Small-Scale Dairy Farming Manual Vol. 3

Small-scale dairy farming manual - Vol.
Small-scale
dairy farming manual
Vol. 3
Regional Dairy Development and Training Team
for Asia and Pacific
Chiangmai, Thailand
Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

Bangkok, Thailand
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 1993
Small-scale dairy farming manual - Vol. 3
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 4 - Feeding of Dairy cattle and Buffalo i
Husbandry Unit 5.1 - Pasture and Fodder 55
Husbandry Unit 5.2 - Fodder from Shrubs and Trees 89
Husbandry Unit 5.3 - Small scale Hey making 115
141-158
Husbandry Unit 5.4 - Small-Scale Silage Making
159-173
Husbandry Unit 5.5 - Straw Treatment 175
Husbandry Unit 5.6 - Concentrates 197

Small-scale dairy farming manual - Vol. 3
Husbandry Unit 5.7 - Minerals and Mineral block making 201

Small-scale dairy farming manual - Vol. 3 - pp. 1-54
Small-Scale
Dairy Farming Manual
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 4
FEEDING OF DAIRY CATTLE
AND BUFFALO
page 1
Extension Materials
What should you know about feeding dairy cattle and buffalo?
What is important in
feeding dairy cattle and
buffalo? (5-16)
1 Feeding the right amounts

of:
- proteins
- carbohydrates and fats
- minerals and vitamins.
How do dairy cattle and

buffalo digest feeds? (17-
28)
2 By having a special
stomach with 4 parts.
What type of feeds are

there and what is their
value? (29-51)
3 There are:
- roughages
- concentrates
- mineral and vitamin
supplements.
How much feed do dairy

cattle and buffalo need?
(52-91)
4 This depends on:

- their body weight
- what they produce.
page 3
FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE & BUFFALO

Husbandry Unit 4:
Technical Notes
Note: Numbers in brackets refer to illustrations in the Extension Materials.
Introduction (5-8)
There are large cattle and buffalo populations in the Asian region. In most countries the
indigenous stock is mainly used for draught and meat. However, in India and Pakistan some
indigenous breeds have been selectively bred for improved milk production.
In most of the countries in the region, programmes have been undertaken for the
crossbreeding and upgrading of the indigenous cattle with temperate breeds to obtain higher
milk production. Some countries have resorted to large scale importation of pure-bred
temperate cattle for the same purpose.
It is observed, however, that adequate attention is not being given to proper feeding of
dairy animals. Thus they are not producing what they could (i.e. the full genetic potential
for milk production is not expressed). This is shown by the higher levels of production in
well managed herds than in poorly managed herds with the same type of animals.
Adequate attention, therefore, should be given to the proper feeding of dairy animals to
obtain best results.
page 4
What is important in feeding dairy cattle and buffalo?

5 For high milk

production good
feeding must go
together with
good breeding.
6 Even a good
temperate breed e.
g. Friesian gives
low milk
production with
poor feeding
7 whereas
crossbreeds or
selected local
breeds can give
good milk
production with
good feeding.
8 Good feeding
gives you more
milk which you
can sell for more
money.
page 5
Nutrients from feeds (9-16)
Dairy cattle and buffalo, like humans and all other animals, need food to obtain
the various nutrient requirements for their proper functioning. (The roles
played by the combined action of the various nutrients are too complex to be
discussed in detail. Only important practical aspects are considered here to
make the farmers aware of their importance.) The nutrient requirements can
be thought of in a simplified manner as follows.
- Bones, which give the body its structure, provide attachment points for the
muscles and make it possible for easy move-ment from place to place, are
made of minerals. (Minerals are also required in certain varying amounts for
proper functioning of the body.)
- Muscles, which make it possible for one organ to move rela-tive to others and
for the animal to move from one place to another, are made mainly of
proteins. (Proteins can also be used as a source of energy, but the main
requirement is for body building and repair functions.)
- Energy, which is necessary for the various body functions (energy for running
an engine is obtained from the fuel that it burns) comes mainly from:
- Carbohydrates
- Fats. (These are stores of energy and also form part of the connective
tissue which bind organs together.)
- Activation of various metabolic activities in the body require the presence of

vitamins. These are required in minute quantities and may be compared to
the lubricating oils in an engine.
Whereas animals require these nutrients in a ready made form which can be
digested and utilized by them, plants can manufacture these nutrients from
air, water and soil nutrients with energy from the sun.
page 6
9 Your animals need

nutrients from feeds to be
strong and healthy.
10 If some nutrients are

missing your animals:
- become weak and get
disease
- produce less
- may not become pregnant.
11 Your animals need

minerals for strong bones
and joints
12 and proteins to build

strong muscles.
page 7
13 They need
carbohydrates and fat for
energy
14 and vitamins so their

bodies can work properly.
15 Plants can make these

nutrients from the air, soil,
water and with energy from
the sun.
16 Animals cannot make

nutrients, unless you feed the
right amounts of the
correct feeds.
page 8
The Ruminants (17-28)
Cattle and buffalo belong to the group of animals referred to as ruminants.

These animals have a "complex" stomach comprising four different
compartments, which enable them to utilize various roughages efficiently and
to obtain nutrients from them.
The four compartments are rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The
abomasum is the true stomach and is comparable to the "simple" stomach of
the non-ruminants. The other three are the "fore" stomachs.
At birth the calf resembles a non-ruminant because the "fore" stomachs are
not developed. Thus the calf requires milk or milk replacers and calf starters
in its early days of life. During this early period, milk gets directed into the
abomasum, without passing through the "fore" stomachs, by a special
mechanism.
As the calf grows it starts to nibble grass (or hay offered to it) and the "fore"
stomachs become functional rapidly. Thereafter, the food taken by the animal
first enters the rumen. Here the digestive process starts (before reaching the
abomasum).
The capacity of the "fore" stomachs is about 13-14 times that of the
abomasum. In adult cattle/buffalo, the rumen alone may have a capacity of
up to 150 litres. Thus they can consume very large quantities of roughages.
Within the rumen are billions of micro-organisms, both bacteria and protozoa.
These micro-organisms initiate the process of digestion by:
- converting the carbohydrates (e.g. sugars, starches, cellu-lose etc) to volatile

fatty acids (VFA);
- breaking down the proteins into amino acids and even further into ammonia,
carbon dioxide and VFA; and
- forming new amino acids (including the "essential" amino acids) and more
proteins by multiplying themselves. (The bodies of the micro-organisms
contain proteins; more pro-teins are formed when they multiply; the proteins
are made of amino acids - both essential and non-essential.)
The micro-organisms also produce (synthesize) vitamins of the "B" group,

which are absorbed and utilized by rumi-nants.)
page 9
How do dairy cattle and buffalo digest feeds?

17 Cattle and buffalo are

called "ruminants"
18 because their stomach has

4 parts.
With this complex stomach,

they can get nutrients from
roughages.
19 The abomasum is the

"real" stomach and is
similar to your stomach.
20 The other 3 stomachs

- rumen
- reticulum
- omasum
are the "fore" stomachs.
page 10
The most important features of the ruminant digestive process are:
- the ease with which roughages are converted into VFA, which are then
absorbed and utilized by the animals as a source of energy (and production of
fat); and
- the formation of essential amino acids (or proteins contain-ing them, which
are broken down into the respective amino acids in the abomasum) from non-
protein nitrogen sources e.g. urea and proteins which do not contain any
essential amino acids. The amino acids are subsequently absorbed and utilized
to form proteins or as a source of energy.
Therefore, to make dairying economical, feed buffalo and cattle appropriate

quantities of:
- roughages
- protein supplements (with poor quality proteins) and
- non-protein nitrogen sources.
page 11
21 At birth, your calf has a

stomach like yours.
The "fore" stomachs are not
developed.
22 So your calf needs milk

and milk replacers.
They go straight to the
abomasum without entering
the "fore" stomachs.
23 As your calf grows, it

feeds on grass and hay.
The food enters the "fore"
stomachs before passing to
the abomasum.
24 The "fore" stomachs can

hold 13-14 times as much as
the abomasum.
page 12
25 The "fore" stomachs of

your adult animals can hold
up to 150 l.
They can consume large
amounts of roughages.
26 The rumen contains a

great number of micro-
organisms which help to
change roughages into useful
nutrients.
27 To save money but still

have good milk production,
feed the right amounts of
- roughages
28
- protein supplements (with
poor quality proteins)
- feeds with non-protein
nitrogen.
page 13
Types of feed (for ruminant feeding) (29-40)
A simple way of classifying feeds is to group them as roughages, concentrates

and mineral supplements.
- Roughages are feeds with a high fibre content. These include grasses,
fodders and legumes - either in the fresh state or in preserved forms such as
hay or silage; leaves of trees (tree fodders) and crop residues (see H.1), which
can be fed as they are or after treatment to improve the nutritive value e.g.
urea treated straw (see H. 5.4).
- Concentrates are characterized by a higher dry matter content and a higher

digestibility. They can be of plant origin or animal origin. Some of them
contain significant amounts of one or more minerals.
Mineral supplements are usually available in the form of powders to be offered

with the concentrates and in the form of blocks to be offered as licks. They
contain varying combinations of minerals. An ideal mineral supplement should
supply the shortfall between the animals needs and what is available in the
feed it receives.
page 14
What types of ruminant feed are there?

29 There are three main

types of feed.
Roughages
Roughages are feeds with a
high fibrecontent.
30 They include:
- grasses
- fodders
- legumes
either fresh
31 or preserved as
- hay (See H. 5.3)
- silage (See H. 5.4)
32
- leaves of trees (tree
fodders) (See H. 5.2)
- crop residues (See H.1)
either fresh
page 15
33 or treated to improve the

nutrient value e.g. urea
treated straw (See H. 5.5).
Concentrates
34 Concentrates are feeds
with a higher dry matter
content and a higher
digestibility.
Plant concentrates
There are two types of
concentrates which come
from plants.
35 Energy-rich
concentrates
These include:
- dried cassava tubers
- cereals e.g. rice, wheat,
maize, millet, sorghum
- agricultural by-products e.
g. rice bran, wheat bran,
molasses.
36 Protein-rich
concentrates
These include residues after
you remove oil from
vegetable products e.g. cakes
or meals.
page 16
Animal concentrates
37 Concentrates which come
from animals have more
high-quality proteins.
38 They include by-products

from milk processing e.g.
- skim milk
- whey
for calf feeds.
These are too expensive for
adult animals.
Mineral supplements
39 The roughages and
concentrates contain most of
the minerals required by
cattle and buffalo.
Supplements are necessary

where the quantities in the
feed fall short of
requirements.
40 A good mineral
supplement should make up
for the shortfall of minerals
in feeds.
Consult your extension
worker about this.
page 17
Feed quality
The value of a feed depends on:
- How much of the intended product (e.g. milk, work, meat) is produced with a
unit quantity of the feed.
- How much of it will be consumed by an animal (feed intake).
It is not easy, however, to establish such a relationship because the final

outcome depends on a combination of feeds and many other factors (e.g. the
animal's potential for production, the environment, management practices
etc.).
A simpler way to evaluate the quality of a feed is to determine the quantity of

nutrients that can be digested and absorbed from a given quantity of the feed.
Even this is not easy to carry out, because it involves:
- analysis of a sample of the feed in a laboratory to determine its composition,

and
- tests to determine the digestibility of each component.
However, in most countries, data is already available on the nutritive value of

at least the more important feedstuffs. It is very important to remember that
the nutritive value of any particular feedstuff can vary, depending on a large
number of factors. Some examples are:
- the same grass grown in different locations may have differ-ent nutritive
values depending on:
- climatic conditions and season e.g. rainfall, environmental temperatures,

elevation above sea-level etc;
- soil fertility and fertilizer application;
- stage of growth etc.
- hay or silage made from the same plot of grass may have different nutritive
values depending on the process of hay making, ensiling etc;
- rice bran from different mills or from the same mill at different times may
have different nutritive values.
Therefore, the extension officer should be aware of the different feedstuffs

available to the farmers in his area, and consult the appropriate research
institute or authority to obtain information on the nutritive values of these
feedstuffs.
page 18
How can you find the value of feeds?
41 The value of a feed is
- what your animal produces

(e.g. milk, meat, work)
in relation to
- what your animal eats (feed

intake).
42 The value of feeds

depends on many factors:
- type of feedstuff and

variety of plant
- climate
- stage of growth
- type of processing.
43 Laboratory analysis gives

the value of feed.
After a lot of laboratory
analysis, estimates of feed
value are usually available.
44 Consult your extension

worker for advice on the
value of different feeds.
Total digestible nutrients

(TDN)
page 19
In the Asian region, the nutritive values of cattle/buffalo feeds are usually
expressed in terms of the TDN, DCP and the content of important mineral
elements in 100 g of the feedstuff (i.e. as a percentage).
- TDN (Total Digestible Nutrients) is a measure of the amount of energy that

can be obtained from a unit quantity of the feed. A particular feed with 60 %
TDN contains 60 g of TDN in 100 g of the feed or 600 g of TDN in 1 kg of the
feed.
- DCP (Digestible Crude Protein) is a measure of the amount of protein in the

feed that can be digested and absorbed by the animal. A feed with 20 % DCP
contains 20 g of digestible crude protein in 100 g of the feed or 200 g of
digestible crude protein in 1 kg of the feed.
- The amounts of important minerals contained in the feeds are also usually
indicated in terms of a percentage. Thus a feed with 1 % Phosphorus contains
1 g of Phosphorus in 100 g of the feed or 10 g of Phosphorus in 1 kg of the
feed.
The DM (Dry Matter Content) of a feed, e.g. grass, can vary widely. Thus the
nutritive values expressed in terms of 100 g of grass, for example, may not be
meaningful. Therefore, the nutritive value is usually expressed in terms of a
percentage of the DM in the feed. However, it is sometimes expressed as a
percentage of the whole feed. The DM percentage is also indicated to make
the necessary computations.
The extension officer should:
- have a clear understanding of these differences; and
- make the appropriate adjustments in computing the nutritive value of the

feeds available to farmers.
page 20
45 TDN tells you how much

energy your animals can get
from a feed.
46 If your feed has 60 %

TDN your animals can get
600 g TDN (of energy) from
1 kg of feed.
Digestible crude protein

(DCP)
47 DCP tells you how much
protein your animals can get
from feed.
48 If your feed has 20 %

DCP your animals can get
200 g of protein from 1 kg
of feed.
page 21
Minerals
49 Important minerals are
necessary.
If your feed has 1 %
phosphorous your animals
can digest 10 g of
phosphorous in 1 kg of feed.
Dry matter content (DM)

50 The DM of feeds is very
different in:
- different types of feed
- stage of harvesting or
growth
- type of processing
- climate.
51 Check carefully if the

TDN, DCP and mineral
values are percentages of the
DM or the total feed.
worker .
How can you find the feed

intake of your animals?
52 Feed intake (DM of
feed)
A simple way is to take:

body weight x 3
100
page 22
Feed intake (52-61)
A feed has two main components: water and dry matter. It is the DM
component that supplies the nutrients. Therefore, feed intake refers to dry
matter intake (DMI).
The approximate DMI of cattle can be computed in different ways:
- 3 % of the body weight

- 21/2 % of body weight + 10% of milk yield
- 6 kg + 1 % of body weight + 20 % of milk yield
The estimated DMI based on the last method of computation is given in Table
1 in Annex 2.
The DMI depends on many factors. Among them are availability of water, type
and quality of roughage, feeding frequency, amount of concentrates given,
digestibility of the feeds, condition of the animal, weather conditions etc.
Roughages are very important in the diet of ruminants because they supply
the crude fibre which is necessary for proper functioning of the rumen.
Optimally 18-20 % of the DMI has to be crude fibre.
If the crude fibre content is too low, milk fat content in the milk can fall. On
the other hand, if the crude fibre content is too high, the animal will not be
able to consume sufficient DM. Thus it will not receive all its requirements of
energy and proteins, and the milk yield will drop.
page 23
53 So for a 300 kg cow, the

feed intake is:
300 kg x 3 = 9 kg
100
54 To allow for milk yield,

you can estimate the feed
intake as:
6 kg + body weight + milk

yield
100 5
55 So, for
300 kg cow 10 kg milk yield,
feed intake is:
6 kg + 300 kg + 10 kg =
11.0 kg
100 5
56 Ask your extension

worker to show you a table.
Feed intake for a 400 kg cow

with a milk yield of 10 kg.
page 24
57 The feed intake depends

on:
- climate
- availability of water
- how often you feed your
animals
58
- the type and quality of
roughages
- the amount of concentrates
- how digestible the feeds are
etc.
59 At least 20 % of the feed

intake should be crude fibre
for good digestion.
Roughages are important

because they provide crude
fibre.
60 Too little crude fibre

content leads to low milk fat
content.
Too high crude fibre

content leads to poor feed
intake and low milk yields.
page 25
Water intake (62-64)
Water is an essential requirement for the proper functioning of animals. Some

of its main actions relate to: digestion and absorption of food; transport of
nutrients throughout the body and metabolic wastes to the excretory organs
(being a component of all body fluids); control of body temperature
(conductive and evaporative cooling) and milk secretion (being a component of
the milk).
Animals obtain their water requirements from three main sources:
- water in the food;
- water consumed voluntarily;
- water formed in metabolic activities of the body.
As a rule of thumb, lactating cows require 4 to 6 litres of water per kg DM

consumed. Higher amounts may be required in hot tropical conditions.
The ideal is to allow dairy cattle and buffalo continuous access to drinking
water. Where this is not possible, they should be offered as much as they can
drink, at least twice a day.
page 26
61 Buffaloes can make use

of coarse feeds better than
cattle.
Water intake
62 You can estimate that

lactating cows need 4-6 l of
water for each 1 kg of feed
intake (DM).
63 So the 300 kg cow with a

10 kg milk yield and 10 kg
feed intake needs:
11 kg x 6l
= 66 l
(feed intake) (water)

64 If possible, give your

animals free access to water.
If not, make sure they have

enough to drink at least
twice a day.
page 27
Nutrient requirements (65-73)
The requirements of the different nutrients vary depending on several factors.

