FEDERAL TVET INSTITUTE

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY

In partial fulfillment of the

BSc Degree of Electrical Control/Electronic
Communication Technology
SENIOR PROJECT PROPOSAL
Entitled
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCT OF 5W CLASS-A AUDIO AMPLIFIER
NAME ID No
Gashaw Worku-----------------------TIE/309/11
Tesfaye Teshome---------------------TIE/626/11
Atnafu Gojjo---------------------------TIE/116/11
Sraw Addis---------------------------TIE/570/11
Fekadu Nuigussie-------------------TIE/289/11

Academic Project Design Adviser:

Mr. Alexander

November 25, 2022

i. Declaration
We declare that this project report titled <Audio amplifier> submitted in partial fulfillment of
the degree of Bachelor of Science electrical and electronics Technology is a record of original
work carried out by we under the supervision of Mr. Alexander and has not formed the basis
for the award of any other degree or diploma, in this or any other Institution or University. In
keeping with the ethical practice in reporting scientific information, due acknowledgements
have been made wherever the findings of others have been cited.

i
ii. Acknowledgement
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Alexander, who was my supervisor, for his
constant guidance in the implementation of this project. I would like to express great gratitude
to all the lecturers in the Electrical and Electronic department, Institutes of Technical and
vocational for equipping me with all the knowledge and skills that provided enough
competence to complete the project. I would like to thank members of staff in the Electrical
department; I would like to thank my classmates & colleagues for their much valued advice
and great contribution towards the success of the project.

Above all, I would like to thank the almighty Allah and God for enabling me achieve this
success and showing me light at the end of the tunnel.

ii
iii. ABSTRACT
The audio power amplifier is used to amplify low-power audio signals to a level that can be
suitable for driving the loudspeakers. Thus the audio power amplifier becomes a kind of
essential part in the electronics that could make sounds. Sound amplification is required for
variety of reasons. It has many applications in our day to day life. There are a variety of sound
amplification techniques and each technique is employed depending on where and what kind of
environment we are present. In this project of designing an audio amplifier system, first we
studied the need for sound amplification and the basic block diagram of a sound system and its
individual blocks. Microphones: their principle, different types, their working and equivalent
SPICE models are followed. Thereafter, a brief study about the power amplifiers, their different
classes and the PSPICE simulation models of all of them has been carried out. Class A power
amplifier is then experimentally implemented to drive a speaker.

iii
 iv. List of Figures and
Tables Construction time
i. Table 1
ii. Table 2 frame List of
iii. Table 3 Raw material
Cost
iv. Fig 1 Single stage CE amplifier
v. Fig 2 Class A output wave form
vi. Fig 3 Transistor Biasing
amplifier common emitter
vii. Fig 4
viii. Fi5 Materials (tools)
ix. Fig 6 Soldering iron
x. Fig7 Solder Sucker
xi. Fig 8 screw driver
xii. Fig 9 Digital multimeter
xiii. Fig 10 Drilling machine
xiv. Fig 11 Capacitor
xv. Fig 12 Resistor
xvi. Fig 13 Standard 3.5mm stereo audio plug
xvii. Fig 14 3.5mm Stereo audio jack
xviii. Fig 15 PCB
xix. Fig 16 Wire
xx. Fig 17
Audio speaker
xxi. Fig 18
Two stage BJT CE amplifier
xxii. Fig 19 circuit in Proteus software
xxiii. Fig 20
Proteus software simulation

iv
v. Definition of Terms
HZ Hertz
KHZ Kilo Hertz
DC (dc) Direct Current
AC Alternate Current
(ac) W Watt
BJT Bipolar Junction
V Transistor
IC Volt
R Integrated Circuit
C Resistor
CE Capacitor
PCB Common Emitter
Print circuit board

v
 Table of Contents
i. Declaration…………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………...i
ii. Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………………………………………....ii
iii. Abstracts……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….iii
iv. List of Figures and Tables……………………………………………………………………………..iv
v. Definition of Terms..................................................................................................................v
1. Chapter one Introduction...............................................................................................................1
1.1. Background …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………1
1.2. Statement of the problem........................................................................................................3
1.3. Value Chain Analysis..................................................................................................................4
1.3.1. AS IS...............................................................................................................4
1.3.2. TO BE.............................................................................................................4
1.3.3. GAP...............................................................................................................5
1.4. Rational and description………………………………………………………………………………………………….….6
1.4.1. The main critical points to produce this audio amplifier……………………………………..6
1.4.2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT.................................................................................8
1.5. Objective of the project Design....................................................................................................7
1.5.1. General objectives.........................................................................................7
1.5.2. Specific objectives.........................................................................................7
1.6. Importance of the project........................................................................................................8
1.7. Scope and Delimitation............................................................................................................9
1.7.1. Scope.............................................................................................................9
1.7.2. Delimitation...................................................................................................9
2. Review Of Related Literature...................................................................................................10
2.1. Feasibility Study................................................................................................................11
2.1.1. Technical Feasibility..............................................................................................11
2.1.2. Economic Feasibility..............................................................................................11
2.1.3. Operational Feasibility..........................................................................................11
3. Methodology and circuit design …………………………………………………………………………….…………13
a. Biasing…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15
b. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT……………………………………………………………..………………………………………….…19
c. Classification of Signal Amplifier…………………………………………………….……………………………………….21
d. Different Methods for Transistor Biasing……………………………………………….……………………………….21
e. The amplifying action of BJT and concept of DC load line………………………………………….…………...22
f. Transistor Biasing and Stabilization………………………………………………………………………….……………..23
g. Amplifier architecture………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…26
h. Three Basic Rules of Amplifier Design…………………………………………………………………………………………..……….30
3.1. Identifying the components and materials………………………………………………………………………………..33
3.1.1. Project cost description………………………………………………………………………………………33
3.1.2. Materials (tools)……………………………………………………………………………………….…………34
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………40

0
 Chapter one: Introduction

1.1. Background
The audio power amplifier, which is also known as the audio amplifier, is a kind of electronic
amplifiers that amplify low-power audio signals (the frequencies of the low-power signals are
always between 20Hz to 20KHz, which is the range of human hearing) to a level that can be
suitable for driving the loudspeakers. All amplifiers are power amplifiers. However, those
operating in the early stages of the signal processing system deal with small signals. These early
stages are designed to give good voltage gain. Since voltage gain is the most important
functions of these amplifiers, they are called voltage amplifiers. The setup of a simple audio
amplifier large signal stage and the speaker. The microphone produces a very small signal, in
the millivolt range. The small signal stage amplifiers this audio signal and it becomes larger.

