresses in Composite Bars

♣ Extension or contraction of the bar being equal, i.e. δL1 = δL2.

♣ The total external load on the bar is equal to the summation of the loads carried
by different materials, i.e. P = P1+P2.

Derive this
 Example 3.17: A bar ABC, rigidly fixed
at A and 1 mm above the lower support, is
subjected to an axial load of 50 kN at B as
Example 3.16: A round tapered alloy bar 4 m long shown in the figure. If the cross sectional
is subjected to load as shown in the figure below. area of the section AB is 100 mm2 and
Find the change in the length of the bar. Take E for that of section BC is 200 mm2. Find the
the bar material as 120 GPa. reactions at both ends of the bar. Also,
find the stresses in both sections. Take E=
200 GPa.
Example 3.18: A reinforced circular section
of 50000 mm2 cross sectional area carries
six reinforcing bars. Each bar has a diameter
of 0.4 in.. Find the safe load, the column can
carry if the concrete is not to be stressed
more than 35 bar. Take modular ratio for Example 3.19: An alloy bar of 1m length has
steel and concrete as 18. square section throughout, which tapers from
one end of 10 mm x 10 mm to the other end
of 20 mm x 20 mm. Find the change in its
length due to an axial tensile load of 30 kN.
Take E for the alloy as 120 GPa.
Stresses and strains in statically indeterminate structures
A statically indeterminate system means
that the reactions and internal forces
cannot be analyzed and determined by
the application of the equilibrium
equations of static alone.

For solving statically indeterminate

problems, the deformation characteristics
of a structure are also taken into account
reaction forces and requires deformation
along with the statically equilibrium equations in addition
internal forces can be
equations. found out from static to static equilibrium
‫ردود االفعال والقوى الداخليه نجدها بتطبيق معادالت االتزان فقط‬..‫المحدده‬ equations to solve for
equilibrium equations
‫نجدها بتطبيق معادالت االتزان ومعادالت التشويه اليجاد القوى الغير‬..‫الغير محدده‬ unknown forces
‫معروفه‬
alone
Stresses in indeterminate structure supporting a load

when two or more members supporting a

load. In such cases:

the deformation of all the members will be

the same.

If the members are of different cross

section or have different modulus of
elasticity, then all stresses developed in
the member will be different.
Example 3.20: A square bar of 20 mm side Example 3.21: A block shown in the figure
is held between two rigid planes and loaded below has a mass of 2.55 ton is supported
by an axial force P equal to 450 kN as by three wires; steel and aluminum. Each
shown in the figure. Find the reactions at the outer steel wire has an area of 100 mm2,
ends A and C and the extension of the whereas the middle aluminum wire has an
portion AB. Take E 200 GPa. area of 200 mm2. Calculate the stresses in
the wires. Take E for steel 200 GPa and for
aluminum 80 GPa.
Stresses in composite structures

Example 3.22: Mild steel rod of 20 mm

diameter and 300 mm long is enclosed centrally
inside a hollow copper tube of external diameter
of 30 mm and internal diameter of 25 mm. the
ends of the rods and tube are brazed together,
and the composite bar is subjected to an axial
pull of 40 kN as shown in the figure below. If E
for steel and copper are 200 GPa and 100 Gpa
respectively, find the stresses developed in the
rod and the tube.
Example 3.23: A tri-metallic bar is uniformly
compressed by an axial force of 9 kips applied
through a rigid end plate. The bar consists of a Example 3.24: An aluminium bar 3 m
circular steel core surrounded by brass and long and 2500 mm2 in cross section is
copper tubes. The corresponding moduli of rigidly fixed at A and D as shown below.
elasticity are Es = 300000 ksi, Eb =16000 ksi, Determine the loads shared and stresses
and Ec = 18000 ksi. Calculate the compressive in each portion and the distances through
stresses in the steel, brass, and copper, which the points B and C will move. Take
respectively, due to the force P. E for aluminium as 80 GPa.

1 kip =
4448.2216 N =
4.4482216 kN
Example 3.25: The two vertical rods Example 3.26: As shown in the figure
attached to the light rigid bar in the figure below, a rigid beam with negligible
below are identical except for length. weight is pinned at one end and attached
Before the load W was attached, the bar to two vertical rods. The beam was
was horizontal and the rods were stress- initially horizontal before the load W =
free. Determine the load in each rod if W 22 ton was applied. Find the vertical
= 6600 lb. movement of W.
Stresses in Nuts and Bolts
Whenever a nut is tightened, the bolt will Compressive
Tensile
be subjected to tension whereas the washer stresses
stresses
and the body of the nut will be subjected
to compression.