Basically they can be considered as maintenance requirements and production
requirements. Compare the nutrient requirements of dairy cattle/buffalo to
the fuel requirements of a motorcycle.
Maintenance requirement is the requirement of nutrients to just maintain the

animal without losing body weight. It depends on the size of the animal, which
is usually measured in terms of its weight.
(If a motorcycle is started without being put to any use, some fuel and
lubricating oils will be used up. In a similar manner, the living animal also
uses up mainly energy and proteins and also small quantities of other
nutrients, just to maintain the body mechanisms functioning.)
Production requirement is the requirement of nutrients for the various

production functions. The different production functions require varying
amounts of nutrients.
- A young animal that is still growing requires more nutrients in addition to its
requirement for maintenance.
(A motorcycle requires more fuel and oil to be driven from one place to
another.)
- A pregnant animal requires more nutrients for the growth of its calf (foetus)
in addition to its own maintenance re-quirement. A young growing heifer
which is also pregnant requires nutrients for maintenance, its own growth and
the growth of its calf.
(Compare to a motorcycle - using its engine power to move from one place to
another, with an additional passenger.)
page 28
How can you find the nutrient requirements of your animals?
Maintenance requirement
65 This is the amount of

nutrients an animal needs
when it is not growing or
producing.
It depends on the weight.

Production requirement
66 Your animal needs more

than the maintenance
requirement to produce
= production requirement
67 Your animal needs extra

nutrients for:
- growth
- pregnancy
68
- milk production
- work.
page 29
- A lactating animal requires more nutrients for milk production in addition to

its maintenance requirement. Thus a cow that starts lactating before
completing its own growth requires nutrients for its maintenance, own growth
and milk production.
(Compare to a motorcycle - using its engine power moving from one place to
another, up a hill.)
- An animal that is used for work requires more nutrients for work in addition
to its maintenance requirement.
(Compare to a motorcycle used to pull a carriage.)
The nutrient requirements of dairy cattle have been worked out under
experimental conditions. (See Tables 2 and 3 in Annex 2)
page 30
Ask your extension worker to show you tables:
69 Growing heifers (small breeds)
Body Daily weight Protein Energy Minerals

weight (kg) gain (kg) Total (g) DCP (g) TDN (kg) Calcium
Phosphorus
50 500 215 160 0.9 4.9 3.8
75 550 275 190 1.2 7.0 5.4
100 550 320 210 1.6 9.0 7.0
70 Growing heifers (large breeds)
100 750 370 260 2.0 10.9 8.4
150 750 435 295 2.7 15.0 12.0
200 750 500 330 3.4 18.0 14.0

71 Maintenance of mature lactating cows
350 468 220 2.8 14.0 11.0
400 521 245 3.1 17.0 13.0
450 585 275 3.4 18.0 14.0

72 Maintenance and pregnancy
(last 2 months of gestation)
500 780 430 4.8 29.0 22.0
550 850 465 5.2 31.0 24.0
600 910 500 5.6 34.0 26.0
73 Milk production (nutrients/kg milk)
% Fat
4.0 78 51 0.330 2.7 2.0
4.5 82 54 0.355 2.8 2.1
5.0 86 56 0.380 2.9 2.2
page 31
Balanced rations (74)
Remember that all nutrients have to be supplied in required amounts. If there

is a deficiency in the supply of any one nutrient, the animal will be unable to
utilize adequately the other nutrients supplied.
The principal of the minimum bucket applies. The deficient nutrient limits the
utilization of the others.
Therefore, balanced rations should be supplied in adequate amounts.
The extension officer should:
- develop the skills to formulate suitable rations incorporating available feeds

for the dairy cattle/buffalo in the local area, using the standard nutrient
requirements and nutritive values of various feeds as guidelines; and
- advise farmers on feeding these rations to their cattle and buffalo.
Ration calculation (75-83)
An example is worked out below to show how to do a ration calculation. The

example is simplified for easy understanding of the principles. The field
situation can be more difficult and variable.
To get a clearer picture of the field situation, a ration calcu-lation worksheet

can be used. (See extension materials).
Step 1 - Obtain general data
- age and body weight of cow

- milk yield and fat percentage
- stage of lactation and pregnancy and lactation number
- feeds available and their nutritive values
- tables of nutrient requirements
Assume step 1 results in the following information:
Crossbred cow; age 4 years and body weight 400 kg; daily milk yield 10 kg
with 5 % butter fat; 2nd month of lactation; not pregnant and lactation
number 2:
Feed available Nutritive value
DM TDN DCP
(%) (% DM) (% DM)
Fresh grass 20 60 4
Concentrate mix 90 70 18
page 32
Balanced rations
74 Your animals need
balanced rations.
If one nutrient is lacking,

they cannot make good use
of the other nutrients, even
if the other nutrients are
sufficient.
How can you calculate

rations?
75
A: INFORMATION
REQUIRED
You must collect
information for your
worksheet (See A on next
page) e.g.:
Your crossbred cow

Age: 4 years
Body weight: 400 kg
Pregnant: No
Lactation: 2nd month of 2nd
lactation.
76 Your milk
Milk yield: 10 kg/day
Butter fat: 5 %
77 Your Feeds
Availability
Nutritive value
DM
TDN DCP
(%) (%
DM) (% DM)
Fresh grass 20
60 4
Concentrate 90
70 18
mix
page 33
RATION CALCULATION WORKSHEET
Farmers name: Date:

Advisors name: Cow No:
INFORMATION REQUIRED
Weight of cow: (kg) Milk yield: kg/

day
Stage of lactation: (months) Butterfat % A
Age of cow: (years)
Dry matter intake: kg Gestation:
months
Feeds available: Lactation No:
a) on the farm:
b) purchasable:
ANIMAL REQUIREMENTS B
TDN kg Protein
kg
Maintenance:
Desired weight gain:
Milk production:
Gestation:
TOTAL:
NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FEEDS AVAILABLE
Feed DM % TDN % Protein % Cost per

kg
1 C
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
FINAL RATION RECOMMENDED D
Forage:
Concentrate:
Notes: 1 Desired weight gain: add 20 % to the maintenance allowance during the first lactation and 10 %
during the second lactation.
2 At least 25% of DMI must come from forage to protect milk quality.
page 34
Step 2 - Fill in part A of ration calculation sheet
Step 3 - Calculate the requirements of the cow (part B of

sheet) as follows:
Animal's requirements DM (kg) TDN (kg) DCP (kg)
Maintenance - 3,1001 2451

Desired weight gain - 3102 252
Milk production - 3,8003 5603
Gestation - - -
--------------------------------------------------
Total 12.04 7,210 830
--------------------------------------------------
(1) The relevant values for cow of 400 kg body weight from Table 3.
(2) 10 % of maintenance requirement as the cow is in second

lactation.
(3) The relevant values against 5 % fat in Table 3 multiplied by 10.
(4) Given value for 400 kg cow with 10 kg milk yield per day. See # 56
page 35
B: ANIMAL REQUIREMENTS
78 You must calculate the requirements of your cow:
DM TDN DCP
Animal Requirements
(kg) (g) (g)
Maintenance1 3,100 245

Desired weight gain2 310 25
Milk production3 3,800 560
Gestation - -
Total 12.04 7,210 830
Note:
1 See the table in 71 above for a 400 kg cow.
2 As the cow is in 2nd lactation, take 10 % of the maintenance ration:
TDN = 3,100 g = 310

10
DCP = 245 g = 25 g
10
3 See the table in 73 above for 5 % fat. For 10 kg milk/day:
TDN = 0.380 kg x 1,000 g x 10 = 3,800 g
DCP = 56 g x 10 = 560 g
4 See the table in 56 above - DM for a 400 kg cow with a milk yield of 10 kg/day.
page 36
Step 4 - Calculate the amount of nutrients that can be

supplied by roughages
In this example, only one roughage is considered. In the field various

combinations of roughages may have to be considered. In any event,
the availabilities of roughages will vary during different seasons.
Therefore, fresh computations have to be done when the availability
changes.
If the total DM requirement of 12 kg is supplied with the available

fresh grass, the nutrients supplied are:
TDN (600 x 12) = 7,200 g

DCP (40 x 12) = 480 g
Therefore, there is a shortfall of (7,210 - 7,200 =) 10 TDN and (830 -

480 =) 350 g DCP.
It is also unlikely that the cow will consume (100/20 x 12 =) 60 kg of

the fresh grass to obtain 12 kg of DM from grass alone, because of the
bulk and the low palatability.
Therefore, it would be necessary to offer a concentrate to meet the

shortfall.
Step 5 - Calculate the amount of nutrients that have to be supplied

from concentrates
In this particular example, it is assumed that the cow will consume

only about 9 kg DM of grass i.e. (100/20 x 9 =) 45 kg of fresh grass.
DM (kg) TDN (kg) DCP (kg)
Total requirement 12 7,210 830

Supplied from grass 9 5,400 360
-----------------------------------------------------------
Shortfall 3 1,810 470
-----------------------------------------------------------
By supplying 3 kg DM of the concentrate containing 70 % TDN and 18

% DCP, 2,100 g TDN and 540 g DCP will be available to the cow,
thereby meeting the shortfall in the nutrients. If the concentrate
mixture contained 90 % DM, the amount of concentrate mixture to be
supplied is (100/90 x 3 =) 3.3 kg.
page 37
C: NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FEEDS AVAILABLE
You must calculate the amount of nutrient available from:
Roughages
79 Different
roughages are
available in
different areas
and different
seasons.
Calculate again
where the
roughage changes.
Here is an
example for one
roughage: fresh
grass.
80 Your cow
needs (See 70-72):
DM
TDN DCP
Requirements
12.0 kg 7,210
g 830g
If your fresh grass

provides (See 77):
DM TDM DCP
20 % 60 % 4%
20 kg DM come from 1 kg DM provides 1 kg DM provides

100 kg fresh grass 600 g TDN 40 g DCP
so so
so
12 kg DM come from 12 kg DM provide
100/ 40 x 12
20 x 12 kg 12 kg DM provide
600 x 12
= 60 kg fresh grass
= 480 g DCP
= 7,200 g TDN
7,200 g TDN
&
480 g DCP
are available in 60
kg fresh grass
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS - NUTRIENTS AVAILABLE =

SHORTFALL
TDN: 7,210 g - 7,200 g = 10 g TDN
DCP: 830 g - 480 g = 350 g DCP
You must offer your animals concentrates to make up for this shortfall.
page 38
Concentrates
81 If your cow only

consumes 45 kg
fresh grass (9 kg DM)
DM (kg) TDN (g) DCP (g)
Your cow's 12 7,210 830

requirement
Available in 9 kg 5,400 360

-----------------------------------------------------------------
Fresh grass 3 1,810 470
short fall -----------------------------------------------------------------
82 If you use this

concentrate:
DM (kg) TDN
(70%) DCP (18%)
1 kg 700
g 180 g
3 kg 2,100
g 540 g
3 kg DM is enough to meet
the shortfall.
83 If the concentrate is 90 %
DM, you need
3 kg x 100 = 3.3 kg
concentrate
90
to meet the shortfall.
If your cow eats less than 45

kg fresh grass, then you
need more concentrates.
page 39
Concentrate mixtures (84-87)
Sometimes it is necessary to make concentrate mixture to meet

particular needs.
If:
(i) - in the above example (Step 5), the shortfall from the
fresh grass was 1,800 g TDN and 400 g DCP i.e. the grass contained
more DCP;
(ii) - in the concentrate mixture that was available (i.e.

concentrate mixture 1) each kg DM contained 700 g TDN and 180 g
DCP i.e. 180 g DCP per 700 g TDN or (180/170 x 1,000 =) 257 g DCP
per kg TDN;
(iii) - the requirement would be 1,800 g TDN and 400 g DCP i.

e. (400/1,800 x 1,000 =) 222 g DCP per kg TDN.
The requirement, therefore, is for a mixture with less DCP than the one
available. If the available mixture is fed, there will be a wastage of
DCP, when adequate TDN is supplied.
This mixture has to be balanced with another feedstuff with less DCP.
Suppose rice bran with DM 90 %, TDN 50 % and DCP 9.0 % is
available. It has 90 g DCP per 500 g TDN or (90/500 x 1,000 =) 180 g
DCP per kg TDN.
page 40
Concentrate mixes
84 The concentrate in 82
above provides 700 g TDN
and 180 g DCP for each 1 kg
DM.
So 1 kg TDN provides
180 x 1,000 = 257 g DCP/kg

TDN
700
85 This farmer has a

shortfall of:
TDN DCP
1,800 g 400 g
from the roughage available

to him.
So the requirement is:
400 x 1,000 = 222 g DCP/kg

TDN
1,800
86 If he feeds the concentrate

in 82, when the animal has
enough TDN, there is a
wastage of DCP.
He can mix the concentrate

with a feed which has less
DCP e.g. rice bran with the
following composition:
87
DM TDN
DCP
90 % 50 % 9%
So the rice bran has:
90 g DCP/500 g TDN or
90 x 1,000 = 180 g DCP/kg