A Power Amplifier is designed for good power gain. It must handle large voltage and current
swings. These high voltages and currents, the power is high. It is very important to have good
efficiencies in power amplifier. An efficient power amplifier delivers the signal power for the
D.C. power. It takes from the supply since the job of the power amplifier is to change DC power
into signal power. Since the transistor was invented in 1940s, many kinds of different power
amplifiers were developed. Up to 1970s, the transistor amplification technology became quite
mature, and a variety of new circuits were developed. Examples of this are the Class A, B, AB, C,
D, E, F and G amplifier.

1
So the transistor amplifiers became the mainstream in the audio technology field. In the early
1960s, Jack Kilby developed a new member in audio technology, i.e. integrated circuits. Up to
early 1970s, the integrated circuits became recognized by the audio industry for its cheap
price, small size and more functions. So far, thick film audio integrated circuits, operational
amplifier integrated circuits are widely used in audio circuits. By the analysis of the
composition of audio power amplifier and the performance indices of amplifier, the working
principle of the audio power amplifier is better understood. Under this condition, using the
common electronic circuits, an audio power amplifier is aimed to be built successfully with the
function of tone and volume control. An audio amplifier has been described as an amplifier
with a frequency response from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, play important role in audio system. An
amplifier is an electronic circuit which increases the magnitude of the input signal. An amplifier
can be classified as a voltage, current or power amplifier. All electronic devices require proper
DC biasing mechanism depending on its application. The main purpose of biasing is to obtain
idle or quiescent conditions for the electronic device so that it can perform the required
function. The correct biasing point for a bipolar transistor, either NPN or PNP, generally lies
somewhere between the two extremes of operation with respect to its being either fully-ON or
fully OFF along its load line. This central operating point is called the Quiescent Operating Point
or Q- point for short. Biasing the transistor is very important process in designing a transistor
circuit and therefore it need special attention. Transistors are used in many different circuits
but most basic ones are those in which power level or voltage level of a given electrical signal
is increased, such circuits are called amplifiers.

2
1.2. Statement of the problem
Nowadays audio amplifier necessary to our everyday life all types of electronics that could
make sounds are widely using the audio power amplifier, such as mobile phones, MP4 players,
laptops, television, audio equipment and home interment sound system etc. The audio power
amplifier plays a quite important role in the sound reinforcement, and the speakers cannot
play a good role in amplification without the audio power amplifiers. Because of this a reliable
high fidelity audio amplifier should be made easy available. Commercial audio amplifier is
technologically advanced. Knowledge into the design of such audio amplifier should be
emphasized. The overall aim of this project to study and design and construct audio amplifier

3
 1.3. Value Chain Analysis
This is the value chain mapping of the technology

1.3.1 AS IS

Material Software- -high End-

Market
preparation ability Kit/module user
-portable

- wire, Soldering
Iron ,PC, d/f types of -Transistor -low import -high profitability
screw drive, solder -portable
sucker, soldering lead -Proteus 8 -Capacitors
international -high profitability -simple weight
-Drill -Resistors
-portable -easy to implements
-Multi meter -Power supply
cost - easy movable

1.3.2. TO BE

Material Software Market End-

preparation and Kit/module user
Hardware

- wire Soldering Iron - Proteus 8 -Transistor -High profitability

international -easy movable
-PCB, d/f types of screws -Capacitors - Cost effective -increase work
-Solder sucker, Soldering lead, -Resistors potential.
Multi meter, Drill
-Power supply

4
 1.3.3. GAP

Software Market End-

Electroni And hardware Kit/module user
c

-Transistor
- High
-Potentio meter. Cost
- Proteus 8 -Capacitors profitability
-Variable resistor. international Easy Maintenance
-Resistors
Service

1.3.3.1. The best Technology to be used

Techno ware Human ware Info ware Orga ware
Design/layout Unit of competencies Preparing user’s Preparing work
(Modification) on production process manual station

Raw material Preparing store

selection house

5
 1.4. Rational and description
1.4.2. The main critical points to produce this audio amplifier: -
 To transfer technology
 The projects can simply to produce easily available materials to the market.
 To create job opportunity for none employed
 Everyone to simply produce anywhere and reduce cost minimizes.
 To decrease import substitution.
 To Increase productivity
 The project not affects environmental condition at everywhere.

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 1.5. Objective of the project Design:
1.5.1. General objectives
The main objective of this project is: To design and construct Audio power amplifier

1.5.2. Specific objectives

 To design and construct audio power amplifier.
 To develop skill, knowledge and attitude about the audio amplifier.
 To increase the skill of circuit design.
 To identify the basic component of the system, create.
 To increase work opportunity of small enterprise.
 To increase innovation and creativity.
 To increases income of enterprise.

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 1.6. Importance of the project

An audio amplifier is a necessity to our everyday life. It has become a tool for entertainment
and relaxation. Audio amplifiers are used in computer systems, home music systems, and
home theater systems and for amplifying sounds from musical instruments such as guitar,
organ and other computer related instruments. Because of this a reliable high fidelity audio
amplifier should be made easily available. The goal of audio amplifiers is to reproduce input
audio signals at sound- producing output elements, with desired volume and power levels
faithfully, efficiently, and at low distortion. Knowledge into the design of such an amplifier
should be emphasized.

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 1.7. Scope and Delimitation
1.7.1. Scope
The scope of this project can be used as a guideline for us to conduct this project in order to
complete the project in time given and as in a plan from the early stage. Basically this project
focused on to designing and constructing audio amplifier of a load of 8 ohms, power of 5 W
speaker. using of BJT common emitter class A amplifier a voltage divider biasing techniques dc
voltage of 9 v having a feedback in differential amplifier in the pre amplifying section including
volume control parts.

1.7.2. Delimitation

 It is not fully automating does not include larger scale product output.
 Commercial amplifiers are technologically advanced.

9
 2. Chapter two: Review Of Related Literature
-The audio amplifier designed done by jingjie sun and Yingjiun chen at June 2011 in University
of Gavle faculty of engineering and sustainable development in a bachelor's thesis in
electronic. The audio power amplifier is designed with three parts: pre-amplifier unit, tonality
control unit and power amplifier unit. For the pre-amplifier unit, Tl071CP integrated
operational amplifier is used to achieve the gain of 4; for the tonality control unit, a filter is
designed to achieve different tone; for the power amplifier unit, LM386N-1 integrated low
voltage power amplifier is applied. One weakness on this thesis it sounds impurely with a large
volume and the distortion can be seen on oscilloscope.
In our project using no ic components, using only BJT to be adjust sound impurity and
distortion of signal seen on
Oscilloscope by using potentiometer adjusting the biasing of Q point.
Design and implementation of 100w class AB power amplifier done by Okwado Festus Walufu
Feb 17/2011 in University of Nairobi Engineering department of electrical and information. A
class AB power amplifier was build and functioned well but not use active elements, it high
heat and not use more transistors. In our project consider this problem and need more
improvements can be made to the circuit to make it better. They include:
-Use of active elements to make a bootstrap circuit so that the amplifier can be more stable.
- Use heat sinks with wider surface area to increase the power dissipation.
- Power amplifiers with higher output power could be built by connecting more output
power transistors in parallel.