Rule 1: The tensile load in the bolt is

equal to the compressive load in the
washer and the body between them.

Rule 2: The axial advancement in the nut

is equal to the extension of the bolt plus
the contraction of the washers and the
body between them.
Example 3.27: A steel rod of 20 mm diameter Example 3.28: In the assembly of the
passes centrally through a copper tube of 25 mm bronze tube and steel bolt shown in the
internal diameter and 35 mm external diameter. figure below, the pitch of the bolt thread
The copper tube is 800 mm long and is closed by is p = 1/32 in.; the cross-sectional area of
rigid washers of negligible thickness, which are the bronze tube is 1.5 in.2 and of steel
fastened by nut threaded on the rod as shown in bolt is ¾ in.2 The nut is turned until there
the figure. The nuts are tightened till the load on is a compressive stress of 4000 psi in the
the assembly is 20 kN. Calculate the initial bronze tube. Find the stresses if the nut is
stresses in the copper tube and steel rod. Also, given one additional turn. How many
calculate the increase in stresses, when one nut is turns of the nut will reduce these stresses
tightened by one-quarter of a tern relative to the to zero? Use Ebr = 12 × 106 psi and Est =
other. Take pitch of the thread as 1.6 mm. Take E 29 × 106 psi.
for steel as 200 GPa and for copper as 100 Gpa.
Thermal stresses and strains

Change in temperature of a body causes

change in its dimensions: expanding or contraction

If the body is allowed to expand or contract freely

with the rise or fall of temperature, no stresses will
induced in it
 If the deformation of the body is prevented, some
stresses are induced called thermal stresses.

Stresses ΔT

Thermal Deformation

Thermal Strain

L - Original length of the body

α - Coefficient of thermal expansion
δt – Temperature change (rise or fall)
The total deformation of the bar must be zero
and can be expressed by the effect of thermal
deformation (δLT) and reaction forces
deformation (δLP)
Compound bars subjected to temperature change

Rule 1: Extension of short member (steel or S) +

compression of 1ong member (brass or L) =
difference in free lengths

Rule 2: The tensile load in one member (steel) =

the compression load in other member (brass)
Example 3.29: Two parallel walls 6 m apart are stayed together by a steel rod 25 mm diameter
passing through metal plates and nuts at each end. The nuts are tightened when the rod at a
temperature of 100oC. Determine the stress in the rod when the temperature falls down to 60 oC
if: a) the ends do not yield and b) the ends yield by 1 mm. Take E as 200 GPa and α as 12x10-6
/oC.

Example 3.30: Determine the values of the stress in portions AC and CB of the steel bar shown
in the figure below when the temperature of the bar is -50oF, knowing that a close fit exists at
both of the rigid supports when the temperature is 75oF. Use the values E = 29 x 106 psi and α =
6.5 x 10-6/oF for steel.
Example 3.31: A bar made up of aluminum and steel is held between two supports as shown in
the figure below. The bars are stress free at a temperature of 38oC. What will be the stresses in
the two bars when the temperature is 21oC, if (a) the supports are unyielding, (b) the supports
come nearer to each other by 0.1 mm. Take Est=200 GPa, Eal= 75GPa, αst = 11.7 x 10-6/oC and
αal = 23.4 x 10-6 /oC.