TDN
500
page 41
By using Pearson's Square, the composition of the new ration (i.e. concentrate mixture II)
can be calculated.
Concentrate Concentrate
MixtureI Mixture II
Rice bran
The new concentrate mixture (i.e. concentrate mixture II) should contain (35/77 x 100) =
45 % DM for rice bran and (42/77 x 100) = 55 % DM from concentrate mixture I. As the
DM contents of the concentrate mixture I and rice bran are given as 90 % the quantities to
be used by weight are also in the same proportions. If the DM contents are different, the
proportions of concentrates mixture I and rice bran have to be adjusted accordingly.
3 kg DM of concentrate mixture II would contain 1,650 g DM from concentrate mixture I

and 1,350 g of DM from rice bran. The nutrients supplied by 3 kg DM of the concentrate
mixture II are as follows:
Feed Quantity TDN DCP

of DM (g) (g) (g)
Concentrate 1,650 700 x 1,650 = 1,155 180 x 1,650 =

297
Mixture I 1,000 1,000
Rice bran 1,350 500 x 1,350 = 675 90 x 1,350 =121

1,000 1,000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Concentrate 3,000 1,830 418
Mixture II
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
This shows that 3 kg DM which is equal to (100/90 x 3 kg =) 3.3 kg by weight of

concentrate mixture II are adequate to meet the shortfall of TDN and DCP supply from
fresh grass.
page 42
He can use Pearson's Square to calculate the composition of the new

concentrate mix.
Concentrate Mix
42 (222-180)
257 g DCP/
Concentrates parts
kg TDN
(from 82) concentrate
available
(from 81)
222 g DCP/kg
TDN requirement
35 (257-222)
180 g DCP/ parts rice bran
Rice bran kg TDN 77 (42+35)
available parts
concentrate mix
So for a concentrate mix

with 222 g DCP/kg TDN,
mix:
35 x 100 = 45% DM rice

bran with
77
42 x 100 = 55% DM
concentrate
77 (from 82)
(The DM for rice bran and

concentrates are both given
as 90%. Adjust if the DM's
are different).
3 kg of concentrate mix
provide:
Feed DM (g) TDN (g) DCP (g)
Concentrate 55 x 3,000 = 1,650 700 x 1,650= 1,155 180 x 1,650 =

297
(from 82) 100 1,000 1,000
Rice bran 45 x 3,000 = 1,350 500 x 1,350 = 675 90 x 1,350 = 121

100 1,000 1,000
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Concentrate mix 3,000 1,830 418
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
So 3 kg DM or 100 x 3 kg = 3.3 kg of concentrate mix is enough to meet the

90
shortfall of TDN and DCP from fresh grass in 85 (page 24).
page 43
Notes (88-91)
- Ration calculations should be used only as a guideline. The nutritive value

and the palatability of the same feedstuff can vary widely depending on a large
number of factors. There are differences among individual animals, too, with
regard to feed utilization.
However, feeding the animals based on a scientific method is definitely better

than blindly offering whatever is available.
- Even in this particular example, if the cow does not eat 45 kg of fresh grass
per day or if this quantity is not available, more concentrates will have to be
offered to meet the shortfall in the nutrient supply.
- It is generally accepted that 1 kg of a good concentrate mixture supports the

production of 2 kg of milk. However, when the amount of concentrates offered
is increased, the amount of milk produced from each kg of concentrates de-
creases (law of diminishing returns).
- This is particularly important when the difference between the prices of

concentrates and milk is very small (or if the concentrates cost more than
milk). On the other hand, if the animals do not receive sufficient nutrients,
apart from low yields of milk other problems such as long calving intervals can
arise due to the cows not conceiving regular-ly.
- Apart from the energy and protein supplies, mineral requirements also have
to be supplied. A suitable mineral mixture should be provided either with the
concentrates or as a separate lick.
page 44
Annex 1 Feeding dairy buffaloes
The countries where buffaloes are raised for both milk production and as
draught animals have large animal populations. The feeding of stock is not
always given proper attention. In India and Pakistan, buffaloes are raised
mostly on crop residues. Part of the requirements are met through grazing
stubble, canal banks etc. Green fodder is also produced and fed under the cut
and carry system. The fodder is grown to such a stage of maturity that it
provides lots of bulk but lacks nutrients. Rice and wheat straw are fed in
plenty since year round supply of green fodder is not ensured.
Although buffaloes have shown excellent abilities for using crop residues, for
satisfactory milk yield, an adequate fodder supply is essential during all stages
of raising. For lactating animals adequate nutrients must be provided both for
body maintenance and production. In good producers even ample green
fodder may not fulfil all the requirements. Hence feed supplements/
concentrates are required.
After parturition even poorly fed buffaloes tend to maintain milk production for
a few days at the expense of their body. This leads to poor production and
shorter lactations.
In India and Pakistan and several other countries many village buffaloes are
low producers because their requirements are not met. Much higher milk
production potential has been demonstrated in well managed herds which
produce over 3,000 litres of milk per lactation.
Good buffaloes produce 12-15 litres of milk per day and on average between 5-
10 litres of milk per day. Higher producing animals must be provided with
ample nutrients to maintain production as well as general health.
page 45
Buffalo can consume a variety of coarse fodders. For milk production 1 kg of

concentrate is fed for 2 to 2.5 litres of milk produced. A ration could consist of
green fodder + wheat straw + concentrate. Depending on the dry matter and
TDN the green fodder, straw and concentrates must be adjusted.
60 to 70 kg of succulent fodders (Egyptian clover etc) would be fed to a buffalo

weighing 500 kg. A single source of fodder may be deficient in nutrients such
as legumes and require phosphorus supplementation. When a large quantity
of wheat or rice straw is fed, Ca and P deficiency occurs.
For fodders with less maize, millet etc and high dry matter the quantity should
be adjusted to between 20 to 30 kg per day along with some straw and
concentrate. Avoid feeding coarse fodders to lactating animals. Silage or hay
can also be efficiently used if available.
Feeding pregnant buffaloes
The ideal calving interval is 13-14 months. Owing to feeding and management
practices, however, the animals tend to have a long calving interval with a long
dry period. Since many pregnant buffaloes will not be producing any milk
during the last part of pregnancy, these are not properly fed. During this
period the buffalo should build up body reserves lost in early lactation.
Nutrients are required for the fast growing foetus during the later stages of
pregnancy. The body condition of the buffalo must be given proper attention.
In addition to good fodder, 1 to 1.5 kg concentrate during the last part of
pregnancy will help in attaining good foetal growth, health of buffaloes and a
good start in subsequent production.
page 46
Important
88 Use these examples and

calculations as guidelines.

worker when planning
feeds.
89 You can estimate that 1

kg of good concentrate mix
supports the production of 2
kg of milk, but increasing
concentrates does not
increase milk production at
the same rate.
90 Calculate carefully:
- giving too much
concentrates wastesmoney.
- giving too little

concentrates may lead to
low milk yields or calving
intervals.
91 You should meet your

animal's mineral
requirements by:
- mixing with concentrates
- a separate mineral lick.
page 47
What do you know about feeding dairy cattle and buffalo?
Important points in feeding

1 Good feeding and breeding must go together
(5-8)
for high milk production
2 Animals need:
(9-
- nutrients for strength, health
10)
- minerals for strong bones and joints (11)
- proteins for strong muscles (12)
- carbohydrates and fats for energy (13)
- vitamins for proper body functioning (14)
- to be fed the right amounts of the correct (15-
feeds 16)
Digestion of feeds
(17-
1 The complex stomach
18)
- abomasum (19)
- rumen, reticulum, omasum (20)
(21-
2 Stomach development in calves
23)
(24-
3 Stomach capacity
25)
4 Stomach micro-organisms (26)
(27-
5 High milk production requires correct feeding
28)
Types of ruminant feed
1 Roughages
- have high fibre content (29)
(30-
- examples
33)
2 Concentrates
- have higher DM and digestibility (34)
- plant concentrates
- energy-rich (35)
- protein-rich (36)
(37-
- animal concentrates
38)
(39-
3 Mineral supplements
40)
Finding the value of
feeds
1 General
- production related to consumption (41)
(42-
- variation in value of feeds
44)
(45-
2 TDN
46)
(47-
3 DCP
48)
4 Minerals (49)
(50-
5 DM
51)
Finding feed intake
1 DM intake
- simple calculation (52-53)
- including milk yield (54-56)
- factors affecting intake (57-58)
- crude fibre content (59-60)
- buffalo use coarse feeds more efficiently
(61)
than cattle
2 Water intake
- estimating intake (62-63)
- free access (64)
Finding nutrient
requirements
1 Maintenance (65)
2 Production (66-68)
Tables for:
- growth (69-70)
- maintenance of lactating cows (71)
- pregnancy (72)
- milk production (73)
3 Balanced rations (74)
Calculating rations
1 Ration calculation worksheet
- information required (75-77)
- animal requirements (78)
- nutrient content of feeds available (79-80)
2 Concentrates to meet shortfalls (81-83)
3 Concentrate mixes
- to avoid wastage (84-86)
- calculation of mix (87)
4 Important points in calculations (88-91)
page 50
RATION CALCULATION WORKSHEET
Farmers name: Date:

Advisors name: Cow No:
INFORMATION REQUIRED
Weight of cow: kg Milk

yield: kg/day
Stage of lactation: months A
Butterfat %
Age of cow: years Milk yield
4%FCM kg/day
Dry matter intake: kg
Gestation: months
Feeds available: Lactation
No:
a) on the farm:
b) purchasable:
ANIMAL REQUIREMENTS B
TDN
kg Protein kg
Maintenance:
Desired weight gain:
Milk production:
Gestation:
TOTAL:
NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FEEDS AVAILABLE
Feed DM % TDN %
Protein % Cost per kg
1 C
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
FINAL RATION RECOMMENDED D
Forage:
Concentrate:
Notes:
1 Desired weight gain: add 20 % to the maintenance

allowance during the first lactation and 10 % during the
second lactation.
2 At least 25% of DMI must come from forage to protect milk

quality.
page 51
Table 1 :
The Estimated Dry Matter Intake of a Cow1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
MILK YIELD kg/day
kg Live NIL 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 kg
Live
Weight
Weight
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
350 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5
350
400 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0
400
450 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5
450
475 10.8 11.8 12.8 13.8 14.8 15.8 16.8 17.8
475
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
500 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0
500
525 11.2 12.2 13.2 14.2 15.2 16.2 17.2 18.2
525
550 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5
550
575 11.8 12.8 13.8 14.8 15.8 16.8 17.8 18.8
575
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
600 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0
600
625 12.2 13.2 14.2 15.2 16.2 17.2 18.2 19.2
625
650 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 19.5
650
675 12.8 13.8 14.8 15.8 16.8 17.8 18.8 19.8
675
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) Formula used: DMI - 6 kg + 1% of body weight and 20% of milk yield.
page 52
Table 2 :
Daily Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle - Heifers
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Body Daily PROTEIN ENERGY
Weight Gain
Total Digestible NZ TDN Ca P
(kg) (g) (g) (g) (Mcal) (kg) (g) (g)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Growing Heifers (*mall broods)
20 100 65 60 1.1 0.3 1.1 0.8

25 150 90 80 1.5 0.4 1.5 1.1
35 300 135 110 2.1 0.6 3.2 2.5
50 500 215 160 3.3 0.9 4.9 3.8
75 550 275 190 4.3 1.2 7 5.4
100 550 320 210 5.8 1.6 9 7
150 550 390 245 8.3 2.3 12 9
200 550 460 280 10.5 2.9 15 11
250 550 550 320 12.6 3.5 17 13
300 500 590 330 13.7 3.8 19 14
Growing Netters (large breads)
40 200 110 100 1.8 0.5 2.2 1.7

45 300 135 120 2.1 0.6 3.2 2.5
55 400 180 145 3.3 0.9 4.5 3.5
75 750 330 245 5.4 1.5 9.1 7.0
100 750 370 260 7.2 2.0 10.9
8.4
150 750 435 295 9.8 2.7 15 12
200 750 500 330 12.3 3.4 15 14
250 750 570 365 14.4 4.0 21 16
300 750 640 395 16.2 4.5 24 15
350 750 715 430 17.7 4.9 25 19
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. 4th edition. 1971. National
Academy of science. Washington.
page 53
Table 3:
Daily Nutrient Requirements of Lactating Dairy Cattle
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Body ENERGY PROTEIN
Weight HE TDN Total Digestible Ca P
(kg) (Mcal) (kg) (g) (g) (g) (g)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maintenance of Mature Lactating Cows
350 10.1 2.8 468 220 14 11

400 11.2 3.1 521 245 17 13
450 12.3 3.4 585 275 18 14
500 13.4 3.7 638 300 20 15
550 14.4 4.0 691 325 21 16
600 15.5 4.2 734 345 22 17
650 16.2 4.5 776 365 23 15
700 17.3 4.8 830 390 25 19
750 18.0 5.0 872 410 26 20
800 19.1 5.3 915 430 27 21
Maintenance and Pregnancy (last 2 months of gestation)
350 13.0 3.6 570 315 21 16

400 14.1 4.3 650 355 23 15
450 15.9 4.4 730 400 26 20
500 17.3 4.8 780 430 29 22
550 18.8 5.2 850 465 31 24
600 20.2 5.6 910 500 34 26
650 21.6 6.0 960 530 36 28
700 22.7 6.3 1000 555 39 30
750 24.2 6.7 1080 595 42 32
800 25.6 7.1 1150 630 44 34
Milk Production (nutrient required per kg of milk)
PAT
2.5 0.91 0.255 66 42 2.4 1.7
3.0 0.99 0.280 70 45 2.5 1.8
3.5 1.06 0.305 74 48 2.6 1.9
4.0 1.13 0.330 78 51 2.7 2.0
4.5 1.21 0.355 82 54 2.8 2.1
5.0 1.28 0.380 86 56 2.9 2.2
5.5 1.36 0.405 90 15 3.0 2.3
6.0 1.43 0.430 94 60 3.1 2.4
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Nutrient requirements of Dairy Cattle. 4 th edition, 1971, National
Academy of Science. Washington
Note: for desired weight gain. Add 20% to the maintenance allowance during the
first lactation and 10% during the second lactation.
page 54
Small-Scale
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 5.1
PASTURE AND FODDER
page 55
Extension Materials
What do you know about pasture and fodder?
1 Why do
your animals
need high
quality
roughages or
concentrates?
(5-8)
Because they
cannot eat
enough low
value
roughages to
give good
production.
2 How can
you select
suitable
roughages?
(9-26)
You must
think about
important
things e.g.:
- growth
- cost
- management
etc.
3 What
improved
varieties are
there? (27-
31)
There are
many
improved
varieties of
pastures,
legumes,
fodders to suit
different
conditions.
4 How can
you manage
improved
varieties?
(32-57)
You must
plan
management
for:
- the type of
pasture/
fodder
- your local
conditions.
page 57
PASTURE AND FODDER

Husbandry Unit 5.1:
Technical Notes
Note: Numbers in brackets refer to illustrations in the

Extension Materials.
Ruminants including cattle and buffalo have the ability to

convert low value roughages such as grass and leaves of
trees etc. to high value products such as milk, meat and
hides etc. (5)
The ability of the animals to produce milk, meat etc. has

increased over the years with the implementation of
various selection and breeding programmes. But their
ability to consume and utilize larger quantities of
roughages has not increased in keeping with the increase
in productivity. (6)
Therefore, animals capable of producing higher quantities

of milk and meat have to be supplied with high quality
roughages or concentrates, or both. (7)
In Asian countries, the roughages available to cattle and

buffalo mostly come from crop residues and grasses and
weeds etc. growing naturally in forests, roadsides and
wasteland not utilized for growing various crops. Where
animals with a capacity to produce larger quantities of milk
are kept, the shortfall of nutrients available from
roughages is met by offering concentrates. The
concentrates are mostly crop residues and by-products.
In some areas, where income from dairying (or dairying in

combination with meat production/draft) is sufficiently
high, good quality roughages are cultivated for cattle/
buffalo feeding, sometimes as pure stands but mostly as
components of an integrated farming system (see Unit

H.1.1). (8)
page 58
Why do your animals need high quality roughages or

concentrates?
5 Dairy cattle
and buffalo
can change:
- low value
roughages e.
g. grass,
leaves
- to high
value
products e.g.
milk, meat.
6 With better
breeding and
selection:
- your
animals can
produce
more but
- they cannot
eat enough
low value
roughages
for production.
7 Therefore,
you must
give your
animals high
quality:
- roughages
- concentrates
- or both.
8 You should
consult your
extension
worker about
growing
good quality
roughages:
- alone
- or as part of
an integrated
farming
system (see H
1.1)
page 59
Improved types of roughage
There are many improved pasture and fodder varieties that

can be grown in Asian countries. However, only a few of
them are particularly suitable to the conditions prevailing
in any given area, e.g. the climatic conditions such as
rainfall, length of dry season, elevation above sea level,
soil conditions etc.
(Much research has been carried out on the suitability of

various species for various conditions. The extension
officer should acquire adequate knowledge on the
recommended varieties for particular areas, especially with
regard to the best establishment and management
practices as well as the productivity that can be achieved).
In selecting a suitable variety, some important factors to

be taken into consideration are nutritive value, growth,

persistence, ease of establishment and cost of
maintenance. A variety with high nutritive values and
good yields may be difficult to establish and costly to
maintain. Therefore, the suitability of a particular variety
will depend on the particular farmer's circumstances. (9)
Nutritive value: The nutritive value of pastures and

fodders depends on the amount of energy, proteins,
minerals and vitamins that the animals can obtain from
them. This in turn depends on how much of the nutrients
are contained in the pasture/fodder, how much of the
pasture/fodder can be eaten by the animals voluntarily
(palatability), how much of what is eaten by the animals
can be digested and absorbed, and how much of what is
absorbed is wasted e.g. if there are toxic substances, the
animals will waste nutrients in overcoming their ill effects.
(10-11)
Growth: The yield of dry matter (that part which contains

the nutrients) of the pasture or fodder varies with the
variety, under similar soil and climatic conditions. It is
common to find varieties giving yields of 30,000 kg DM per
hectare per year and some hybrid varieties of fodder such
as hybrid Napier give much higher yields under good
management, e.g. regular application of fertilizer and
harvesting at appropriate intervals at appropriate height
above ground level. (12)
page 60
How can you select suitable roughages?