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 2.1. Feasibility Study

2.1.1. Technical Feasibility

This proposed project does not additional training and high technical skills during designing
and constructing process of audio amplifier.

2.1.2. Economic Feasibility

Another important aspect of this the audio industry for its cheap price, small size and more
functions than other, its construct by BJT not IC easy maintain, which minimizes maintenance
cost. To produce the proposed system material can purchase from local market and minimum
labor. It has also economical advantageous for job opportunities to the society or small micro
enterprise. The selling price is cheap with comparing to other.

2.1.3. Operational Feasibility

The proposal audio amplifier can operate by unskilled person do not use additional Knowledge
with the use of device not complicated.

11
 3. Chapter three: Methodology and circuit design
The analysis or design of a transistor amplifier requires knowledge of both the dc and ac
response of the system. In fact, the amplifier increases the strength of a weak signal by
transferring the energy from the applied DC source to the weak input ac signal for proper
working of a transistor, it is essential to apply external voltages of correct polarity across its
emitter-base and collector-base junctions. Emitter-base junction is always forward biased
collector-base junction is always reverse-biased. Basic sound reinforcement system consists of
an input device (microphone), a control device (mixer), an amplification device (power
amplifier), and an output device (loudspeaker). Converted into an equivalent electrical signal
by the microphone. This microphone level signal is amplified to line level and possibly
combined with signals from other microphones by the mixer. The power amplifier then boosts
the line level signal to loudspeaker level to drive the loudspeakers, which convert the electrical
signal back into sound.

The Small Signal Amplifier is generally referred to as a Voltage amplifier because they usually
convert a small input voltage into a much larger output voltage. Sometimes an amplifier circuit
is required to drive a motor or feed a loudspeaker and for these types of applications where
high switching currents are needed Power Amplifiers are required. As their name suggests, the
main job of a Power Amplifier (also known as a large signal amplifier), is to deliver power to
the load, and as we know from above, is the product of the voltage and current applied to the
load with the output signal power being greater than the input signal power. The power
amplifier works on the basic principle of converting the DC power drawn from the power
supply into an AC voltage signal delivered to the load. Although the amplification is high the
efficiency of the conversion from the DC power supply input to the AC voltage signal output is
usually poor. The main performance qualities of a power amplifier are distortion, frequency
response, signal-to- noise ratio, power etc. When the load is constant, a good power amplifier
should be designed for high output power, low distortion and noise, and bandwidth. The

12
perfect or ideal amplifier would give us an efficiency rating of 100% or at least the power IN
would be equal to the power OUT. However, in reality this can never happen as some of the
power is lost in the form of heat and also, the amplifier itself consumes power during the
amplification process. We can know specify the characteristics for an ideal amplifier with
regards to its Gain, the amplifiers gain; (A) should remain constant for varying values of input
signal. Gain is not being affected by frequency. Signals of all frequencies must be amplified by
exactly the same amount. The amplifiers gain must not
add noise to the output signal. It should remove any noise that is already exists in the input
signal. The amplifiers gain should not be affected by changes in temperature giving good
temperature stability. The gain of the amplifier must remain stable over long periods of time.
Amplifier is the generic term used to describe a circuit which produces and increased version
of its input signal. However, not all amplifier circuits are the same as they are classified
according to their circuit configurations and modes of operation. In Electronics, small signal
amplifiers are commonly used devices as they have the ability to amplify a relatively small
input signal, for example from a Sensor such as a photo-device, into a much larger output
signal to drive a relay, lamp or loudspeaker for example. There are many forms of electronic
circuits classed as amplifiers, from Operational Amplifiers and Small Signal Amplifiers up to
Large Signal and Power Amplifiers. The classification of an amplifier depends upon the size of
the signal, large or small, its physical configuration and how it processes the input signal that is
the relationship between input signal and current flowing in the load.

In our project BJT CE configuration choose for amplifier than other, class A and using Voltage
Divider Bias most widely used in linear discrete circuits because it provides good bias stability.

Concept of Operating point and stability, Analyzing Various biasing circuits and their
comparison with respect to stability.

Three operating regions of BJT

• Active or Linear – region operation: VCE = VCC/2, IC = IC

max/2 Base – emitter junction forward biased

Base – collector junction reverse biased

Work as Amplifier

13
• Cutoff – region operation: VCE = VCC,

IC=0 Base – emitter junction reverse biased

Base – collector junction reverse biased

Work as a switch

• Saturation – region operation: VCE= 0, IC= IC

max Base – emitter junction forward biased

Base – collector junction forward biased Work as a switch

i. Biasing

The analysis or design of a transistor amplifier requires knowledge of both the dc and ac
response of the system. In fact, the amplifier increases the strength of a weak signal by
transferring the energy from the applied DC source to the weak input ac signal • For proper
working of a transistor, it is essential to apply external voltages of correct polarity across its
emitter-base and collector-base junctions. emitter-base junction is always forward biased
collector-base junction is always reverse-biased. This type of biasing is known as FR biasing The
analysis or design of any electronic amplifier therefore has two components:

• The dc portion and

• The ac portion

During the design stage, the choice of parameters for the required dc levels will affect the ac
response. Once the desired dc current and voltage levels have been identified, a network must
be constructed that will establish the desired values of IB, IC and VCE, such a network is known
as biasing circuit. A biasing network has to preferably make use of one power supply to bias
both the junctions of the transistor.