Example 3.32: A flat steel bar of 200mm x 20mm x 8mm is placed between two aluminum bars
of 200mm x 20mm x 6mm so as to form a composite bar as shown below. All the three bars are
fastened together at room temperature. Find the stresses in each bar when the temperature of the
whole assembly is raised by 50 oC. Assume: Est=200 GPa, Eal= 80 GPa, αst = 12 x 10-6/oC
and αal = 24 x 10-6 /oC.
Example 3.33: A bar made up of Example 3.34: A rigid slab weighting 600 kN is
aluminum and steel is held between two placed upon two bronze rods and one steel rod
unyielding supports as shown in the each of 6000 mm2 area at temperature of 15oC as
figure below. An axial load of 200 kN is shown below. Find the temperature at which the
applied at B at 320 K. Find the stresses stress in steel rod will be zero. Take Est=200 GPa,
in each material when the temperature Ebr= 80 GPa, αst = 12 x 10-6/oC and αbt = 18 x
is 370 K. Take Est=210 GPa, Eal= 70 10-6 /oC.
GPa, αst = 12 x 10-6/K and αal = 24 x
10-6 /K.
Example 3.35: A steel rod of 20 mm Example 3.36: As shown in figure below, there is
diameter passes centrally through a tight a gap between the aluminum bar and the rigid
fitting copper tube of external diameter of slab that is supported by two copper bars. At
40 mm. The tube is closed with the help 10°C, Δ = 0.18 mm. Neglecting the mass of the
of rigid washers and nuts threaded on the slab, calculate the stress in each rod when the
rod. The nuts are tightened till the temperature in the assembly is increased to 95°C.
compressive load on the nut is 50 kN as For each copper bar, A= 500 mm2, E = 120 GPa,
shown in the figure below. Determine the and α = 16.8 μm/(m·°C). For the aluminum bar, A
stresses in the rod and the tube, when the = 400 mm2, E = 70 GPa, and α = 23.1
temperature of the assembly falls by 50 μm/(m·°C).
K. Take Est=200 GPa, ECu= 100 GPa,
αst = 12 x 10-6/K and αcu = 18 x 10-6 /K.
Example 3.37: A rigid bar of negligible weight is supported as shown in in figure below. If W =
80 kN, compute the temperature change that will cause the stress in the steel rod to be 55 MPa.
Assume the coefficients of linear expansion are 11.7 μm/(m·°C) for steel and 18.9 μm / (m·°C)
for bronze.

Quiz:
Shear Stresses and Strains
When a body is subjected to two and equal opposite
forces, acting tangentially across a resisting section, as
a result the body tends to shear off across the section
due to the internal exist forces in the plane of the
section. These elementary internal forces are called
Shearing Forces.

shear stress

Shearing stresses
shafts, structures, bolts, pins, and rivets
For different loading situations, we draw the FBD and determine the average shearing
stress in each plane and or the portion of bolt located between single or more planes.

Single shear Double shear

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

Due to a shear force on the body ABCD, a

shear strain γ occurs:

γ is measured in radians and hence it has no units

within the elastic range the shear strain γ is

proportional to the shear stress τ producing it by a
constant G called modulus of rigidity or shear
modulus.
The relation between E and G
A shear stress across a plane is always accompanied by a
balancing shear stress across the plane and normal to it

Derive this
Example 3.38: What force is required Example 3.39: Compute the shearing
to punch a 20 mm diameter hole in a stress in the pin at B for the member
plate of 25 mm thickness? The shear supported as shown in Figure. The pin
strength is 350 MPa. diameter is 20 mm.
Example 3.40: A 200-mm-diameter pulley is Example 3.41: Two blocks of wood, width w
prevented from rotating relative to 60-mm- and thickness t, are glued together along the
diameter shaft by a 70-mm-long key, as joint inclined at the angle θ as shown in the
shown in the figure. If a torque T = 2.2 kN·m figure. Using the free-body diagram concept
is applied to the shaft, determine the width b in Fig. 1-4a, show that the shearing stress on
if the allowable shearing stress in the key is the glued joint is τ = P sin 2θ / 2A, where A is
60 MPa. the cross-sectional area.
Example 3.42: Referring to the figure, Quiz: Two 1.75 in. thick rubber pads are
compute the maximum force P that can be
bonded to three steel plates to form the shear
applied by the machine operator, if the
mount. Find the displacement of the middle
shearing stress in the pin at B and the axial
plate when the 1200 lb load is applied.
stress in the control rod at C are limited to
Consider the deformation of rubber only. Use
4000 psi and 5000 psi, respectively. The
E = 500 psi and ν = 0:48 for rubber.
diameters are 0.25 inch for the pin, and 0.5
inch for the control rod. Assume single shear
for the pin at B.
Working Stress and Factor of Safety
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or
ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the
working stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.
working stress = design stress = safe stress = allowable stress

Because of uncertainties of loading conditions, design

procedures, production methods, etc., designers generally
introduce a factor of safety (FS) into their designs, defined
as The ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress

For ductile materials such as mild steel and aluminum,

FS Typical values range from 1.5 (for relatively low consequence, static load cases) to 10 (for
shock load and high safety risk applications).
 Shearing Force (SF) and Bending Moment (BM) Diagrams
SF and BM diagrams are useful as they
give clear picture of the distribution of
SF’s and BM’s along a beam.
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Types of Beams Types of Loadings

The shear force (SF) is
the unbalanced vertical
force to the right or left Sign
of the section.