9 Your
extension
worker can
advise you
about suitable
pasture and
fodder crops
for your area.
Many things
are important
in choosing
the right
crop for you.
Nutritive
value
10 This is
how much
energy,
proteins,
minerals and
vitamins are:
- in the
pasture/
fodder
- in the
amount of
pasture/
fodder your
animals can
eat
(palatability)
11
- in the
amount of
pasture/
fodder your
animals can
eat and
absorb
- not wasted
because of
bad feed
causing ill
effects.
Growth
12 You need:
- high yield
of dry matter
(which
contains
nutrients) by
e.g. using
fertilizer and
harvesting at
the right time
page 61
Even though high annual yields are quite important, it

would be advantageous to have this yield distributed over
a long period of the year. If the yield is concentrated
within a few months, additional expenditure has to be
incurred on fodder conservation and there are also
corresponding losses of nutrients. (13)
Persistence: In Asia, it is common to use a pasture or

fodder for several years continuously, once established.
This practice reduces the costs of re-establishment.
Varieties that continue to produce well, year after year,
sometimes even under severe grazing, are said to have a
high degree of persistence. These varieties are usually
resistant to insects and other diseases and to extreme
drought or cold, as the case may be. (14-15)
In varieties that spread by runners or rhizomes the

growing points are inaccessible to the grazing animals.
Therefore, they recover quickly even after continuous
grazing. (16)
page 62
13
- the yield
over a long
period of the
year.
This reduces
the costs of
keeping
fodder and
the loss of
nutrients.
Persistence
14 You need
a pasture/
fodder that
produces
well for
many years,
even with
heavy grazing.
This reduces
the costs of
planting a
new crop (re-
establishment)
15 The
pasture/
fodder you
choose should
resist:
- insects
- disease
- drought etc.
16 Your
animals
cannot eat
crops from
runners or
rhizomes
because the
growing
points are
under the
ground.
They recover
quickly even
after
continuous
grazing.
page 63
Ease of establishment: Establishment of different

varieties is effected through seeds or stem cuttings or root
stocks. Different methods of establishment require
different types of land preparation. (17)
Therefore, in selecting a particular variety of pasture or

fodder (or a combination of varieties) the methods of
establishment and types of land preparation required and
their costs have to be taken into account. (18)
Ability to associate (mix) with other crops: There is no

single variety of pasture or fodder that can supply the
nutrient requirements of dairy cattle and buffalo in a
balanced manner. The overall quality can be improved by
having a mixture of varieties and also introducing a
legume. (19)
When pasture/fodder is a component of an integrated

farming system, the ability of the species to survive in the
mixture without causing losses to the other crops in the
mixture is an important aspect. (20)
page 64
Ease of
establishment
17 Land
preparation
depends upon
the pasture/
fodder and
whether it has
seeds, stem
cuttings or
root stocks.
18 Before
choosing a
pasture/
fodder, think
about:
- land
preparation
- costs.
Ability to
mix with
others crops
19 You need
different
pasture/
fodder crops
(including a
legume) to
meet your
animals'
nutrient
requirements.
20 You must
choose crops
which grow
together
well.
(See H1.1
Integrated
Farming
Systems)
page 65
Examples of competition between pasture/fodder and

other crops are:
- competition for sunlight; reduced sunlight is available for

pasture/fodder growing under permanent crops like
coconut, rubber etc.; (21)
- competition for moisture and fertilizer; pasture/fodder

growing together with other crops may compete for
moisture and fertilizer unless there is sufficient rainfall and
addition of fertilizer to meet the requirements of the crops
and the pasture/fodder. (22)
Cost of establishment and maintenance: Cost of

establishment and maintenance is a very important aspect
to be taken into account in making a decision on pasture/
fodder establishment. Generally the more nutritious and
higher yielding varieties are more costly to establish and
maintain, and require higher management skills. (23)
However, when land is scarce and expensive, returns from

dairying are sufficiently high, and suitable varieties are
available to meet the local agro-ecological (environmental)
conditions, it may be more profitable to use more
nutritious and higher yielding varieties. (24)
page 66
Be careful,
some crops
compete:
21
- for sunlight
e.g. pasture/
fodder
growing
under
coconut,
rubber etc.
22
- for
moisture and
fertilizer,
unless there is
enough
rainfall and
you add
fertilizer.
Cost of
establishment
and
maintenance
23 You must
balance:
- the cost of
establishing,
maintaining
and managing
fodder/
pasture with
high nutrients
and yields
against
24
- the extra
nutrients and
yields you
gain.
page 67
Other benefits: Apart from serving as a feed resource,

especially for cattle and buffalo, there are other benefits
from pasture/fodder.
These include:
- building up soil fertility in lands that have been used

continuously for crop production over a number of years
("ley" farming technique); (25)
- addition of fertility to the soil by incorporation of legumes

together with pasture/fodder;
- prevention of soil erosion. (26)
Among the improved pasture varieties are:
Brachiaria brizantha (Signal grass); Brachiaria decumbens;

Brachiaria milliformis; Brachiaria mutica (Para grass,
Water grass), Brachiaria ruziziensis (Ruzi grass); Cenchrus
ciliaris (Buffel grass); Cynodon species; Dactylis glomerata
(cocksfoot); Digitaria decumbens (Pangola grass);
Panicum maximum (Guinea grass); Panicum maximum
(Hamil grass); Paspalum plicatulum; Paspalum urvillei;
Pennisetum clandestinum; (Kikuya grass); Setaria
sphacelata; Tripsacum laxum (Gautamala grass) etc.
The different varieties are more suitable for certain

particular conditions.
Some examples are:
- Brachiaria brizantha for low rainfall conditions;
- Brachiaria milliformis for shade conditions such as found

under coconut; (27)
- Brachiaria mutica for water logged conditions;

- Brachiaria ruziziensis, suitable also as a fodder in high

rainfall areas with well drained soil; (28)
page 68
Other
benefits
25 These
include:
- building up
soil fertility
where you
used fields for
crop
production for
many years
("ley"
farming
technique)
26
- increasing
fertility by
using legumes
with pasture/
fodder
- preventing
soil erosion.
What
improved
varieties are
there?
See Annex I
for a list.
Pasture
27 Different
varieties are
suitable for
certain
conditions e.
g.:
- Brachiara
brizantha for
low rainfall
conditions
- Brachiara
milliformis
for shade e.g.
under coconut
28
- Brachiara
mutica for
water logged
conditions
- Brachiaria
ruziziensis for
high rainfall
with well-
drained soil
page 69
- Pennisetum clandestinum and Paspalum varieties for cool

climates in areas with high altitude and high rainfall. (29)
Improved legume varieties
Among the improved legume varieties are:
Centrosema pubescens; Desmodium intortum (Green leaf

desmodium); Desmodium uncinatum (Silver leaf
desmodium); Dolichos axillaris; Dolichos lab lab (lab lab
bean); Gliricidia maculata; Glicine javanica; Glicine wightii;
Leucaena leucocephala (ipil-ipil); Phaseolus
atropurpureous (Siratro); Pueraria phaseoloides (Tropical
Kudzu); Stylosanthes guyanensis (Cook stylo);
Stylosanthes hamata; Stylosanthes humilis (Townsville
lucerne); Styzolobium atterimum (Velvet bean); Trifolium
pratense (Red clover); Trifolium repens (White clover);
Trifolium rupellianum (African clover); Trifolium

semipilosum (Kenya white clover).
The legumes may be established as pure stands, as

components in mixture with other crops as grasses, or as
fences or hedges. (30)
Improved fodder varieties
Some of the varieties listed under pastures and legumes

can also be used as fodders, e.g. Brachiaria ruziziensis;
Panicum varieties; Paspulum varieties; Glyricidia;
Leucaena etc.
Some varieties that are used mainly as fodders are,

Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass or Elephant grass)
and its newly developed hybrids such as "NB 21" or Poosa
Giant Napier"; fodder maize varieties and newly developed
hybrids; fodder sorghum varieties and newly developed
hybrids etc. (31)
page 70
29
- Pennisetum
clandestinum
and Paspalum
varieties for
cool climates,
high
altitudes and
high rainfalls.
Legumes
30 You can
grow
legumes:
- alone
- with other
crops
- as fences or
hedges.
Fodder
31 You can
also use some
varieties of
pastures and
legumes as
fodders e.g.:
- Brachiara
ruziensis
- Panicum
varieties
- Leucaena
etc.
page 71
Land preparation
The conventional land preparation methods consist of

ploughing the land to break up and loosen the soil,
followed by harrowing to further loosen the soil clods into
smaller soil particles and for thorough incorporation of the
plant materials into the soil. The number of ploughings
and harrowings will depend on the soil condition and the
type and density of the weeds present at the time of
ploughing. (32-33)
Generally, species with small seeds require a finer soil than

those with large seeds. The species propagated by
rootstocks, stem cuttings or stolons may be planted
immediately after ploughing on rougher soil surfaces. (34)
In high rainfall areas, sloping land especially is not

suitable for fine seedbed preparation because of the

possibilities of severe soil erosion. (35)
page 72
How can you manage improved varieties?
Land
preparation
32 You need
to:
- plough to
break up and
loosen the soil
33
- harrow to
further break
up and loosen
the soil and
mix plant
materials with
the soil.
34 You can
plant
rootstocks,
stem cuttings
or stolons
after
ploughing.
Varieties with
smaller seeds
need finer soil
(more
harrowing).
35 In areas
with high
rainfall and
especially
sloping land
do not make a
fine seedbed:
- this causes
soil erosion.
page 73
Method of planting
Methods of planting depend on the planting materials used.
When propagation is by seed, one of following methods

may be used:
- broadcast by hand
- sown with fertilizer distributor
- drilled with a seed drill. (36)
Grass seeds need to be embedded at depths varying from

0.75 to 1.25 cm and seeds of big-seeded legumes can be
embedded down to 7.5 cm depending on soil moisture.
(37)
When propagation is by vegetative methods, the follow-ing

procedures may be adopted:
- stem cuttings (e.g. Napier grass) with 2 or 3 nodes may

be planted by hand using a hoe or plant-ing pick, by
sticking the stem in an inclined position; (38)
- an alternative method is to lay the stem cuttings in

shallow furrows at a suitable depth depending on soil type
and moisture conditions and cover with soil by a plough or
mammoty. (39)
page 74
Methods of
planting
36 This
depends on
planting
materials:
Seed
propagation:
- broadcast by
hand
- sow with
fertilizer
distributor
- drill with
seed drill.
37 Place
grass:
- seeds at a
depth of 0.75
to 1.25 cm -
legumes with
large seeds at
depth up to
7.5 cm
depending on
soil moisture.
38 Vegetative
propagation:
Stem
cuttings e.g.
Napier grass
with 2 or 3
nodes:
- use a hoe or
planting pick
to make a
hole
- put the stem
in at an angle
or
39
- lay the stem
cutting in
shallow
furrows
- cover with
soil by plough
or mammoty.
page 75
- tufts or rootstocks with 3 to 5 tillers (e.g. Guinea grass)

may be planted by hand using a hoe at 25 x 25 cm
intervals; (40)
- an alternative method is to plant in furrows and cover by

pushing the soil with the help of the foot. (41)
- Pieces of rhizomes or stolons (e.g. Brachiaria species)

may be planted by spreading them on loose seedbed and
pushing into the soil with the foot or by driving a cart or
tractor over them; (42)
alternative methods are:
- to scatter mature cuttings on the surface of seedbed

and run a disc harrow over them (under wet conditions);
(43)
page 76
40 Tufts or
rootstocks e.
g. Guinea
Grass with 3-
5 tillers:
- plant with a
hoe at 25 x 25
cm spacing
or
41
- plant in
furrows and
cover by
pushing the
soil by foot.
42 Rhizome
or stolon
pieces e.g.
Brachiaria
species:
- spread on a
loose seedbed
- push into the
soil by foot or
by driving a
cart over
them
or
43 in wet
conditions:
- spread
mature
cuttings on a
seedbed
- run a disc
harrow over
them
page 77
- to plant with a hoe or to drop into shallow furrows (44)
- and cover by turning soil with the plough or by pushing

soil with the foot (under drier conditions - anticipating
rain). (45)
Time of planting
After land preparation, planting should be undertaken

without delay to minimize the growth of weeds. Therefore,
land preparation should take place with the first rains.
At the time of planting, the soil should be moist and

additional rainfall should be available for a number of
weeks after plant-ing. If irrigation facilities are available,
timing of planting would not be constrained by rainfall.
(46)
An adequate supply of appropriate planting material of

good quality should be ensured at the time of land
preparation. (47)
page 78
44 in drier
conditions
when you
expect rain:
- plant with a
hoe or drop
into shallows
furrows
45
- turn soil
with a plough
or push with
foot.
Time of
planting
46 Time land
preparation
with the first
rains so that
soil is moist
and there is
rain after
planting
(unless you
have
irrigation).
47 Make
sure you have
enough good
quality
planting
material at the
time of
planting.
page 79
Fertilizer application
When the soils are too acidic, it is customary to add Lime

or Dolomite to bring the soil pH to the desired levels,
before planting the pastures/fodders/legumes. (48)
Three primary nutrient elements required by plants are

Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium.
- Small amounts of Nitrogen, usually applied in the form of

Ammonium Sulphate or Urea will help the initial
establishment and growth of newly sown or planted
grasses. (49)
- Application of Phosphorus (usually in the form of