Purpose of the DC biasing circuit

To turn the device “ON”, to place it in operation in the region of its characteristic where the
device operates most linearly, i.e. to set up the initial dc values of IB, IC, and VCE Important
basic relationship

VBE = 0.7V

IE = (Beta + 1) IB= IC

14
IC =(Beta) IB

Q-Point (Static Operation Point)

Biasing circuits: Fixed bias circuit, Emitter bias, Voltage divider bias, DC bias with voltage
feedback, Miscellaneous bias. The values of the parameters IB, IC and VCE together are termed
as "operating point‟ or Q (Quiescent) point of the transistor. The intersection of the dc bias
value of IB with the dc load line determines the Q-point. It is desirable to have the Q-point
centered on the load line the amplifier is said to be midpoint biased, it allows optimum ac
operation of the amplifier. The most famous circuit based on the emitter-bias prototype is
called voltage divider bias. You can recognize it by the voltage divider in the base circuit. The
Key idea is for the base current to be much smaller than the current through the voltage
divider. When the condition is satisfied, the voltage divider holds the base voltage almost
constant and equal to the unloaded voltage out of the voltage divider. This Produces a solid Q
point under all operating conditions. The load line is drawn through saturation and cut off. The
Q point lies on the load line with the exact location determined by the biasing. Large variations
in current gain have almost no effect on the Q point because this type of bias sets up a
constant value of emitter current. This section introduced negative feedback, a phenomenon
that exits when an increase in an output quantity, produces decreases in an input quantity. It is
brilliant idea that led to voltage-divider bias. The other type of bias cannot use enough –ve
feedback, so they fail to attain the performance level to voltage divider bias. Feedback comes
in two varieties: positive (also called regenerative), and negative (also called degenerative).
Positive feedback reinforces the direction of an amplifier’s output voltage change, while
negative feedback does just the opposite. It is the input impedance “seen” by the source
driving the input of the amplifier. Zin or Input Resistance is an important parameter in the
design of a transistor amplifier and as such allows amplifiers to be characterized according to
their effective input and output impedances as well as their power and current ratings.

Bias Stabilization

The stability of a system is a measure of the sensitivity of a network to variations in its

parameter. Beta increases with increase in temperature. Magnitude of VBE decreases about
7.5 mV per degree Celsius (°C) increase in temperature. ICO (reverse saturation current):

15
doubles in value for every 10°C increase in Temperature Stability Factors, S(ICO), S(VBE), and
S(β). A stability factor, is defined for each of the parameters affecting bias stability as listed
below:

S(ICO) = ΔIC / ΔICO

S(VBE) = ΔIC / ΔVBE

S(β) = ΔIC / Δ β

In each case, the delta symbol signifies change in that quantity.

BJT Transistor modeling

A model is the combination of circuit elements, properly chosen, the best approximates the
actual behavior of a semiconductor device under specific operating conditions.

16
The ac equivalent of a network is:

1. Setting all dc sources to zero and replacing them by a short- circuit equivalent

2. Replacing all capacitors by a short-circuit equivalent.

3. Removing all elements bypassed by the short-circuit equivalents introduced by steps 1 & 2.

4. Redrawing the network in a more convenient and logical form.

Amplifiers can be thought as a simple box or block containing the amplifying device, such as a
Bipolar Transistor, Field Effect Transistor or Operational Amplifier, which has two input
terminals and two output terminals (ground being common) with the output signal being much
greater than that of the input signal as it has been “Amplified”. An ideal signal amplifier will
have three main properties: Input Resistance or (RIN), Output Resistance or (ROUT) and of
course amplification known commonly as Gain or (A). No matter how complicated an amplifier
circuit is, a general amplifier model can still be used to show the relationship of these three
properties. The amplified difference between the input and output signals is known as the Gain
of the amplifier. Gain is basically a measure of how much an amplifier “amplifies” the input
signal. For example, if we have an input signal of 1 volt and an output of 50 volts, then the gain
of the amplifier would be “50”. In other words, the input signal has been increased by a factor
of 50. This increase is called Gain. Amplifier gain is simply the ratio of the output divided-by
the input. Gain has no units as it’s a ratio, but in Electronics it is commonly given the symbol
“A”, for Amplification. Then the gain of an amplifier is simply calculated as the “output signal
divided by the input signal”.

Amplifier Gain

The introduction to the amplifier gain can be said to be the relationship that exists between
the signal measured at the output with the signal measured at the input. There are three
different kinds of amplifier gain which can be measured and these are: Voltage Gain (Av),
Current Gain (Ai) and Power Gain (Ap) depending upon the quantity being measured. Note
that for the Power Gain you can also divide the power obtained at the output with the power
obtained at the input. Also when calculating the gain of an amplifier, the subscripts v, i and p
are used to denote the type of signal gain being used. The power gain (Ap) or power level of
the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels, (dB). The (dB) is a logarithmic unit (base 10) of
measurement that has no units. Since the Bel is too large a unit of measure, it is prefixed with
deci making it Decibels instead with one decibel being one tenth (1/10th) of a Bel. To calculate
the gain of the
17
amplifier in Decibels or dB, we can use the following expressions.

Voltage Gain in dB: Av = 20*log(Av)

Current Gain in dB: Ai = 20*log(Ai)

Power Gain in dB: Ap = 10*log(Ap)

Note that the DC power gain of an amplifier is equal to ten times the common log of the
output to input ratio, whereas voltage and current gains are 20 times the common log of the
ratio. Note however, that 20dB is not twice as much power as 10dB because of the log scale.
Also, a positive value of dB represents a Gain and a negative value of dB represents a Loss
within the amplifier. For example, an amplifier gains of +3dB indicates that the amplifiers
output signal has “doubled”, (x2) while an amplifier gain of -3dB indicates that the signal has
“halved”, (x0.5) or in other words a loss. The -3dB point of an amplifier is called the half-power
point which is -3dB down from maximum, taking 0dB as the maximum output value. Generally,
amplifiers can be sub-divided into two distinct types depending upon their power or voltage
gain. One type is called the Small Signal Amplifier which include pre-amplifiers,
instrumentation amplifiers etc. Small signal amplifies are designed to amplify very small signal
voltage levels of only a few micro-volts (μV) from sensors or audio signals. The other type is
called Large Signal Amplifiers such as audio power amplifiers or power switching amplifiers.
Large signal amplifiers are designed to amplify large input voltage signals or switch heavy load
currents as you would find driving loudspeakers.

18
 j. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT

Power Amplifiers

The Small Signal Amplifier is generally referred to as a “Voltage” amplifier because they usually
convert a small input voltage into a much larger output voltage. Sometimes an amplifier circuit
is required to drive a motor or feed a loudspeaker and for these types of applications where
high switching currents are needed Power Amplifiers are required. As their name suggests, the
main job of a “Power Amplifier” (also known as a large signal amplifier), is to deliver power to
the load, and as we know from above, is the product of the voltage and current applied to the
load with the output signal power being greater than the input signal power. In other words, a
power amplifier amplifies the power of the input signal which is why these types of amplifier
circuits are used in audio amplifier output stages to drive loudspeakers.

The power amplifier works on the basic principle of converting the DC power drawn from the
power supply into an AC voltage signal delivered to the load. Although the amplification is high
the efficiency of the conversion from the DC power supply input to the AC voltage signal
output is usually poor. The main performance qualities of a power amplifier are distortion,
frequency response, signal-to-noise ratio, power etc. When the load RL is constant, a good
power amplifier should be designed for high output power, low distortion and noise, and
bandwidth.