The bending moment

(BM) at a section is the
algebraic sum of the
moments of the forces
about the section.
 Simply Supported Beam (SSB)
A beam is placed on the top of columns creating a simply
supported structure.

The bending moments at the end will be zero.

The Parthenon. Situated on the Acropolis and completed

in 438 B.C. Perfect example of Greek architecture and of
early column and beam construction. The temple is 228
ft. long, 101 ft. wide, and 66 ft. high. Columns are 6 ft. 1
1/2in. diameter at the base, and 34 ft. high. The
architrave beams are 14 ft. 5 in. long. (Athens, Greece)
Simply Supported Beam (SSB)

1) SSB with a point load at its

mid-point

Consider a SSB AB of span l

carrying load W at its mid-
point C
Example 4.1: Draw the SF and BM diagrams Quiz: Weights are
for the following SSB beams.
carried on a pair of
shelves. The loads
experienced by one stud
are shown. Model each
force as resulting in a
concentrated moment on
the beam. Model the
stud as a simply
supported beam.
Determine the shear
force and bending
moment diagrams by
using the relations
between external loads
and the changes in the
internal loads.
2) SSB with a Uniformly
Distributed Load

Consider a SSB AB of span l carrying

uniformly distributed load of w per
unit length:
Example 4.2: Draw the SF and BM
diagrams for the following loaded SSBs and Quiz: Express the internal shear and
also calculate the maximum BM on the
moment in terms of x and then draw the
section (Mmax).
shear and moment diagrams for the beam.
3) SSB with a Uniformly Varying
Triangle Load From Zero at the
Ends to w/m at the Mid.
 Quiz: A wooden dam of 4 m width holds
back stagnant water. The hydrostatic pressure
exerted by the water, p, is proportional to
depth, p=γz , where γ=9810 N/m3 is the
Example 4.3: Draw the SF and BM weight per volume of water. Model the dam
diagrams for the following varying as a simply supported beam and determine
triangle load SSB. the shear force and bending diagrams.
Determine the maximum bending moment.
4) SSB with a Uniformly Varying
Triangle Load From Zero One End
to w/m at the Other End.
Example 4.4: The intensity of loading on a SSB of 6m span increases
gradually from 800 N/m at one end to 2000 N/m at the other end as shown in
the figure below. Fin the position and amount of maximum BM. Also, draw
the SF and BM diagrams.
Important Notes on SF and BM Diagrams
1. If there is a point load at a section on the beam, then the SF changes suddenly (SF
line is vertical). But the BM remains the same.

2. If there is no load between two points, then the SF do not change (SF line is
horizontal). But, the BM changes linearly (BM line is inclined straight).

3. If there is uniformly distributed load between two points, then SF changes linearly
(SF line is inclined straight). But the BM changes according to the parabolic law (BM
line is parabola).

4. If there is a uniformly varying load between two points then the SF changes
according to the parabola law (SF line is parabola). But the BM changes according to
cubic law.
 5)
Cantilever Beams Cantilever Automatic
Welding Machine
 Cantilever with
a point load at
5) Cantilever Beams
its free end Cantilever with
a uniformly
distributed load

Cantilever with a
gradually varying
load
Example 4.5: Draw SFD and BMD for a cantilever beam of span 1.5 m
carrying point loads as shown in the figure below..

Example 4.6: Draw SFD and BMD for the following loaded cantilever
beams.
Example 4.7: Draw SFD and BMD
for the following loaded cantilever
beams.

Model the SSB and

draw the shear force
and bending diagrams.
 6) Overhanging Beams
It is a SSB which overhangs (i.e. extends in the form of a cantilever) from its support. For the
purpose of SF and BM diagrams, the overhanging beam is analyzed as a combination of SSB
and a cantilever.
Quiz: Draw the shear and moment diagrams for
the shaft. The bearings at A and D exert only vertical
reaction on the shaft. The loading is applied to the
pulleys at B and C and E.
 Example 4.7: Draw SFD and BMD for the following loaded
beams. Also, find the point of contraflexure*, if any.

*In a bending beam, a point or a location at which no bending occurs. In a bending moment
diagram, it is the point at which the bending moment curve intersects with the zero line.
 Quiz: The dead-weight loading along the
centerline of the airplane wing is shown in the figure.
If the wing is fixed to the fuselage at A, determine:
1) the reactions at A.
2) draw the shear and moment diagram for the wing.
3) the maximum +ve and -Ve BM.
4) the point of contraflexure.