Superphosphate) will benefit specially the legumes planted
as pure stands or as mixtures with grasses. (50)
- Potassium is also needed especially by legumes for

proper establishment. This is usually supplied in the form
of Potassium Chloride. (51)
page 80
Fertilizer application
48 If your soil
is too acid
apply Lime
or Dolomite
before
planting
pastures/
fodders/
legumes to
bring soil to
the correct pH.
49 Plants
need 3 major
nutrients.
Give
Nitrogen by
applying e.g.
Ammonium
Sulphate or
Urea.
This helps
establishment
and growth
of grasses.
50 Give
Phosphorus by
applying e.g.
Superphosphate.
This helps
especially
legumes
planted alone
or with grasses.
51 Give
Potassium by
applying e.g.
Potassium
Chloride.
This helps
especially
establishment
of legumes.
page 81
These nutrients can also be supplied by adding compost

manure which will in addition improve the soil texture (see
Unit H.1.2). (52)
The quantities of fertilizers to be added and the timing of

application will depend on the rainfall, soil fertility and the
varieties of pastures, fodders and legumes. The
recommendations made by research institutions and
extension officers should be followed in this regard. (53)
Grazing/cutting of newly planted pastures/

fodders
The varieties propagated by vegetative methods can be

first utilized within 2-3 months, if adequate moisture
(rainfall or irrigation) is available. (54)
Seeded varieties require a longer time to become

established and may be first used in about 5-6 months
time. (55)
page 82
52 You can
add these
nutrients by
applying
compost
manure (See
H 1.2).
53 How
much
fertilizer and
when you
apply depend
on:
- rainfall
- soil fertility
- type of
pasture/
fodder.
Consult your
extension
worker.
Grazing/
cutting newly
planted
pasture/
fodder
Vegetative
propagation
(See 38
above)
54 You can
use within 2-3
months if
you have
enough water
(rainfall or
irrigation).
Seed
propagation
(See 36
above)
55
Establishment
takes longer
and you can
use within 3-6
months.
page 83
Subsequent management
The rate of growth of the pastures/fodders/legumes

depend on the varieties used, rainfall (or irrigation),
fertility of soil, cutting or grazing intervals etc. (56)
As the grasses mature, the dry matter yield increases but

the overall digestibility and crude protein content
decrease. Therefore, for animals to obtain the maximum
amount of nutrients, the grasses have to be grazed or cut
before they are too mature. Different varieties have
different optimum grazing/cutting intervals. Advice
should be obtained from research institutions and
extension officers in this regard. (57)
page 84
Subsequent management
56 Growth of
pastures/
fodders/
legumes
depends on:
- variety
- rainfall or
irrigation
- soil fertility
- cutting/
grazing
interval etc.
57 Older
grass has:
- more dry
matter
- less
digestibility
and crude
protein
content.
Consult your
extension
worker about
the best times
to graze/cut.
page 85
Annex I: Improved varieties
Pasture (27)
Brachiaria brizantha (Signal grass)

Brachiaria decumbens
Brachiaria milliformis
Brachiaria mutica (Para grass, Water grass)
Brachiaria ruziziensis (Ruzi grass)
Cenchrus ciliaris (Buffel grass)
Cynodon species
Dactylis glomerata (cocksfoot)
Digitaria decubens (Pangola grass)
Panicum maximum (Guinea grass)
Panicum maximum (Hamil grass)
Paspalum plicatulum
Urvillei
Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuya grass)
Setaria sphacelata
Tripsacum laxum (Gautamala grass) etc.
Legumes (30)
Centrosema pubescens
Desmodium intortum (Green leaf desmodium)
Desmodium uncinatum (Silver leaf desmodium)
Dolichos axillaris
Dolichos lab lab (lab lab bean)
Gliricidia maculata
Glicine javanica
Glicine wightii
Leucaena leucocephala (ipil-ipil)
Phaseolus atropurpureous(Siratro)
Pueraria phaseo-loides (Tropical Kudzu)
Stylosanthes guyanensis (Cook stylo)
Stylosanthes hamata
Stylosanthes humilis (Townsville lucerne)
Styzolobium atterimum (Velvet bean)
Trifolium pratense (Red clover)
Trifolium repens (White clover)
Trifolium rupellianum (African clover)
Trifolium semipilosum (Kenya white clover).
Fodders (31)
Some of the varieties listed under pastures and

legumes can also be used as fodders, e.g.
Brachiaria ruziziensis
Panicum varieties
Paspulum varieties
Glyricidia
Leucaena etc.
Some varieties that are used mainly as fodders are:
Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass or Elephant

grass)
and its newly developed hybrids such as:
"NB 21" or "Poosa Giant Napier"

Fodder maize varieties
Newly developed hybrids
Fodder sorghum varieties
Newly developed hybrids etc.
page 87
What do you know about pastures and fodders?
Reasons for using high quality roughages

or concentrates
To meet the production potential of (5-

good breeds 9)
Selection of suitable
roughages
(10-
1 Nutritive value
11)
(12-
2 Growth
13)
(14-
3 Persistence
16)
(17-
4 Ease of establishment
18)
(19-
5 Ability to mix with other crops
22)
6 Cost of establishment and (23-
maintenance 24)
(25-
7 Other benefits
26)
Improved varieties
available
(27-
1 Pasture
29)
2 Legumes (30)
3 Fodder (31)
Managing improved
varieties
(32-
1 Land preparation
35)
2 Methods of planting
(36-
- seed propagation
37)
(38-
- vegetative propagation
45)
(46-
3 Time of planting
47)
(48-
4 Fertilizer application
53)
(54-
5 Grazing/cutting
55)
(56-
6 Subsequent management
57)
page 88
Small-Scale
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 5.2
FODDER FROM SHRUBS
AND TREES
page 89
Extension Materials
What should you know about fodder from shrubs and
trees?
What are the

advantages of
feeding shrub
and tree
fodders to
your animals?
(5-13)
1 They:
- provide feed
for your
animals
- save you
work
- save you
money.
Are there any

disadvantages?
(14-16)
2 You should
not use more
than 30 % of
shrub and tree
fodders in
your feed.
What suitable
varieties of
shrubs and
trees are
there? (17)
3 See Annex I.
How can you

establish and
manage tree
fodders? (18-
40)
4 See the
examples:
- Leucaena
leucocephala
(18-33)
- Glyricidia
maculata. (34-
40)
page 91
FODDER FROM SHRUBS AND TREES
Husbandry Unit 5.2:
Technical Notes

In Asian countries, fodders from trees and shrubs have

been used for feeding livestock from ancient times.
However, not much work has been done on their
management and utilization for feeding dairy cattle and
buffalo. With increasing interest in dairy development and
competition for the limited land resources available, the
potential of shrub and tree fodders in the feeding of dairy
cattle and buffalo is being recognized.
The advantages of feeding shrub and tree fodders are

many. Some of the important ones are:
- there are some naturally growing shrubs and trees,

fodders from which are already available for many
farmers; an understanding of their nutritive value will
enable them to be included in the diets of cattle and
buffalo; (5)
- trees and shrubs can be grown on lands unsuitable for

other crops and pastures; (6)
- they can be grown in crop areas, spacing them suitably to

prevent excessive shade to the crops; (7)
- using them as fences and hedges reduces the costs of

fencing which is an additional benefit; (8)
page 92
What are the advantages of feeding shrub and tree

fodders to your animals?
5 Some
shrubs and
trees grow
naturally.
If you know
their nutritive
value, you
can add them
to your
animals' feed.
6 You can
grow shrubs
and trees:
- on land
which is not
suitable for
other crops
and pastures
7
- with other
crops.
Space them
correctly so
they do not
shade other
crops too
much
8
- as hedges
and fences.
This saves
you money.
page 93
- as the root systems penetrate deep into the soil, trees

and shrubs can continue to produce foliage over a longer
period into the dry season; (9)
thus cattle and buffalo can be given a green roughage

along with crop residues such as straw, supplemented with
concentrates where necessary, during the dry season;
(10)
- establishment and maintenance are easier and less

expensive than the pasture and fodder grasses and they
have a long life span reducing the costs of re-
establishment; (11)
- mature branches can be used as a source of firewood;

(12)
page 94
9 They
produce
foliage longer
into the dry
season
because the
roots go deep
in the soil
10 so you can
give your
animals a
green
roughage with
crop residues
e.g. straw and
concentrates
(where
necessary) in
the dry season.
11 You can
establish and
maintain
shrubs and
trees more
easily than
pasture and
fodder
grasses.
They live a
long time so
you spend
less money on
re-
establishment.
12 You can
use mature
branches
as firewood.
page 95
- when cutting is done manually, which is the practice with

smallholders, it is more convenient and less time
consuming with shrub and tree fodders than with many
varieties of pasture and fodder grasses. (13)
The main disadvantage with tree fodders is that some of

them have certain toxic compounds. However, these
compounds usually occur only in small quantities and their
ill-effects would disturb the animals only if they are given
as the main (or only) feed over a long period of time. (14)
These ill-effects can be overcome by limiting the quantity

of tree fodders to about 30% of the total daily feed intake
(measured in terms of dry matter). (15)
Another disadvantage is that adequate information on the

nutritive value of most of the tree and shrub fodders is not

freely available. This is a problem that must receive the
attention of research institutions and extension officers.
Presently available information shows that fodders from
such plants as Leucaena leucocephala (ipil ipil) and
Glyricidia maculata are as nutritious or even more
nutritious than some of the pasture and fodder grasses.
(16)
page 96
13 It is easier
and quicker to
cut shrubs
and trees/
fodders by
hand than to
cut pasture
and fodder
grasses.
Are there any

disadvantages?
14 Tree
fodders
contain small
amounts of
poisons which
are bad for
your animals
if tree fodders
are the only
feed for a
long time.
15 Up to 30
% of tree
fodder in feed
(measured by
dry matter)
should cause
no ill effects.
16 Ask your
extension
worker for
information
(though
sometimes
there is none
for shrub and
tree fodders).
page 97
Suitable varieties
There are several varieties of fodder trees and shrubs

which can be grown under different agro-climatic
conditions. They are classified in the Annex. (17)
Establishment and management of tree fodders
Tree and shrub fodders can be propagated vegetatively or

by seeds depending on the species. Two examples are
given below, one for propagation by seeds and the other by
stems as well as seeds.
Example 1
Leucaena leucocephala: There are many varieties of this

species. Different varieties are being recommended in
different countries. Even though many Leucaena
plantations were destroyed by an insect during the mid
1980's, resistant varieties have now emerged. Leucaena
does not grow well in water-logged areas and acidic soils.
In acidic soils, acidity has to be reduced by the addition of
Lime or Dolomite. Addition of Superphosphate will
facilitate the initial establishment. (18)
Propagation is by seeds.
- Seeds have to be soaked in boiling water for about a

minute before planting to damage the hard seed coat. (19)
- Seeds are allowed to cool and then mixed with inoculum.

Inoculum can also be added to the seed bed in the form of
a solution, after the seeds have started to germinate.
(20,22)
page 98
What suitable
varieties of
shrubs and
trees are
there?
17 See the list
in the Annex
for different
local
conditions.
How can you

establish and
maintain tree
fodders?
Leucaena
leucocephala
by seed
propagation
18 Do not
grow in water-
logged soils.
Apply Lime or
Dolomite to
acid soils and
Superphosphate
to help
establishment.
19 Soak the
seeds in
boiling water
for 1 minute
to damage the
hard seed coat.
20 Cool the
seeds and mix
with
inoculum.
page 99
- Seeds can be planted directly in the soil; to avoid being

attacked by rabbits, monkeys etc. repellents such as
diluted fresh animal urine may be poured on the plants.
(21)
- Another method is to plant the seeds in a nursery: e.g.

small polythene bags containing a mixture of soil and
compost (with an extra amount of Superphosphate, where
necessary). Plant two seeds in each bag. (23-24)
page 100
21 Plant the
seeds directly
in the soil.
Apply e.g.
animal urine
mixed with
water to keep
rabbits,
monkeys etc.
away.
22 When the
seeds begin to
grow, you can
apply a
solution of
inoculum.
23 You can
plant the seeds
in a nursery:
- mix soil with
compost (and
Superphosphate
if necessary)
24
- fill small
polythene
bags with soil
mixture
- plant 2 seeds
in each bag.
page 101
- Transfer to the soil at planting time is easy but it is

difficult to transport over long distances. (25)
- Another method is to add a layer of soil (and compost)

about 15 cm thick over polythene spread on firm ground
and to plant the seeds on this seed bed. (26)
- The seedlings are uprooted at planting time and all the

leaves are pulled off by hand before transplanting in holes
made with an iron bar. (27)
Space allowed between plants depends on where they are

planted.
- If planted to serve as a fence, the spacing can be about 6

cm. Two or three rows planted at a distance of about 6 cm
from each and maintaining the same space between plants
makes a beautiful hedge. (28)
page 102
25 When the
seedlings are
20-40 cm.
tall, move
them to the
field.
This method
can be
difficult if the
field is far
away.
26 You can
also:
- spread a
polythene
sheet on firm
ground
- add a 15 cm
layer of soil/
compost
- plant the
seeds on this
seedbed
27
- uproot the
seedlings at
planting time
- pull all the

leaves off by
hand
- plant in the
field in holes
made with an
iron bar.
28 For fences:
- plant 2 or 3
rows 6 cm
apart
- each plant 6
cm apart in
the row to
make a
beautiful
hedge.
page 103
- Such hedges can be grown at a distance of 2-3 m on open

pastures or as a component in an integrated farm-ing
system. (29)
- They may also be grown as individual plants in an open

pasture at spacings of 2 x 2 m; animals may be allowed to
graze these plants with the pasture when they are about a
metre high. (30)
- Alternatively, the plants may be allowed to grow to

maturity beyond the reach of animals and the animals
allowed to graze the new seedlings that sprout from the
seeds falling onto the ground. (31)
- Leucaena plants can be grazed when they are about a

metre tall. When they are cut to be used as a fodder, the
plants may grow up to a height of about 1.5 to 2 m.
- Grazing or lopping is usually done at 2-3 month

intervals. When lopping, it is good practice to leave a few
small branches to facilitate regrowth. (32)
page 104
29 You can
grow hedges
at 2-3 m
spacing on
open pastures
or as part of
an integrated
farming
system.
(See H 1.1)
30 You can
grow plants at
2 m spacing
in open
pasture.
Your animals
can graze on
the pasture
and these
plants when
they are about
1 m high
31 or you can
let the trees
grow to full
height and
your animals
can eat the
seedlings
from seeds on
the ground.
32 Lop trees
for fodder
when they are
about 1.5-2 m
tall.
Leave a few
branches for
good
regrowth.
Graze or lop
every 2-3
months.
page 105
- If adequate space is allowed between plants, e.g. when

grown as separate plants or in a single row fence, each
tree may give a yield of about 3-5 kg per lopping. The
yield is lower during periods of drought. 90-100 trees will
provide about 5 kg of leaves per day on average,
throughout the year, if managed well. (33)
Example 2
Glyricidia maculata: This species grows in a wide variety

of agroclimatic regions and can thrive on many different
types of soil. It has adapted well under adverse climatic
conditions and shows a high degree of resistance to pests
and diseases. Glyricidia is used as a shade tree in tea and
coffee plantations and as a support and shade in pepper
plantations. (34)
Propagation can be by seeds or stems. To prevent the

planted stems being disturbed by cattle and buffalo, 1.5 m
long stems can be planted along fences. The stems are
planted in holes made by an iron bar. No other land
preparation is usually necessary for planting stems.
Spacing between plants varies depending on where they
are planted: (35)
- in a single row fence, the spacing is usually 15-30 cm;
- in a double row fence, it is usually 60 cm between rows
and 60 cm between plants;(36)
page 106
33 With
enough space,
each tree
gives about 3-
5 kg per
lopping (less
in dry
periods).
90-100 well
managed trees
give about 5
kg leaves per
day for the
whole year.
Glyricidia
maculata by
seed or stem
propagation
34 This tree
grows under
many
conditions
and resists
pests and
diseases.
Farmers often
use it for
shade.
35 Plant 1.5
m stems
along fences
to protect
from your
animals.
Use an iron
bar to make
holes.
36 Spacing is
usually:
- 15-30 cm in
a single row
fence
- 60 cm
between
plants and
rows in a
double row
fence
page 107
- if planted individually among other crops, spacing is 5 x 5

metres. (37)
Lopping of branches is done once in about 2-3 months.