The perfect or ideal amplifier would give us an efficiency rating of 100% or at least the power
“IN” would be equal to the power “OUT”. However, in reality this can never happen as some of
the power is lost in the form of heat and also, the amplifier itself consumes power during the
amplification process. We can know specify the characteristics for an ideal amplifier from our
discussion above with regards to its Gain, the amplifiers gain, (A) should remain constant for
varying values of input signal. Gain is not being affected by frequency. Signals of all frequencies
must be amplified by exactly the same amount. The amplifiers gain must not add noise to the
output signal. It should remove any noise that is already exists in the input signal. The
amplifiers gain should not be affected by changes in temperature giving good temperature
stability. The gain of the amplifier must remain stable over long periods of time. Amplifier is
the generic term used to describe a circuit which produces and increased version of its input
signal. However, not all amplifier circuits are the same as they are classified according to their
circuit configurations and modes of operation. In “Electronics”, small signal amplifiers are

19
commonly used devices as they have the ability to amplify a relatively small input signal, for
example from a Sensor such as a photo-device, into a much larger output signal to drive a
relay, lamp or loudspeaker for example. There are many forms of electronic circuits classed as
amplifiers, from Operational Amplifiers and Small Signal Amplifiers up to Large Signal and
Power Amplifiers. The classification of an amplifier depends upon the size of the signal, large or
small, its physical configuration and how it processes the input signal, that is the relationship
between input signal and current flowing in the load. The type or classification of an Amplifier
is given in the following table.

20
 k. Classification of Signal Amplifier

Type of Signal Type of Configuration Classification Frequency of Operation

Small Signal Common Emitter Class A Amplifier Direct Current (DC)

Large Signal Common Base Class B Amplifier Audio Frequencies (AF) Radio

Common Collector Class AB Amplifier Frequencies (RF)

Class C Amplifier VHF,UHF and SHF Frequencies

l. Different Methods for Transistor Biasing

Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current

conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the
transistor.

A transistors steady state of operation depends a great deal on its base current, collector
voltage, and collector current and therefore, if a transistor is to operate as a linear amplifier, it
must be properly biased to have a suitable operating point. Establishing the correct operating
point requires the proper selection of bias resistors and load resistors to provide the
appropriate input current and collector voltage conditions. The correct biasing point for a
bipolar transistor, either NPN or PNP, generally lies somewhere between the two extremes of
operation with respect to its being either “fully-ON” or “fully OFF” along its load line. This
central operating point is called the “Quiescent Operating Point”, or Q-point for short.

All electronic devices require proper DC biasing mechanism depending on its application. The
main purpose of biasing is to obtain idle or quiescent conditions for the electronic device so
that it can perform the required function. For example, when transistor is used in the amplifier
circuit, it should work so that transistor remains in the active region i.e. its emitter junction
forward biased and collector junction remains in reverse bias always. This can be achieved by
transistor biasing with the use of DC batteries and different resistances, which are together,
referred as biasing circuit. Proper DC biasing fixes the Q-point on the DC load line such that
transistor remains in the active region while the process of amplification. The various
parameter of the transistor is considered while designing a biasing circuit.

21
 m. The amplifying action of BJT and concept of DC load line

1. CB configuration results in low input (~20Ω) and high output resistance (~500kΩ). This is
reverse of what we desire.

2. CC configuration, in fact offers, very high input resistance (~100kΩ) and very low output
resistance (~500Ω) but it has less than unity voltage gains. Hence it is also not suitable for
amplifier design.

3. CE configuration, has higher input (~1kΩ) and lower output resistances (~10kΩ). It is better
choice for amplifier than other two configurations.

Biasing the transistor is very important process in designing a transistor circuit and therefore it
need special attention. Transistors are used in many different circuits but most basic ones are
those in which power level or voltage level of a given electrical signal is increased. Such circuits
are called amplifiers. Another class of circuits is oscillators, which is used to generate either
sine or square waves.

Some of the methods used for providing bias for a transistor are:

1. Base Bias or Fixed Current Bias: It is not a very satisfactory method because bias voltages
and currents do not remain constant during transistor operation. Few parts; β dependent; fixed
base current, used in Switch; digital

2. Base Bias with Emitter Feedback: This circuit achieves good stability of dc operating point
against changes in β with the help of emitter resistor which causes degeneration to take place.

3. Base Bias with Collector Feedback: It is also known as collector-to-base bias or collector
feedback bias. It provides better bias stability.

4. Base Bias with Collector and Emitter Feedbacks: It is a combination of (2) and (3) above.

5. Emitter Bias with Two Supplies: This circuit uses both a positive and a negative supply
voltage. Here, base is at approximately 0 volt i.e. V B ≅0. Fixed emitter current; β independent,
used IC driver; amplifier

6. Voltage Divider Bias: It is most widely used in linear discrete circuits because it provides
good bias stability. It is also called universal bias circuit or base bias with one supply. Needs
more resistors; β independent; needs only one power supply, used Amplifier It, is most widely
used in linear discrete circuits because it provides good bias stability. It is also called
22
universal bias

23
circuit or base bias with one supply.

n. Transistor Biasing and Stabilization

Common Emitter configuration is most widely used configuration in amplifier circuits. In actual
practice, single transistor stage is not sufficient to achieve the required amplification therefore
in almost all applications we use a number of amplifier stages connected one after the other.
Such connection of amplifier stages is known as cascaded amplifier.

Fig. 3 Transistor Biasing amplifier

Audio amplifier design consider the following points.

1. Decide on the DC supply voltage VCC: This should be less than the maximum VCEO voltage
for the transistor you intend to use and will also depend on the available supply; this may be a
bench power supply or a battery. Values of 6 to 12 volts are common for a common emitter
voltage amplifier.

2. Choose a transistor: The prototype amplifier for this exercise used a NPN small signal
transistor such as the 2N3904, but other similar transistors should work equally well. A
datasheet for the 2N3904 can be downloaded from www.datasheetcatalog.com or you could
choose a different general purpose NPN small signal transistor and download its datasheet.

3. Decide on a suitable quiescent collector current Iq: Iq is the Collector current when no signal
is applied. The maximum value must be less than the maximum VCEO for the transistor.
24
However, using a high value of current will waste power as the circuit is supposed to be a
VOLTAGE amplifier so current should be kept quite low, but the lower the current you choose,
the higher the value of RL will be. This increases the output impedance of the amplifier (which
will be approximately the value of the load resistor) and ideally this should be low. A
compromise figure of around 10 to 20% of the transistor’s IcMAX on the data sheet should be
adequate for Iq and a commonly selected current of around 1mA would be typical.