Quiz: The 150-lb man sits in the center of the

boat, which has a uniform width and a weight per
linear foot of 3 lb/ft. Determine the maximum
bending moment exerted on the boat. Assume that the
water exerts a uniform distributed load upward on the
bottom of the boat.
 Quiz: Members ABC and BD of the
Quiz: The engine crane is used to counter chair are rigidly connected at B
support the engine, which has a weight and the smooth collar at D is allowed to
of 1200 lb. Draw the shear and moment move freely along the vertical slot.
diagrams of the boom ABC when it is Draw the shear and moment diagrams
in the horizontal position shown. for member ABC.
Quiz: The smooth pin is supported by two leaves
Quiz: The industrial robot is held in
A and B and subjected to a compressive load of 0.4 the stationary position shown. Draw the
kN/m caused by bar C. Determine the intensity of the shear and moment diagrams of the arm
distributed load wo of the leaves on the pin and draw ABC if it is pin connected at A and
the shear and moment diagram for the pin. connected to a hydraulic cylinder (two-
force member) BD. Assume the arm and
grip have a uniform weight of 150 lb/in
and support the load of 40 lb at C.
 Bending

When some external force acts on a beam,

the shear force and bending moments are
set up at all the sections of the beam
►When some external loads acts on a beam, the shear force and bending
moments are set up at all the sections of the beam. As a result, the beam
undergoes deformation.
► The applied bending moment tends to bend or deflect the beam and the
internal stresses resist its bending.
► The process of bending stops, when every cross-section sets up full
resistance to the bending moment due to material resistance to deformation.
► The resistance offered by the internal stresses to the bending is called
bending stress.
►Upon bending, one surface of the beam is subjected to tension and the
opposite surface to compression, between them a region within the beam cross-
section at which the stress changes sign, i.e. where the stress is zero, this is
termed the neutral axis (NA).
►Neutral axis (NA) is an imaginary plane which divides the cross section of a
beam into tension and compression zones on the opposite sides of the plane.

NA does not undergo a change in length

 Bending theory equation
Derive this or
Flexure Formula

Before applying M

A beam subjected to pure bending After applying M

From the flexure equation,
1) it is clear that the maximum stress (compressive or tensile) takes place
at the outermost layer where the value of y is taken as maximum.
2) The axial stresses generated due to bending in the section layers are not
uniform through the section depth.
3) The stress depends on the applied moment and the geometry of the
cross section.
Modulus of section
If ymax is the distance between the N.A.
of the section and the extreme stress of
the layer, then:

The higher the value of Z for a

particular cross-section the higher
Z = I/ymax - the ratio that depends only the BM which it can withstand for
upon the geometry of the cross section a given maximum stress.
and termed the section modulus.

Z - Section modulus is defined as ratio of moment of inertia about the

neutral axis to the distance of the outermost layer from the neutral axis
Section Modulus
Equations
► In case of symmetrical section, NA passes through geometrical center
of the section.
► In case of unsymmetrical section, NA does not pass through
geometrical center and the value of y for the outermost layer of the section
from neutral axis will not be same.

► The N.A. of a section always passes through its centroid. Thus to locate
and draw the NA of a section we should find out the centroid of the
section and then draw a line passing through this centroid and normal to
the plane of bending.
► If the section of a beam is symmetrical, its center of gravity and hence
NA will lie at the middle of its depth.
 Flexure Formula

► The flexure formula, shows that the stresses are directly proportional to
the bending moment M and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia I
of the cross section.

► Also, the stresses vary linearly with the distance y from the neutral axis.
Stresses calculated from the flexure formula are called bending stresses or
flexural stresses:
► If the bending moment in
the beam is positive (+), the
bending stresses will be
positive (tension) over the
part where y is negative, that
is, over the lower part of the
beam. The stresses in the
upper part of the beam will be
negative (compression).

► If the bending moment is

negative, the stresses will be
reversed.
Example 5.1: For a given stress,
compare the moments of resistance (M)
of a beam of a square section, when
placed (i) with its sides horizontal and
(ii) with its diagonal horizontal.

Example 5.2: Determine the

maximum normal stress in the
member for both cases..

Example 5.3: A SSB, 2 inch wide by 4 inch high and 12 ft long is subjected to a
concentrated load of 2000 lb at a point 3 ft from one of the supports. Determine:
1) the maximum stress and,
2) the stress in a layer located 0.5 in from the top of the beam at midspan.
Example 5.4: A cantilever beam, 50 mm wide by 150 mm high and 6 m long, carries a load
that varies uniformly from zero at the free end to 1000 N/m at the wall. (a) Compute the
magnitude and location of the maximum flexural stress. (b) Determine the type and magnitude
of the stress in a layer 20 mm from the top of the beam at a section 2 m from the free end.