The plants should not be allowed to grow to a height of
more than 2.0 m. A single tree may bear about 10-15
branches at a time. (38)
When lopping, about 25 % of the branches are allowed to

remain intact, to facilitate further growth. The harvest at
one lopping is about 7-9 kg per tree. (39)
Addition of cow dung and compost increases the yield. It

has been estimated that the yield from about 175-200 well
managed trees would be sufficient to supply the roughage
requirement of a cow throughout the year, when mixed
with chopped rice straw. A fence of about 60 m length
will have this number of trees. (40)
page 108
37
- 5 x 5 m for
individual
plants among
other crops.
38 A tree can
bear 10-15
branches at
one time.
Lop every 2-3

months and
do not allow
to grow taller
than 2.0 m.
39 Leave
25% of
branches for
good
regrowth.
You should
get 7-9 kg
branches from
each tree.
40 Apply cow
dung and
compost for
higher yields.
175-200 well-
managed trees
(a fence of 60
m) gives
enough
roughage for
1 cow for 1
year when
mixed with
chopped rice
straw.
page 109
Annex I
Species suitable for various climatic

conditions
(a) Humid tropics
Albizia chinensis
A. lebbek
A. procera
Artocarpus heterophylla
Azadirachta indica
Bauhinia purpurea
Gliricidia maculata
Moringa oleifera
Morus alba
Leucaena leucocephala
Sesbania grandiflora
S. sesban.
(b) Semi-arid tropics
Acacia nilotica
A. tortilis
Ailanthus excelsa
Albizia amara
A. lebbek
Azardirachta indica
Capparis decidda
Dichrostachys cinerea
Hardwickia binata
Leucaena luecocephala
Parkinsonia aculeata
Pithecellobium dulce
Prosopis juliflora
Sesbania sesban
Tamarix spp.
(c) Arid tropics
Acacia nilotica
A. tortilis
Ailanthus excelsa
Albizia amara
A. lebbek
Bauhinia variegata
Casuarina equisetifolia
Hawdwickia binata
Zizyphus mauritiana.
(d) Temperate and sub-temperate areas
Betula alboides
Celtis australis
Morus serrata
Robinia pseudoacacia
Salix spp.
(e) Hot arid desert
Acacia arabica
A. tortilis
Albizia amara
Azadirachta indica
Eucalyptus terminalis
E. camaldulensis
Prosopis cinerea
P. juliflora.
(f) Semi-arid, rocky and gravelly
Acacia catechu
Ailanthus excelsa
Albizia lebbek
Cassia siamea
Dalbergia sisso
Dendrocalamus strictus
Hardwickia binata
Prosopis juliflora.
(g) Cold desert
Juniperus communis
J. wallichiana
Populus spp.
Salix spp.
(h) Ravines
Acacia arabica
A. catechu
A. tortilis
Albizia lebbek
A. amara
Dalbergia sisso
Dendrocalamus strictus
Eucalyptus spp.
Prosopis juliflora.
(i) Swampy and wet lands
Arundo danax
Baringtonia spp.
Bischoejia javonica
Eucalyptus robusta
E. rudis
Casuarina equisetifolia
Diosphyros ambryopteris
Pterospermum acerifolium
Sapium sebifecum.
(j) Shore and riverbeds
Acacia spp.
Albizia spp.
Hardwickia binata
Sesbania spp.
(k) Cultivable wastelands
Acacia spp.
Albizia spp.
Hardwickia binata
Sesbania spp.
(l) Saline-sodic soils
Acacia arabica
A. tortilis
Albizia amara
Butea monosperma
Dalbergia sisso
Prosopis juliflora
Salvadora spp.
Tamarindus indica.
Source: Singh, 1988
page 112
What do you know about fodder from

shrubs and trees?
Advantages of feeding shrub and
tree fodders
(5-
1 Growth and nutritive value
10)
2 Ease of establishment, maintenance (11-
and cutting 13)
Disadvantages
(14-
Toxic content
16)
Suitable varieties
(11-
Annex
12)
Establishing and maintaining
tree fodders
1 Leucaena leucocephala
- limitations and land preparation (18)
(19-
- seed propagation
27)
(28-
- spacing and management
33)
2 Glyricidia maculata
- limitations and land preparation (34)
(35-
- spacing and management
40)
page 113
Small-Scale
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 5.3
SMALL SCALE HAY
MAKING
page 115
Extension Materials
What should you know about hay making?
What is hay and why is

feeding hay important?
(5-20)
1 You should know:

- the feed value of hay
- the importance of
feeding hay when there is
no grass.
When do you cut and

how do you dry your
hay crop? (21-47)
2 You should know

about:
- equipment
- time of cutting
- ways of drying.
How do you bale and

store hay?(48-74)
3 You should know how

to:
- make and use a baling
box
- make a hay store and
keep your hay dry.
How can you feed hay?

(75-80)

to make feeders for your:
- calves
- cows.
page 117
What do you make hay from?

5 During the rains there

is more grass than at any
other time of the year.
6 There is enough grass

for fresh feeding.
There is also a surplus of
grass.
7 You can turn this

surplus forage into silage
or hay.
What are the steps in making and handling hay?

8 Cutting Drying Baling Storing Feeding
page 118
What is hay?
9 Grass or legumes
which you cut at the
beginning of flowering.
At this time your hay

crops:
- are rich in protein
- are low in fibre
- give high yields of
green matter.
10 Grass or legumes
which you dry quickly in
the sun and wind to:

- reduce the water
content of fresh plant
matter
- preserve the nutrients.
11 Hay contains about

80% dry matter and
20% water.
Quality hay is green in

colour and smells good.
Green hay contains:

- carotene
- B complex vitamins
- vitamin D.
page 119
Why is feeding hay important?
12 There may not be

enough grass to make
hay for all your cows and
calves
13 but you can produce

enough hay for your
calves.
They need it most.
14 At two weeks old,

feed one handful of hay
every day.
Gradually increase the
amount.
15 Feeding hay to young

calves:
- maintains growth
when there is no grass
- helps the development
of the rumen
- reduces milk
consumption in liquid
feeding so you can
deliver more milk to the
collecting centre.
page 120
What equipment do you need to make and handle hay?
16 A sickle for cutting

the hay crop.
17 A rack for keeping the

crop off the ground
while drying it.
18 A wooden box for

making the hay into bales.
19 A structure with a
roof for storing the hay
and keeping it dry.
20 A rack for feeding

the calves.
page 121
When do you cut your hay crop?
21 At the right time.

Too early:
- not enough green
matter.
22 When the hay crop

starts flowering:
- at this time, the crop has
maximum nutrients and
green matter.
23 Too late:
- too low in protein
- too high in fibre.
24 When the weather is

dry.
25 Too wet:
- at this time, the crop
will dry more quickly
but do not wait for
sunshine.
26 A drying rack can

help you to overcome
your problems with the
weather.
page 122
How can you dry the hay crop quickly?
27 After cutting the hay

crop, turn over often to
help wilt all parts of the
crop.
28 Load hay onto a

drying rack.
29 Take away plant

matter which touches
the ground.
30 Cover the rack with

mats before it becomes
wet by rain.
31 If you do not have

enough mats to cover the
sides, brush the hay
downwards so that it
sheds rain.
page 123
What kind of drying racks can you use?
Hurdle
32 The hurdle:
- is suitable for
smallholders
- has a capacity of 30-40
kg
- is easy to assemble.
Heinz
33 The heinz:
- is suitable for all
weather conditions
- is easy to make and
assemble
- requires a plastic tent.
Fence
34 The fence:
- requires little material
- has a capacity of 80 kg
(4 poles)
- can be loaded with wet
hay
- requires careful
assembly.
Tripod
35 The tripod:
- is better in dry climates
- leads to moulding in
high humidities.
page 124
How can you make a hurdle?
36 You need:
8 poles : 200 x 8 x 5 cm
4 poles : 150 x 8 x 5 cm
2 poles : 165 x 8 x 5 cm
Tie, nail or screw the
poles together to make
two frames like this.
37 Lean one frame

against the other to make
the hurdle.
Load the hay crop onto

the horizontal bars.
page 125
How can you make a heinz?
38 Lay a dark plastic

sheet on the ground to
collect the sun's rays.
Put a thick pole into the
ground.
Fix thinner poles in
horizontal positions at
right angles.
39 Fix support poles and

a roof pole.
Load the hay crop onto
the horizontal arms.
40 Cover with a clear

plastic sheet to protect
from rain.
41 After about two days

the hay is dry and you
can remove it.
page 126
How can you make a fence?
42 You need:
- 4, 5 or more round poles, 240 x 8 x 5 cm
- a bar to make holes
- sisal or ropes.
Tie the rope to the poles

Make holes in the ground Make holes in the ground with
for the first layer of hay.
with a bar. Note the angle a bar. Note the angle of the
of the poles! poles!
43 Load the first layer of

hay crop on the rope.
Then tie the second rope

on
top and add the second
layer of hay.
Continue to tie ropes and

add layers of hay.
page 127
How can you make a tripod?
44 You need:
3 poles : 200 x 8 cm
3 poles : 200 x 8 cm
3 pegs : 30 x 8 cm
Drill a hole and tie with
wire or rope.
Fix pegs to support poles.
46 Begin loading from all

three corners. Then move
towards the middle.
47 Load the hay to form a

cone. Keep the surface
area small.
A tripod can carry about

500 kg of grass.
page 128
Why should you bale hay?
48 Legumes cut for hay

lose their leaves easily.
Baling keeps the leaves in

the bale - from the field
to the feeder.
49 Baled hay is easy to

handle.
50 It is easy to transport
51 easy to store
52 and easy to ration at

feeding time.
page 129
How do you know when hay is dry enough to bale or store?
53 Take a handful of hay

from the inner layers of

the drying rack.
54 Twist the hay by hand

and look at it carefully:
55 Does not break.

Shows moisture.
Do not store the hay.
Dry longer.
56 Skin comes off.

Do not store the hay.
Dry longer.
57 Breaks a little.
Shows no moisture.
Store the hay.
page 130
How can you make a baling box?
You need:
58
Side boards: 6 pieces 65

x 12 x 2 cm
Cross bars: 2 pieces 50 x

15 x 2 cm
End boards: 6 pieces 36

x 12 x 2 cm
59
Corners: 8 pieces 36 x
15 x 2 cm
Handles: 2 pieces 105 x

8 x 2 cm
page 131
60
61 Make a platform. This gives an even surface when baling in the field.
page 132
How do you use the baling box?

62 Put two long ropes

into the baling box.
63 Tread the hay into the

box.
64 Tie the ropes very

tightly.
65 Lift the baling box,

and tip the bale out.
page 133
Why should you store hay?

66 Hay is made from

crops grown in the wet
season but your calves
and cattle need high
quality feed for many
months in the dry season.
You must store hay for

the dry season. Then your
animals can feed when
grass cannot grow.
67 How can you store

hay?
68 When the hay is

ready for storing,
remove it from the field.
More grass can grow

where you put your hay
racks in the field.
69 Store hay close to the

shed.
Then it is easy to feed

your cattle.
page 134
70 If you have no
suitable storage site,
store hay on slats:
- slats to keep the hay off
the ground
- mats or plastic cover to
keep the hay dry
- bales of hay.
71 If you store hay for a

long time, it has lower
feed value.
Hay may also become

mouldy.
Watch out for mould.
Do not feed mouldy hay
to calves.
72 You can store hay

under the roof of the cow
shed and above the
housing area for calves.
Storage platform
Calf pen
page 135
73 You can also store hay with silage.
The roof shelters hay and silage.
The platform supports the hay and helps further drying.

74 The pit gives room for forage to make silage.
page 136
How can you feed hay?
75 You can feed hay

from hay racks in
individual calf boxes
76 or from self feeders

for calves in your
exercise yard.
page 137
How can you make a hay rack?
77 Make your calf box like this (measurements in cm):

- with a rack for hay
- and a place for concentrates and water buckets.
page 138
How can you build a basket hay store and self feeder for the exercise
yard?
78 You need:
- grass for the roof
- sticks and branches for
the sides.
Do not use nails or wire.
These may hurt cattle.
Use ropes to tie

branches and sticks.
79 Make the roof from

thatching grass.
You can lift the roof to
add more hay.
Add poles to make the

feeder stronger. A
feeder of this size can
hold up about 250 kg of
hay.
page 139
What do you know about hay making?
Feeding good hay increases your milk

production
(9-
1 Good hay is:
11)
- low in fibre
- rich in protein and nutrients.
(12-
2 Feed when you have no grass in the dry season.
15)
Making hay for feed requires planning and equipment
Planning Equipment
(21-
Cutting Sickle -1 When crop flowers Sickle
26)
2 When weather dry
(27-
31)
(32-
Drying 1 Prepare equipment 35)
Drying
2 Load and turn hay (36-
Racks
3 Keep hay off ground/ 37)
Hurdle
dry
Heinz (38-
4 Choose a suitable rack
Fence 41)
(size, ease of making,
Tripod (42-
weather)
43)
(44-
47)
Baling (48-
1 For keeping leaves 52)
2 For easy handling, (53-
transportation and
57)
rationing
(58-
3 Checking dryness
61)
4 Making a baling box
Baling box (62-
5 Using a baling box
(treading, tying, 65)
tipping)
Slats and (66-

Storing - Keep hay dry for the dry
cover 74)
season
Platform
Feeding 1 Making a hay rack

(75-
2 Making a haystore and
Hay racks 80)
self feeder
3 Locating for easy feeding
page 140
Small-Scale
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 5.4 - Part 1
SMALL SCALE
SILAGE MAKING
page 141
Extension Materials
What should you know about silage making?
What is silage and why is

silage important?(5-12)
1 You should know:

- the feed value of silage
- the importance of
storing and feeding silage.
How can you make a

"silo"?(13-56)
2 You should know:

- the types of silos
- how to make a suitable
silo for your farm.
How do you prepare the

crop and handle silage?
(57-82)

to:
- prepare your crop and
fill your silo
- seal and drain your silo
- remove silage.
How do you feed silage?

(83-87)

to:
- make a feeder for your
silage
- find the feeding value.
page 143
What is silage?
5 Silage is cut plant

material sealed in a silo
without air and water.
Rainy Season
Dry season
6 You can store the silage

for many months and still
have good animal feed
- up to 85% of the energy
and protein value of the
original crop.
7 If you store the cut plant

material with air and water
8 it becomes rotten
material/ compost.
You can use it for
fertilizer but not for
animal feed.
page 144
Why make silage?

9 You can store extra feed

as silage
10 and use it as animal

feed when plants are not
growing.
11 You can harvest your

crops when they have
highest feed value and
store them for use
throughout the year.
12 What are the steps in making silage?
page 145
Making a silo.
Where is a good place for the silo?
13
Near to where the crops
are cut - short distance
from the field to the silo.
Near to the road - you

may want to transport or
sell your silage.
Near to where the animals

feed - short distance from
silo to feeding animals.
No water - in a dry area

which is easy to drain.
What is important in
making a silo?
Right size
14 Big silos cost more.
Very small silos have a lot
of waste.
15 The smallest silos

should have
4-5 m3 of silage.
You need to cut the plant,
carry
it and fill the silo in one
day.
page 146
16 You need enough silage

to feed your animals
throughout the dry season.
Make more small silos not
one big silo.
IMPORTANT: How
many animals do you
have?
How much feed does each

animal need?
How much spare crop do

you have for silage?
Strength
17 You must compact the
silage to remove air.
The silo must be strong

enough for this.
No air
18 Air in silage causes

problems:
- loss of energy
- increase in temperature
- growth of fungi.
Seal the top of the silo to
keep air out, replace the
seal quickly after removing
silage.
No water/sun
19 Make a roof to protect

silage from rain and sun.
page 147
Drainage
20 Silage produces a lot of

effluent.
Make drains on each side

of the silo floor to remove
waste.
Fill the drains with stones

and rocks.
Make sure the drains do

not go near drinking water.
Base
21 If your silo is large,

make a base for unloading
equipment.
page 148
Types of silo
How can you make a stack silo?
22 Choose a site with good

drainage and firm soil
base.
If possible, lay a concrete
floor.
23 Stack the cut crop

carefully.
Make it high at the sides
and the ends.
Compact the stack.