4. Calculating a value for the load resistor RL: Once the supply voltage and collector current are
decided, the value of the collector resistor can be calculated. The transistor quiescent collector
voltage needs to be about half of VCC so that the output signal can swing by equal amounts
above and below this value without driving the transistor into saturation (0V and maximum
collector current) or cut off (zero current and VC equal to the supply voltage). RL will therefore
be half of VCC divided by Inmate that whenever a component value has been calculated, it is
unlikely that the result of the calculation will match any of the available preferred values of
real resistors. Therefore, you will need to choose the nearest preferred value.

5. Calculating the value of RE: To provide efficient bias stabilization, the emitter voltage VE
should be about 10% to 15% of VCC. So choosing a value of 12% of VCC for VE and assuming
that IE is the same as IC (It is only different by the small amount of the base current), a value
for the resistor RE can be calculated by dividing the emitter voltage VE by the emitter current
IE then choosing the nearest preferred value.

6. Estimate a value for base current IB: This can be found by dividing the collector current IC by
the transistor’s current gain hfe obtained from the data sheet. Because the hfe varies from one
transistor to another, even of the same type, it may be quoted as a typical value or as a range
between minimum and maximum values, hfe also varies with collector current so whatever
figure you choose for hfe, the result of calculating IB will be an approximation so the base
voltage will probably not be accurate. However, this can be ‘fine-tuned’ when the amplifier is
being constructed.

7. Calculating VB: The base voltage should be about 0.7V (700mV) higher than VE to ensure
that the input signal is biased on the linear part of the transistor input characteristic.

8. Calculating the DC bias network current: To ensure adequate bias stability, the current
flowing through R1 and R2 should be about 10 times greater than the base current IB so the

25
current flowing through R1 and R2 will be simply IB x 10.

26
9. Calculating the resistance for R1: The value of this resistor will be the difference between
VCC and VB divided by the bias network current through R1 and R2.

10. Calculating the resistance for R2: The value of R2 will be the base voltage VB divided by the
bias network current through R1 and R2.

11. Start constructing the amplifier: Fit the transistor and the four resistors in place on the
breadboard together with any necessary wire links (Do NOT fit any capacitors yet). Then after a
thorough visual check that everything is correctly connected, connect the power supply, switch
on and use a multimeter to check the voltages on collector, base and emitter of the transistor.
If the voltages are correct you have successfully designed the DC conditions. If there are any
drastically wrong voltages, (e.g. more than 30% high or low) check that all the connections on
the amplifier are correct, and that you have read the resistor colour codes correctly. Any
smaller differences may need the value of one or more of the resistors changing. Try to make
collector voltage VC exactly half of the supply voltage VCC. If it already is, well done! If not
(which is most likely) the first thing to check is that you have correctly calculated the values of
RL and RE and fitted the nearest preferred value of resistor in both positions. If these resistors
are OK, the base voltage probably needs correcting, as mentioned in "Estimate a value for base
current “above. If the collector voltage is high, the base voltage will need increasing slightly
(try changing R2 to the next higher preferred value). If the collector voltage is low, decrease
the value of R2. It is not unusual to have to ´tweak´ the values slightly in this way, as it is only
possible to use preferred values of resistor rather than the exact calculated values. Make sure
to note the effect of any changes you make, if you change a resistor value to increase a
voltage, did it increase as expected? If not try to work out why. Remember the purpose of this
exercise is to help you understand the effects of each of the components in the amplifier circuit
− experiment and learn!

Choosing a value for C1 and C2: The primary function of C1 and C2 is to act as coupling
capacitors, allowing AC signals to pass whilst blocking DC at the input and output so that
voltages present on preceding or later circuits will not upset the bias condition for this
amplifier. The main consideration in choosing these capacitor values is to ensure that their
capacitive

reactance is low enough, compared with the input impedance of the amplifier, or any load
connected to the output, to allow signals at all the required frequencies to pass.
27
The reactance of a capacitor is greatest at low frequencies; therefore, the choice of coupling
capacitor values must allow for a low reactance at the lowest frequencies the amplifier is
designed to amplify. A generally accepted value for coupling capacitors in an audio amplifier
would be between 1µF and 10µF, (this can be changed later when the design is finalized).

Choosing a value for C3: The purpose of C3 is to prevent any AC signal voltage appearing
across the emitter resistor RE. Any AC appearing on the emitter of the transistor would be in
phase with the signal at the base, therefore the base and emitter voltages would rise and fall
together, and the difference between base and emitter voltages would be reduced. This would
effectively reduce the input signal and so reduce the amplifier’s gain. C3 must therefore
remove as much of the AC from across RE as possible, and so must have a low reactance at all
audio frequencies. As the lowest frequency is going to be around 20Hz, C3 must have a
reactance (XC) that is small compared to the value of RE at all frequencies above 20Hz.

The value of C4: The purpose of C4 is to give an appropriate reduction in amplification at the
high frequency end of the amplifier’s bandwidth. The choice of its value will be covered after
initial testing of the amplifier. At this stage it is not necessary to fit C4. After switching off the
power to the circuit, capacitors C1, C2 and C3 can now be added to the circuit on the ‘Bread
board´ for testing. Carry out the initial checks in Part 3 before re-connecting the power.

WARNING: Be extra careful when connecting electrolytic capacitors to ensure they are
connected with the correct polarity, showing negative lead marking on a capacitor, but note
that the convention in circuit schematic diagrams is to mark the positive plate of an electrolytic
capacitor with a + symbol. The safe working voltage of the capacitor, which must be high
enough to withstand any likely voltage the capacitor will be subject to in the circuit.
Connecting electrolytic capacitors, the wrong way round, or exceeding their working voltage
can cause

them to EXPLODE!

g. Amplifier architecture

The audio amplifiers use the conventional architecture in which there are three stages:

The first being a trans conductance stage or input stage (differential voltage in, current out).

The second a trans impedance stage or voltage amplifier stage (current in, voltage out) and

The third a unity-voltage-grain output stage.

28
Input Stage

The differential amplifier is used as pre amplifier in input stage. It eliminates the need for an
emitter bypass capacitor. There are no coupling or bypass capacitors, there is no lower cutoff
frequency.