Example 5.5: A high strength steel band saw, 20 mm wide by

0.80 mm thick, runs over pulleys 600 mm in diameter. (a) What
maximum flexural stress is developed? (b) What minimum
diameter pulleys can be used without exceeding a flexural stress
of 400 MPa? Assume E = 200 GPa.

Example 5.6: In a laboratory test of a beam loaded by

end couples, the fibers at layer AB are found to increase
60 × 10–3 mm whereas those at CD decrease 100 ×10–3
mm in the 200 mm gage length. Using E = 70 GPa,
determine the flexural stress in the top and bottom fibers..
Example 5.7: A 50 mm diameter bar is used as a SSB 3 m
long. Determine the largest uniformly distributed load that can
be applied over the right two-thirds of the beam if the flexural
stress is limited to 50 MPa.

Example 5.8: A box beam is composed

of four planks, each 2 inches by 8 inches,
securely spiked together to form the
section:
(1) Show that INA= 981.3 in4.
(2) If wo=300 lb/ft, find P to cause a
maximum flexural stress of 1400 psi.
 Torsion

If a uniform shaft is subjected to a torque it can

be shown that every section of the shaft is
subjected to a state of pure shear, the moment
of resistance developed by the shear stresses
being everywhere equal to the magnitude, and
opposite in sense, to the applied torque.
 Torsional stress and strain

Derive this

T is the applied torque (N.mm),

l is the shaft length (mm),
R is the radius of the shaft section (mm),
τ is the shear stress (N/mm2) and
G is the shear modulus (Pa).
θ is the angle of twist.
Torsional strength of Here, "strength" means the maximum
torque or power a shaft can withstand or
a solid shaft and a transmit.
hollow shaft
Power transmitted by a shaft
► Shafts are subjected to a torque (T) that
depends on the power (Ṕ) generated by the
machine and angular speed of the shaft (ω).
► As known the purpose of shafts is to
transmit power from one point to another
for different applications

W = Torque × Angular displacement = T dθ

Ṕ = W/ t = T dθ/dt = T ω = 2πNT /60 (kW = kN.m/s)

 Polar moment of inertia
Is the moment of inertia of a plane area, with respect to an axis
perpendicular to the area plane.
Torsion Formula

The polar torsional section modulus

solid shaft hollow shaft

Example 6.1: A hollow shaft of external diameter 100 mm and internal diameter of 40 mm
is transmitting power at 120 rpm. If the shearing stress is not to exceed 50 MPa, find the
power the shaft can transmit.

Example 6.2: A solid steel circular shaft has to transmit 100 kW at 160 rpm. Taking
allowable shear stress at 70 MPa. Find the suitable diameter of the shaft. The maximum
torque transmitted which exceeds the mean by 20%.

Example 6.3: What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will not twist
through more than 3° in a 6 m length when subjected to a torque of 12 kN·m? What
maximum shearing stress is developed? Use G = 83 GPa.

Example 6.4: An aluminum shaft with a constant

diameter of 50 mm is loaded by torques applied to
gears attached to it as shown in the figure. Using G =
28 GPa, determine the relative angle of twist of gear
D relative to gear A.
Example 6.5: Find the angle of twist per meter length of a hollow shaft of 100 mm external
diameter and 60 mm internal diameter, if the shear stress is not to exceed 35 MPa. Take G =
85 GPa.
Example 6.6: A solid shaft of 120 mm diameter is required to transmit 200 kW at 100 rpm.
If the angle of twists not to exceeds 2o, find the length of the shaft. Take G= 90 GPa.
Example 6.7: A solid shaft of 200 mm diameter has the same cross sectional area as a
hollow shaft of the same material with inside diameter of 150 mm. Find the ratio of:
a) powers transmitted by both shafts at the same angular velocity.
b) angles of twist in equal lengths of these shafts, when stressed to the same intensity.
Example 6.8: The two steel shaft, each with one end
built into a rigid support have flanges rigidly attached to
their free ends. The shafts are to be bolted together at
their flanges. However, initially there is a 6° mismatch
in the location of the bolt holes as shown in the figure.
Determine the maximum shearing stress in each shaft
after the shafts are bolted together. Use G = 12×106 psi
and neglect deformations of the bolts and flanges.