Cover the stack with
plastic sheets.
Fence the stack so that
cattle cannot step on the
silage.
Advantages Disadvantages
1 Low cost. 1 Lot of waste at sides and

ends.
2 Easy to move. 2 Difficult to roll the stack
to check
for high temperatures.
page 149
Material Labour
Manhours
1 Earth bricks 1 Brick

laying 90
2 Cement (12 bags) 2 Make
walls 32
& concrete
3 Sand (3 m3) 3 Dig drains &
fill 8
trenches with stones
4 Wire-mesh (34 m)
& staples (.8 kg)
5 Broken stones for drainage (1.6 m3)
Total man/hrs:
130
How can you make a walled clamp silo?

24 Make earth into bricks

and bake them hard in the
sun.
Cover the wire-mesh with

a layer of concrete.
25 Build the walls of the

silo from the bricks.
26 Put wire-mesh on the

inside of the walls.
27 Make a roof out of wire-

mesh and cover with a thin
layer of straw.
page 150
28 The silo has a capacity

of about 35 m3 (11,000
kg).
This is enough to feed 5
milking cows for 90 days.
Note:
1 Other materials for walls: metal or wood e.g. railway sleepers.
2 Silage produces acids. Treat materials with asphalt to protect them.
page 151
How can you make a trench silo?

29 Choose a
site with
sloping land
and firm soil.
Side view
30 Dig a trench:
- with a 10% slope on the
back wall and bottom.
This will carry the waste
towards the drains.
31
- wide enough for a tractor
or cart to enter.
32 Dig drains and fill with

rocks or stones.
page 152
33 Your trench silo will be

better if you line the sides,
bottom and walls with a 10
cm layer of concrete.
Extend the concrete for 3-4

m on the slope.
Drains
34 Cover the silage with a

polythene sheet.
This will keep the air and

water out.
Add a 15 cm layer of soil.
This will compact the
silage.
Make the slope of the back

wall and bottom 10 %.
This trench was filled in 5
days.
35 Make a roof.
This is bamboo with a

"cadjan" covering.
page 153
Materials Labour
1 Broken stones (drainage) 1 Dig trench

2 Poles 2 Make roof
3 Roofing material & ropes
4 Wood preservative
Size
Capacity
36 This silo has a capacity

of about 10 m3 (3,500 kg).

cows and 2 calves for 60
days.
It is suitable for small -

medium scale silage
operations.
Note:
1 Replace roof mats every year.
2 Replace roof structure every 3 years.
3 Replace trench after 5 years.
Advantages Disadvantages
1 Low cost, about US$ 5-10 per m3 1 Needs a good, sloping site
2 Low waste because of walls 2 Danger of water running
into
3 Easy to load and unload the trench, especially in
because at ground level. tropical regions
page 154
How can you make a circular wattle silo?

37 Choose a well-drained
site with firm soil.
Draw a circle on the earth,

3.5 m in diameter.
38 Make holes around the

circle,
7.5 cm apart.
Errect the poles.

39 Mix clay and cow dung.
Plaster over the poles.
40 Add and compact the

crop.
Seal the top with a mixture
of soil and straw or with a
plaster jacket.
page 155
41 Build a roof
for the silo.
42 A "wattle
and daub" silo.
Materials Labour
1 140 wooden poles (2.20 m long, 1 Dig holes for

poles
0/ 0.06 m diameter)
2 Poles 2 Erect &

connect poles
3 Soil, cattle manure, 3 Prepare

mud
straw chaff (to produce mortar
for wall coating)
4 Plastic jacket 4 Plaster walls
43 This silo has

a capacity of
about 18 m3
(6,000 kg).
This is enough
to feed 3 cows
and 3 calves for
60 days (daily
ration: 25 kg/
cow, 6 kg/calf).
Note:
1 Replace plastic jacket after 1 year.
2 Replace basic structure after 2 years.
page 156
How can you make a bamboo silo?
44 Choose a well-drained
site with firm soil.
Draw a circle on the earth
2 m in diameter.
45 Make holes around the

circle
12 cm apart.
Erect the poles.
46 Attach wire-mesh to the

walls.
This supports the cement
lining.
47 Mix 1 part cement with

2 parts sand and water.
Plaster over the wire-mesh.
page 157
Materials Labour
1 20 bamboo poles 1 Dig holes for poles

2 Wire mesh (12.5 m) 2 Errect & connect poles
3 Nails 1 kg 3 Prepare cement
4 Seven sacks cement 4 Plaster walls
5 Sand
6 Wood preservative
7 Binding wire
8 Roof (sugar cane leaf)
SIZE
48 Capacity
This silo has a capacity of
about 5 m3 (2,000 kg).
cows for 45 days.
Note:
1 Replace roof after 2
years.
2 Replace structure after 5
years.
page 158
Small-Scale
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 5.4 -Part 2
SMALL SCALE
SILAGE MAKING
The Chamber Silo

49 The Chamber Silo
Materials
Walls -Bricks (12 cm) 900 pcs

- Sand 1.0 m3 (for brick laying & coating)
- Cement 370 kg
- Iron wire 90 m (< 0/ 5 mm) (between every 2nd layer of
bricks)
Floor -Layer of gravel 0.30 cm

-Gravel 1 m3
50 Chamber silo with 4

chambers and roof.
This type of silo is quite
expensive, but the silo can
last for many years. You can
fill and close each chamber
separately so you can fill
quickly and reduce losses.
You can add or remove slats
at the front of each room.
This makes it easy to fill the
plant matter into the silo as
well as remove the silage
from the silo.
page 159
52 Specifications:
Silage requirements:
To feed 3 milking cows for

30 days.
Silo measurements :
2.00 m x 1.50 m x 2.00 m=

6.00 m3
(per chamber)
page 160
54 Large upright silos are

convenient and not expensive
if labour costs are high. They
keep air out to reduce losses.
Unloading structures and
mechanical feed handling
systems make it easy to fill
and feed.
Important
1 Locate silos carefully, plan
the location of other
structures.
2 Fill and feed out quickly to
avoid top spoilage.
3 Arrows show drainage
away from silo.
Investment (1986): First cost
US$ 12-16 per ton capacity
55 Investment (1986): First cost US$ 20-35 per ton capacity

page 161
How can you prepare your crop for the silo?
Cutting
Cut the crop at the right time to get the best feed value. Here are some
examples:
Crop Cutting Time

Lucerne full bud
Elephant grass before 1.5 m high
Other grasses just before flowering
Grass/shrub end of the rainy season
Oats beginning of the "dough" stage
Maize 50-55 days after silking
Wilting
Check the dry matter content of the crop. If necessary, wilt the crop to 30-
35% dry matter content. This improves the feed value.
Chopping
Chop the crop to a length of

30-35 cm.
56 This crop is chopped to

the length of a match box. It
is easy to compact and
remove the air.
page 162
57 You can chop by hand but

it is slow.
This is a problem because
you must fill the silo quickly.
58 Machines are expensive

but you can share them with
your neighbours.
This one can chop 1,500 -

1,800 kg of crop per hour and
fill a 10,000 kg silo in one
day.
page 163
How can you fill and seal your silo?
Silage Additives
You can add substances to the crop to make your silage better and more
quickly.
Molasses
Some green plant material, e.g. young grasses and legumes, does not have
enough carbohydrate to make a good silage. Add molasses to the crop to
provide carbohydrate.
59 Mix 1 part of molasses

with 2 parts of water.
Put the mixture in a large

sprinkling can.
60 Add 35 l of the mixture

for every 1 m3 of crop (less
for short, leafy grass, more
for legume crops).
61 Measure the amounts of

crop by marking a pole
along the silo wall.
After adding each layer of
crop, sprinkle on the
molasses mixture.
62 Note
Molasses is not so necessary:

- after wilting the crop
- for maize silage.
page 164
63 Salt
Salt helps the silage process
in the same way as wilting.
Add 1-2% of salt to the crop
(less if the crop is dry, more
if it is not so dry).
64 Keeping out soil

Do not put any crops with
soil or other dirty material
into the silo.
This will slow down or spoil

the silage process.
.
65 Compacting
Compact the crop all the

time as you fill the silo.
This will remove the air
66&67 Compact the crop by continuous treading.
page 165
68 This farmer compacted his

crop well.
The silage is good.

He can slice it with a spade
and there is little waste.
69 This farmer did not

compact his crop well.
The silage is poor.
It is difficult to harvest with
a spade and there is a lot of
waste.
You can also compact the
crop by machine.
How long does it take to fill

a silo?
70 Fill your silo in one day
and seal quickly.
This will improve and speed

up the silage process.
Important when planning:
1 How long to chop the crop?
2 How long to put the chopped crop into the silo?
If necessary, ask your neighbours to help fill the silo in one day.
page 166
How can you seal a silo?
71 Fill the silo to 1 - 1.5 m

from the top.
Fix the plastic cover inside
the silo walls.
72 Upright silo with plastic

cover.
The plastic sheeting follows
the inner side of the silo wall
1-1.5 m.
73 Fill the silo above the

level of the edge.
Cover the silo with the plastic
and seal quickly.
74 Place a layer of soil or

daub on top.
This protects the plastic
against animals and sunlight.
The weight also compacts
the silage.
You can use old tyres for
weight and a barbed wire
fence to protect the cover
against animals.
page 167
How can you drain waste from your silo?
75 Dig drains to carry the

waste away from the silo.
Make sure the waste does

not go near your drinking
water.
76 Fill the drains with stones

or crushed rocks.
77
78 If there are no stones or

rocks, fill the drains with
branches or twigs.
page 168
How can you remove and shelter your silage?
79 Make a wooden platform

to protect the top part of the
silo against sunlight.You
\
can move the platform as
you remove silage from the
silo.
80 Nail gunny bags onto the

wooden platform.
This shades the front part of
the silo.
The plastic sheet (from
sealing) also covers the silo.
81 Make a curtain of gunny

bags.
This is easy to lift.
Record feeding instructions
in the black area.
82 You can remove the roof

on this "wattle" silo.
This shades the silage surface
during feeding time.
page 169
How do you feed silage?
83 You can use a filled wattle-and-daub silo.

84 Make the feeder from twigs.
Brickwall trench silo

85 Build a barb wire fence to protect your silo.
86 Cut oil drums in half to

make feed troughs.
87 Make a simple shade for

silo.
Use wire-mesh and cover
with straw.
page 170
How do you find the feeding value of silage?

The feeding value of silage depends on the type of crop and the
success of the silage process.
Appearance
Value Colour Smell Texture
High Yellow green/ Pleasant acid

brown
Medium Dark brown Sweet Tobacco-like
Low Olive brown Foul Slimy
Dry Matter Content
Take a wad of silage.

Twist in the hand.
Hand pressure Amount of Dry matter

moisture content
High None More than 25 %
Medium Some About 25 %
Low A lot 15% or less
page 171
What do you know about silage making?
Feeding good silage increases your milk

production
Good silage:
1 has up to 85% feed value of the original crop (5-8)
(9-
2 is fed when you have no other crops
12)
Making silage for feed requires planning and
equipment
Making a silo
Think about:
1 Location
- cutting crop (13)
- feeding
- transport
- drainage
2 Size
(14-
- costs
16)
- one-day filling
3 Strength
- for compaction (17)
4 Sealing
(18-
- no air, water, sun
19)
5 Drainage
- capacity (20)
- away from drinking water
6 Base
- for unloading (21)
Types of
silos
(22-
1 Stack silo
23)
(24-
2 Wall clamp silo
28)
(29-
3 Trench silo
36)
(37-
4 Circular wattle silo
43)
(44-
5 Bamboo silo
48)
(49-
6 Chamber silo
56)
Preparing crops for the silo
1 Cutting
2 Wilting
(57-
3 Chopping
59)
Filling and sealing the silo
1 Additives
(60-
- molasses
63)
- salt (64)
2 Keeping out soil (65)
(66-
3 Compacting
69)
4 Time for filling (70)
(71-
5 Sealing
74)
Draining waste
1 Location of drains (75)
(76-
2 Filling drains
78)
Removing and sheltering
silage
1 Wooden platforms (79)
(80-
2 Curtains of gunny bags
81)
3 Thatched roofs (82)
Feeding silage
(83-
1 Wattle and daub silos
84)
2 Brickwall trench silos (85)
3 Oil drums (86)
4 Shades (87)
Feeding value
1 Appearance
2 Dry matter content
page 173
Small-Scale
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 5.5
STRAW TREATMENT
page 175
Extension Materials
What should you know about treated straw ?
Why should you treat

straw? (5-13)
1 Treated straw has a

higher feed value than
untreated straw.
It is easy to make.
Is it expensive to treat straw? (14-

17)
2 Making treated straw is not

expensive and you save money on
concentrates.
How can you treat straw? (18-49 )
3 You should know how to:

- make a stack or
- fill a chamber with straw, water
and urea and
- seal it with a plastic sheet.
How can you feed treated straw?

(50-66)
4 You should know:

- how and when to take treated
straw from the stack
- how to supplement treated straw
with concentrates and minerals.
page 177
Why should you treat straw?

5 After paddy harvest and
threshing, you have a lot of straw.
Should you burn it in the field?

6 No! You can use as a
maintenance feed for cattle
but the:
- content
- dry matter digestibility
- balance
of untreated straw are poor.
7 Treat straw with urea.

Treated straw has a higher feed
value.
You make better use of your straw.
Is it difficult to produce treated

straw?
8 You can treat straw under all
farming conditions and on all sizes
of farms
page 178
9 and under all weather conditions.
10 On a small farm you can make a

large amount of feed at one time.
A few hours work for you and your
family
11 makes enough feed for 3

animals for 1 month.
Why not feed urea to your

animals?
12 Urea can be toxic if you use it
directly as a supplement for
roughages.
13 When you treat straw with urea

and feed it to your animal, it is
fairly safe.
After a few days, animals like to eat

treated straw.
page 179
Is it expensive to treat straw?
14 10 kg of urea-treated straw costs

the same as 80 kg of untreated
straw.
15 Treated straw:
- has a higher feed value
- makes a cheaper maintenance
ration.
Your animal eats more straw.
16 For young stock, treated straw

supports weight gain and growth
better than untreated straw.
17 For the same ration, if you use

treated straw you can use less
concentrates for maintenance and
the lower levels of milk production.
If you use untreated straw you
must use more concentrates.
Using treated straw saves you
money.
page 180
How can you treat straw?
18 You can use a temporary site or

a permanent structure for straw
treatment.
If you use a temporary site follow
these steps:
- lay down a plastic sheet
19
- spread straw on the sheet and
sprinkle with urea mixture
20
- repeat the step in 19 a number of
times
21
- seal the stack with a plastic sheet.
page 181
22 If you regularly use treated

straw, make 2 chambers and:
Week 1:
Fill chamber A by adding a layer
of straw and sprinkling with urea
(see 19).
23 Week 2:
Start filling chamber B with straw

and treating in the same way as for
chamber A.
24 Week 4:
Start feeding from chamber A at the

beginning of Week 4.
25 Week 7:
When chamber A is empty, start
feeding from chamber B.
26 While feeding from chamber B,

start filling and treating chamber A
again and repeat the process.
Important
Try to leave your straw for 3 weeks
in either chamber before feeding.
Therefore, each chamber should
hold 3 weeks feed.
page 182
How big should your stack be?