A pre-amplifier is required to amplify a signal, when the source level is too low and has to be
pre-amplified in order to be able for further processing, control or any other use. The function
of audio power amplifier is to amplify the input signal from the audio source, and then drive it
to the speaker. The audio sources are various: for example, microphone, record player, CD
player etc. More importantly, different voltage is provided for different audio source, from
some millivolt to hundreds of millivolt, but the input sensitivity of the power amplifier is
constant. If different kinds of audio source input directly into the power amplifier, problems
will arise. For the low input signal, the output power is low, and the power amplifier cannot
use full capacity. For the high input signal, the output signal of the power amplifier will suffer
overload and distortion seriously, so the power amplifier will lose the function of clean audio
amplification. Therefore, a qualified and functional audio power amplifier must contain a pre-
amplifier, which makes the input signal adequate to be sent to the power amplifier. In addition
to this, for the low input signal, the noise of the pre-amplifier input stage has a vital influence
on signal-to-noise ratio of the whole system. As a result, the pre-amplifier unit must use low
noise elements. If an integrated operational amplifier is put into use, low noise and low drift
must be considered. Last but not least, another requirement of pre-amplifier is that its
frequency band must be wide enough, so that amplification without distortion can be ensured.

Voltage Amplifier Stage

The stage that precedes the output stage is called a driver. Rather than capacitive couple into
output push-pull stage, it is used the direct-coupled CE driver. It uses the output current from
pre amplifier stage and produces the voltage to drive the output amplifier. The collector
current out of the driver sets up the quiescent current through the complementary diodes.

Output Stage

The complementary class B push-pull amplifier is used to produce required output. In a class B
push-pull emitter follower, complementary npn and pnp transistors are used. The npn
transistor conducts on one half cycle and the pnp transistor on the other. To avoid crossover

29
distortion, the transistors of a class B push-pull emitter follower have a small quiescent
current.

Selection of Components

At every stage in the design of an amplifier, it is perhaps wise to consider whether bipolar
junction transistors (BJTs) or field effect transistors (FETs) are the best devices for the job. The
BJT is the most convenient for all three stages of a generic power amplifier due to the fact that
the predictable Vbe base to emitter voltage) / Ice (collector current) relationship and much
higher trans conductance of BJT.

Multistage Transistor Amplifiers

A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is known as multistage
transistor amplifier In a multistage amplifier, a number of single amplifiers are connected in
*cascade arrangement i.e. .output of first stage is connected to the input of the second stage
through a suitable coupling device and so on.
The output from a single stage amplifier is usually insufficient to drive an output device. Inhere
words, the gain of a single amplifier is inadequate for practical purposes. Consequently,
additional amplification over two or three stages is necessary. To achieve this, the he output
from a single stage amplifier is usually insufficient to drive an output device. Output of each
amplifier stage is coupled in some way to the input of the next stage. The resulting system is
referred to as multistage amplifier. It may be emphasized here that a practical amplifier is
always a multistage amplifier. The purpose of coupling device (e.g. a capacitor, transformer
etc.) is to transfer a.c. output of one stage to the input of the next stage and to isolate the d.c.
conditions of one stage from the next stage. Each stage consists of one transistor and
associated circuitry and is coupled to the next stage through a coupling device. The name of
the amplifier is usually given after the type of coupling used.

Name of coupling Name of multistage amplifier

RC-coupling Transformer coupled amplifier
Direct-coupling RC-coupled amplifier
Transformer coupling Direct coupled amplifier

(i) In RC coupling, a capacitor is used as the coupling device. The capacitor connects the output

30
of one stage to the input of the next stage in order to pass the a.c. signal on while blocking the
d.c bias voltages.

31
(ii) In transformer coupling, transformer is used as the coupling device. The transformer
(iii) coupling provides the same two functions (viz. to pass the signal on and blocking d.c.) but
permits in addition impedance matching.
(iv) In direct coupling or d.c. coupling, the individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so
designed that the two stages may be directly connected without the necessity for d.c.
isolation Role of Capacitors in Transistor Amplifiers Regardless of the manner in which a
capacitor is
connected in a transistor amplifier, its behavior towards d.c. and a.c. is as follows. A capacitor
blocks d.c. i.e. a capacitor behaves as an “open**” to d.c. Therefore, for d.c. analysis, we can
remove the capacitors from the transistor amplifier circuit. A capacitor offers reactance (=
1/2πfC) to a.c. depending upon the values of f and C. In practical transistor circuits, the size of
capacitors is so selected that they offer negligible (ideally zero) reactance to the range of
frequencies handled by the circuits. Therefore, for a.c. analysis, we can replace the capacitors
by a short i.e. by a wire.

The capacitors serve the following two roles in transistor amplifiers :

1. As coupling capacitors

2. 2. As bypass capacitors

As coupling capacitors. In most applications, you will not see a single transistor amplifier. Rather
we use a multistage amplifier i.e. a number of transistor amplifiers are connected in series or
cascaded. The capacitors are commonly used to connect one amplifier stage to another. When
a capacitor is used for this purpose, it is called a coupling capacitor. Fig. 11.2 shows the
coupling. A coupling capacitor performs the following two functions :
(i) It blocks d.c. i.e. it provides d.c. isolation between the two stages of a multistage amplifier
=1/2pifc ,For d.c., f = 0 so that XC --> Therefore, a capacitor behaves as an open to d.c.

Analysis of Audio Power Amplifier

For required output power Pout= 5W and speaker load RL= 8Ω, the power supply voltage can
be calculated using pout(rms)=(Vcc)2/ RL. Therefore 6.325V of power supply voltage is
calculated. The overall voltage gain is achieved by Where Vout(rms) is the output rms voltage
and Vin(rms) is the input rms voltage. Av=vout(rms)/vin(rms) V = 2.5/ 2 2 in(rms) (Choose
standard maximum input) Pout(rms)=Vout(rms)2/ RL Vout(rms)=6.325v = 20log10
29
6.325V/0.884 = 18.124 dB

30
Therefore, the overall voltage gain of 18.124 dB is achieved. Similarly, speaker (sound) power
is achieved L

Vout=1v- - ->Vout(actual)=0.7V

Vout=6.325v- - -Vout(actual)=4.428v

Therefore, speaker (sound) power in rms value=Vout(actual)2/RL=1.11W

o. Three Basic Rules of Amplifier Design

There are three basic rules that we will use to design the transistor amplifier. 1.The base-
emitter voltage is always about 0.6-0.7 volts for silicon transistors. REASON: This is because
the base-emitter junction behaves like a diode and a diode has a constant voltage drop when
biased in the forward direction.

3.The current amplification of the transistor Beta is large (typically 100-300). REASON: Small
changes in the base current Ib produce large changes in the collector current Ic and this is the
basic idea behind transistor operation.

4.The collector current and the emitter current almost the same size Ic = Ie. REASON: Ie = Ib +
Ic due to conservation of charge and since the collector current Ic>> Ib as a consequence of
Rule 2 it follows that Ic = Ie. There is no one amplifier design and a lot of designs work OK.

Fig. 4 common emitter amplifier

31
It is called a "common emitter" amplifier since the emitter is common to both the input circuit
and the output circuit. There are additionally three capacitors but they do not play a role in
the basic transistor amplifier design which mainly involves setting DC voltages. Rc is called the
collector resistor and Re the emitter resistor. (Re is actually two resistors in series one of
which will be call Rg and is called the "gain" resistor since it controls the voltage gain or
amplification;' however, we disregard the second resistor for now. By the way, Rg will be
important as it sets the overall gain of the amplifier.) R1and R2 are called the bias resistors
and they help set the base current Ib (by making sure that the base-emitter voltage is at least
Vbe = 0.6 V for silicon transistors). The emitter resistor has the purpose of controlling "thermal
runaway" which can burn up a transistor but more on this in a moment.

The battery voltage is chosen such that it must be less than the maximum voltage the
transistor can handle between the collector and emitter (so the transistor does not burn out).

 To design the 5W audio power amplifier, the following steps are taken:
 Reading and searching different books, documents, research and
video according to audio amplifier.
 Design of audio power amplifier circuits.
 Simulation testing
 Selection of components.
 Testing each components
 Construction of audio power amplifier.
 Testing of audio power amplifier

32
 a. Construction Time Frame
The following diagram illustrates the time schedule we have laid out for the different phase
of the project:

NO Activity Month
1th Weeks 2nd Weeks 3rd Weeks 4thWeeks
1 Study and search different books 
,documents and video according
audio amplifier
2 Started designing and simulation   
of audio amplifier
3 Impact assessment material from  
local material
4 Collect all material needed to this  
project
5 Testing them properly  
4 Assemble the project   
5 Check the functionality   

6 Then finalized the project   

7 Assure quality standard  
8 Documentation 

Table 1. Construction time frame

33
3.1. Identifying the components and materials

3.1.1 Materials Cost

No Name of materials Specification Unit Quantity Unit price Total price

1 capacitor 100 µf Number 3 25 75

2 capacitor 1 µf Number 3 20 60
3 Resistor 47kΩ Number 2 15 30
4 Resistor 4.7 kΩ Number 2 10 20
5 Resistor 10 kΩ Number 2 10 20
6 Resistor 1 kΩ Number 2 10 20
7 Transistor 2n3906 Number 2 30 60
8 Transistor 2n3904 Number 1 20 20
9 PCB Printed Number 2 50 100
10 Adapter 220VAC/9VDC Number 1 300 300
11 Transistor 2n4401 Number 1 20 20
12 MDF 140CM meter 1 200 200
13 Lead 40/60SN/PB Number ¼ 50 50
14 Variable resistor 50kΩ Number 3 30 90
15 speaker 5Ω Number 2 150 300
16 Jumper wire 0.5mm Pcs 1roll 200 200
17 spray black color liter ¼ 60 60
* Total cost 1625

Table 2. LIST OF RAW MATERIAL

a. Project cost description

Material cost=1625 birr Overhead Total expanse=1901.25 birr

cost 5% 1625*5 /100=81.25 birr Total sale=2376.5 birr Net
Machine deprecation 2%
1425*2/100=32.5 birr Labor cost Profit 25%=475 birr
10% 1425*10/100=162.5 birr

34
 3.1.2. Materials (tools)

Fig 5. Materials (tools)

• Soldering iron: - is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder so that
it can flow into the joint between two work pieces.

Fig 6. Soldering iron

• Solder Sucker: - disordering pump, is a manually-operated device which is used to

remove solder from a printed circuit board

Fig 7. Solder Sucker

35
 • Screw driver squire and flat: - is a tool, manual or powered, for screwing and
unscrewing inserting and removing) screws.

Fig 8. screw driver

• Digital multi-meter (DMM): - is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical
values: principally voltage (volts), current (amps), resistance (ohms), capacitance
(farads) and transistor (hff). It is a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the
electrical/electronic industries

Fig 9. Digital multi meter

• Drilling machine with bites: - used to dill the PCB in different whole size that is
preferable electrical component.

Fig 10. Drilling machine

Raw materials
• Fricke chloride it is liquid acid used to remove unwanted conductor during prepare PCB.
• Solder Tip paste (flux) and cleaner it is a fluid to used clean tip of soldering iron and PCB.

36
 • Thinner is a liquid used to clean the PCB that is dust parts?
• Soldering lead, it is conductor used to join component lead on PCB.
• Jumper wire it is a type of wire used to connect one part to other, different types used
with conductor and without conductor.
Physical Description of Each Components /Items used in the Project Design with pictures.
1. Capacitor- a device used to restore or store (electrons) Electricity. It is an electronic
device made up of two conducting plates separated from each other by a dielectric
(insulating material), paper, oil, plastic, glass, mica, Mylar, ceramic and air.

Fig 11. Capacitor

2. Resistor- This is the most common component in electronics. It is device used to reduce
limit, or resist the flow of current whether it is in a series or in a parallel connection.

Fig 12. Resistor

3. Transistor -is an active semiconductor device having three electrodes, it could

perform a variety of applications such as switch, amplifier, rectifier, oscillator, Voltage
regulator and so on.
4. Stereo audio plug: it inserts in the input and output side for mic, mobile, tv,
computer and other device

37
 1. Fig 13. Standard 3.5mm stereo audio plug

5. Stereo audio jack: it inserts in the input and output side for mic, mobile, tv, computer
and other device.

Fig 14. 3.5mm stereo audio jack

6. PCB -Printed Circuit Board-Is a non-conductive base with a bus of

conductive material. It is used on the one hand to connect electrically
components using the conductive tracks, and on the other hand to hold
the components using the base.

38
 Fig 15. PCB

7. Jumper Wire-Element that allows closing an electrical circuit. It has to

be combined with soldering.

Fig 16. Wire

8. Audio Speaker
Audio speakers convert electrical signals into mechanical motion. The electric signal is
passed through a coil of wire (the “voice” coil), which is suspended a strong magnetic
field provided by a permanent magnet. A time-varying current in the coil leads to a
mechanical deflection relative to the magnet. The coil is attached to a lightweight conical
membrane (usually made from a heavy-grade paper) that couples the mechanical motion
of the coil to the surrounding air molecules.

Fig.17 Audio Speaker

39
Fig. 18 Two stage BJT CE amplifier

Fig. 19 circuit in Proteus software

40
Fig. 20 Proteus software simulation

41
4. REFERENCES:
1. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory – Robert L.Boylestad and Lowis
Nashelsky, 8th Edition
2. Electronic Devices – Floyd
3. Transistor Biasing S.Gayathri Priya
4. Audio power amplifier Design hand book 4th edition Douglas Self
5. Op Amps every one Ron Mancini, editor in chief
6. Audio power amplifier Design hand book 6th edition Douglas Self

42