27 Make enough treated straw for 3-
4 weeks of feeding.
You need more treated straw if you

have more animals.
If your feeding period is longer
than 3-4 weeks, make two or more
medium-sized stacks rather than
one large stack.
28 How can you calculate the amounts of straw and labour?
page 183
29 Cover with airtight plastic

cover.
Buy rolls of plastic and cut in

lengths longer and wider than the
stack.
Then you can "envelope" the stack
after treatment.
30 How many metres of plastic sheet do you need?

page 184
Straw treatment in detail
Step 1
31 Choose a site with even ground.
This could be the threshing place or

a place close to the cow shed.
32 Overlap the sheets on the

ground.
This makes a seal against the floor

surface.
33 Seal the overlapping sheets

together.
Simply walk along the places

where the sheets overlap.
Step 2
34 Lift the edges of the plastic
sheet and place loose straw
underneath.
This keeps the water/urea mixture

in the stack.
Step 3
35 Spread a layer of straw over
the plastic bottom 10-20 cm high.
50 kg of straw is easy to handle at

one time.
Use large baskets to measure and

transport the straw.
page 185
Step 4
36 Sprinkle 40 kg of water over the
layer of straw.
Mix the other 10 kg of water with

3 kg of urea and stir well.
Sprinkle this mixture over the same

layer of straw.
37 How much water and urea do you need for treating different amounts of straw?
page 186
Step 3 and Step 4 repeated

38 Add a new layer of 50 kg of
straw (Step 3).
Treat in the same way with water

and urea (Step 4).
39 Repeat these steps until you

have enough straw to feed your
milking animals for 3-4 weeks.
40 As you add more layers,

gradually narrow the stack.
Step 5
41 Carefully seal the stack with a
plastic top sheet and a plastic
ground sheet.
42 Cover the top and the sides with

plastic sheets.
Fold these sheets at the bottom and

push them under the ground sheet.
page 187
Here are the main steps again:

43 Stack begun
First layer of straw
Plastic ground sheet (rolled)
Straw packed to form wall
Plastic ground sheet (flat)

44 Stack completed
Edge of ground sheet showing.
45 Stack sealed
Top sheet folded and pushed under

ground sheet.
page 188
And some more important points:

46 Seals must be airtight.
Keep the ammonia in the stack.
If the plastic jacket is damaged, for

example by your chickens,
ammonia will escape.
47 How much straw should you

treat at one time?
If you keep treated straw for a long

time in a big stack, it loses feed
value, a medium-sized stack is
better.
page 189
How can you use treated straw for feeding?

48 Three weeks after treatment

remove straw from the small end
of the stack.
49 Lift the protective layers of

gunny bags and straw and the
plastic jacket.
Remove the daily ration of straw.
50 Remove the straw for the

morning and evening feeding the
night before and leave it overnight
in the open air until feeding time.
This takes away the strong smell of

ammonia.
51 Carefully close the stack.

52 Treated straw for feeding should

have a mild smell of ammonia.
page 190
53 If you still have some grass to

feed.
54 ... you can give 3 kg of treated

straw for each morning and
evening feeding (= 6 kg/cow/day).
55 In the dry season, the amount of

grass in the ration decreases
56 .... you must give more treated

straw:
8, 10 or even 12 kg per cow per

day.
page 191
57 Supplement your rations of grass

and treated straw with
concentrates.
Your extension worker can advise

you on quantities.
58 Do not feed more concentrates

than necessary.
Your cow cannot digest the straw

properly.
59 Keep concentrates to 25% or

less of the total ration.
page 192
60 For example, the ration of

maintenance + 8 kg milk yield
should include about:
- 22% concentrates (about 4 kg/
day)
- 48% treated straw (about 9 kg/
day)
- 30% grass (about 6 kg/day)
61 If your rations contain a lot of

rice straw, you must supplement
with minerals:
- calcium
- phosphorus
- micro-elements.
Ask your extension worker for
mineral blocks.
page 193
What do you know about treated straw?
Reasons for treating straw

1 Make good use of left-over straw (5-6)
2 Straw treated with urea has higher feed value (7)
3 Treated straw is easy to make and requires
(8-11)
little labour
4 Feeding urea alone can be toxic (12-13)
Cost of feeding treated straw
You save money because:
1 Your animals grow better (14-16)
2 You use less concentrates (17)
Chamber method (22-26)

Materials as for Stack method with two
chambers
Method of treating straw
Stack method (3, 18-21)
1 Materials:
- plastic sheet
- straw
- urea
- watering can and water
2 Calculating:
- straw (28)
- labour (28)
- plastic sheet (30)
- water/urea (37)
3 Operations:
(18,29,31-
- laying sheet
34)
(19-
- alternate straw and urea mixture
20,35-40)
(21,33,41-
- sealing
42,46)
- leaving for 3 weeks
Feeding treated
straw
1 Preparation:
- removal from stack (48-50)
- resealing (52)
- timing (51)
2 Feeding:
- with grass (54-58)
- with concentrates (59-60)

- with minerals (61)
page 195
Small-Scale
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 5.6
CONCENTRATES
page 197
CONCENTRATES
Husbandry Unit 5.6:
Technical Notes

Concentrates are a group of livestock feeds which are characterised

by a higher dry matter content and a higher digestibility than
roughages such as the stems and leaves of the grasses, fodders,
legumes and trees. (1)
Concentrates of plant origin can be either energy-rich concentrates

or protein-rich concentrates.
Energy-rich concentrates: dried cassava tubers; cereals such as

rice, wheat, maize, millet and sorghum; agricultural by-products
such as rice bran, wheat bran, molasses (2)
Protein-rich concentrates: coconut cake; soybean meal; palm kernel

cake; sunflower cake; groundnut (peanut) cake; cotton seed cake;
rubber seed meal etc. (3)
Concentrates of animal origin are characterized by the larger

amounts of high-quality proteins contained in them. Some examples
are the by-products of the milk processing industry e.g. skim milk
and whey which can be used in calf feeds. These are too expensive
to be given to adult ruminants. (4)
page 199
Extension Materials
What are
concentrates?
1 Animal feeds
with higher:
- dry matter
content
- digestibility
than roughages
such as the stems
and leaves of
grasses, fodders,
legumes and
trees.
What types of
concentrates are
there?
2 Two types of
concentrates
come from
plants:
Energy-rich
concentrates e.g.
- dried cassava,
tubers cereals
such as rice,
wheat
- by-products e.g.
rice bran,
molasses
3 Protein-rich
concentrates e.g.
- coconut and
sunflower cake
- soybean and
rubbers seed meal
4 Concentrates
from animals are
rich in high-
quality proteins
e.g. by-products
from skim milk
and whey
processing for
calf feeds.
They are too

expensive for
adult animals.
page 200
Small-Scale
Volume 3
Husbandry Unit 5.7
MINERALS AND
MINERAL BLOCK
MAKING
page 201
Extension Materials
What should you know about minerals and mineral block
making?
Why do your
animals need
minerals?(5-9)
1 For good
- health
- growth
- production.
How can you

feed minerals to
your animals?
(10-16)
2 By consulting
your extension
worker and using
mineral blocks.
How can you

make mineral
blocks?(17-27)
3 By:
- using the
correct amounts
of materials
- carefully
preparing the
blocks.
How can you

store mineral
blocks? (28-29)
4 By:
- wrapping in
polythene
- keeping away
from air and
water.
page 203
MINERALS AND MINERAL BLOCK

MAKING
Husbandry Unit 5.7:
Technical Notes

Minerals are an essential component in the diet of all animals. In

dairy cattle and buffalo, minerals are required for the
maintenance of general health and for proper growth and
reproductive functions as well as to meet the quantities of
minerals that are secreted in the milk. (5-6)
The quantities of minerals required vary with the type of mineral,

type of animal and stage in the life cycle. Some animals may be
able to obtain all the requirements of the minerals that they need
from their normal diet. On the other hand, most animals may not
show any obvious signs of a deficiency even if they do not receive
adequate quantities of minerals. However, they will yet be
susceptible to diseases, will not become pregnant in time and will
have a slower growth and lower production than can be obtained,
had they received an adequate supply of the required minerals.
(7-9)
page 204
Why do your
animals need
minerals?
5 Dairy cattle and

buffalo need
minerals for:
- health
- growth
6
- reproduction
- milk production.
7 The amounts
of minerals
required depend
upon:
- type of mineral
- type of animal
- age and use of
animal.
8 If your animals
do not have
enough minerals,
they may look
normal but they
will:
- get disease
more easily
- grow more
slowly
page 205
As the normal feeds offered to dairy cattle and buffalo may not
contain the required amounts of minerals, additional quantities
are usually supplied in the form of mineral supplements. The
mineral supplements available in the market are produced to a
standard formula and it may not be economical to feed such
supplements under some conditions of feeding. In addition, there
are considerable losses due to wastage when minerals are given
to animals in the form of powders. (10-11)
page 206
9
- get pregnant
late
- have low
production.
How can you

feed minerals to
your animals?
10 Normal feeds
may not contain
enough
minerals:
- you need to
give a mineral
supplement.
11 But:
- commercial
supplements are
expensive
- powder
supplements have
a lot of waste.
12 It is better to
use mineral
blocks.
page 207
To avoid these difficulties, minerals can be offered in the form of

blocks. The advantages of offering minerals in the form of blocks
(over powders) are:
- farmers can themselves make blocks economically using
components purchased from the market; (13)
- the composition of the blocks can be changed according to

needs e.g. type of feeds available and quantities of minerals that
animals can obtain from them; (14)
- the blocks can be left in the barn for the animals to obtain their
requirements by licking;
- there is less wastage, even when the blocks are left in the barn.
(15)
page 208
13 Advantages
of mineral
blocks (over
powders) are:
- you can make
the blocks
yourself with
materials from
the market
14
- you can choose
the composition
of the block for
your feeds and
your animals
15
- you can leave
the blocks in the
barn for your
animals to lick
- even in the
barn, there is less
wastage.
16 Using mineral
blocks:
- is good for your
animals
- saves you
money.
page 209
The procedure for making mineral blocks may be explained in

several stages as follows:
Stage I: Composition of the mixture to be used

for making the block
Some components in the mixture can be increased or decreased

depending on the availability of minerals from the feeds
consumed by the animals. Extension officers should give
necessary advice on this aspect. (17)
An example of a mixture that would be suitable to make five

blocks, each weighing 1 kg is given opposite. However, if the
animals receive a feed containing adequate quantities of good
quality rice bran, which is rich in phosphorous, the amount of
dicalcium phosphate in the mixture can be reduced. (18)
page 210
How can you make mineral blocks?
Choosing a
mixture
17 Consult your
extension worker
about the correct
mixture for your
feeds and your
animals.
18 This example
mixture can
make 5 blocks of
l kg each.
If your feed has

enough rice bran,
rich in
phosphorus, you
can reduce the
dicalcium
phosphate in the
mixture.
Component Quantity in grams

Cement 1000.0
Quicklime 125.0
Common Salt 1750.0
Dicalcium Phosphate 2000.0
Cobalt Chloride 1.0
Copper Sulphate 25.0
Potassium Iodide 3.0
Zinc Oxide 95.0
Sodium Selenate 1.0
page 211
Stage 2: The block
A wooden block can be made as shown to make blocks weighing

about 1 kg each. (19)
Stage 3: Mixing the components
Cement, quicklime, dicalcium phosphate, common salt and zinc

oxide.
Crush any crystals and large particles of these components and

sieve to obtain a fine powder.
Mix them well in a bucket or other suitable container. (20)
Cobalt chloride, copper sulphate, potassium iodide and sodium

selenate. (21)
Dissolve each component separately in about 100 ml (1/2 a

cupful) of clean water.
Add the cobalt chloride solution to the mixture made above and
mix thoroughly. (22)
page 212
Making the
frame
19 Make a frame
for 1 kg blocks
using the
following
materials:
2 planks 1.5 x 5.5
x 8 cm
2 planks 1.5 x 5.5
x 12 cm
2 pieces of wood
2 x 2 x 25 cm
Preparing the
mixture
20 Take the
cement,
quicklime,
dicalcium
phosphate,
common salt and
zinc oxide:
- crush crystals
and large pieces
- put through a
fine sieve
- mix together in
a bucket.
21 Take the
cobalt chloride,
copper sulphate,
potassium
chloride and
sodium selenate:
- dissolve each
one in 100 ml
(1/2 cup) of clean
water.
22 Add each
solution from 21
(begin with
cobalt chloride)
one-by-one to the
mixture in 20.
Mix thoroughly
before adding the
next solution.
page 213
Stage 4: Adding water
Add clean water to the mixture while mixing it thoroughly until it

attains the consistency of a dough. (23)
Stage 5: Making the blocks
Spread a piece of polythene on level ground to cover the area of

the block and place the wooden block on the polythene sheet.
(24)
Add a sufficient quantity of the mixture to fill the block and

compact it well. (25)
While adding the mixture, place two or three sticks (with a

diameter of the size of a pencil) in position as shown to form two
or three holes in the blocks. These holes will facilitate drying and
can also be used to hang the block). (26-27)
page 214
Adding water
23 Add clean
water to the
mixture until it is
like dough.
Making the
blocks
24 Place a piece
of polythene on
level ground and
put the wooden
frame on top.
25 Add enough
mixture to fill the
frame.
Compact the
mixture well.
26 Add 2 or 3
sticks (the size of
a pencil) to make
holes in the
block.
page 215
Stage 6: Storage
The blocks can be left in the barn (in a suitable place to prevent
them getting wet) for animals to lick.
The blocks that are not required immediately and are to be kept
for future use should be wrapped up in polythene and stored
without exposure to air and water.
page 216
27 You need
holes in the
blocks to:
- help the blocks
dry
- make it easy to
hang the blocks.
How can you

store mineral
blocks?
28 When dry,
hang a block
- where it does
not get wet
- where your
animals can lick
it.
29. Wrap the

other bricks up in
polythene and
store in a dry
place for later use.
page 217
What do you know about minerals and mineral block

making?
Mineral requirements and

deficiencies
1 Requirements for:
- health
- growth (5)
- reproduction (6)
- production
2 Factors affecting requirements (7)
3 Deficiencies cause:
- disease (8)
- slow growth
- late pregnancy (9)
- low production
Feeding
minerals
1 Need for supplement (10)
(11-
2 Commercial powders versus blocks
12)
(13-
3 Advantages of blocks
16)
Making mineral
blocks
1 Consult extension worker (17)
2 Example mixture (18)
3 Making the frame (19)
(20-
4 Preparing the mixture
22)
5 Adding water (23)
(24-
6 Making the blocks
27)
(28-
Storing the blocks
29)
page 218

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Small-scale dairy farming manual - Vol.

Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Husbandry Unit 5.1 - Pasture and Fodder 55

Husbandry Unit 5.2 - Fodder from Shrubs and Trees 89

Husbandry Unit 5.3 - Small scale Hey making 115

Husbandry Unit 5.5 - Straw Treatment 175

Husbandry Unit 5.6 - Concentrates 197

Husbandry Unit 5.7 - Minerals and Mineral block making 201

1 Feeding the right amounts

How do dairy cattle and

What type of feeds are

How much feed do dairy

4 This depends on:

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE & BUFFALO

Note: Numbers in brackets refer to illustrations in the Extension Materials.

What is important in feeding dairy cattle and buffalo?

5 For high milk

Nutrients from feeds (9-16)

- Activation of various metabolic activities in the body require the presence of

9 Your animals need

10 If some nutrients are

11 Your animals need

12 and proteins to build

14 and vitamins so their

15 Plants can make these

16 Animals cannot make

The Ruminants (17-28)

Cattle and buffalo belong to the group of animals referred to as ruminants.

- converting the carbohydrates (e.g. sugars, starches, cellu-lose etc) to volatile

The micro-organisms also produce (synthesize) vitamins of the "B" group,

How do dairy cattle and buffalo digest feeds?

17 Cattle and buffalo are

18 because their stomach has

With this complex stomach,

19 The abomasum is the

20 The other 3 stomachs

The most important features of the ruminant digestive process are:

Therefore, to make dairying economical, feed buffalo and cattle appropriate

21 At birth, your calf has a

22 So your calf needs milk

23 As your calf grows, it

24 The "fore" stomachs can

25 The "fore" stomachs of

26 The rumen contains a

27 To save money but still

Types of feed (for ruminant feeding) (29-40)

A simple way of classifying feeds is to group them as roughages, concentrates

- Concentrates are characterized by a higher dry matter content and a higher

Mineral supplements are usually available in the form of powders to be offered

What types of ruminant feed are there?

29 There are three main

33 or treated to improve the

38 They include by-products

Supplements are necessary

- How much of it will be consumed by an animal (feed intake).

It is not easy, however, to establish such a relationship because the final

A simpler way to evaluate the quality of a feed is to determine the quantity of

- analysis of a sample of the feed in a laboratory to determine its composition,