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CHAPTER - 00
CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with the composition of matter and also physical and
chemical characteristics associated with different material objects.
Chemistry is called the science of atoms and molecules.
A study of chemistry tells us how substances react with other substances
Branches of chemistry :
* Organic chemistry : Deals with the study of carbon compounds and its derivatives
* Inorganic chemistry : Deals with the study of compounds of all other elements except carbon.
* Physical chemistry : It is concerned with laws and theories of different branches of chemistry
* Industrial chemistry : The chemistry involved in industrial processes
* Analytical chemistry : Deals with qualitative and quantitative analysis of various substances
* Biochemistry : Deals with chemical changes in bodies of living organisms, plants and
animals
* Nuclear chemistry : Nuclear reactions such as nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, transmutation
process etc are studied under this branch

MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space, possess mass and can be perceived by our senses. Matter is
made up of particles.
Different kinds of matter differ from each other in their composition and properties. They differ in colour,
size, weight, volume, composition, melting point, boiling point and solubility in H2O
Physical Classification of Matter
Based on physical state, matter is mainly classified into three. ie solid, liquid and gas

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PROPERTIES SOLID LIQUID GAS

Shape Posses a definite shape No definite shape No definite shape

Volume Posses definite volume Possess definite volume No definite Volume

Intermolecular distance Very low Moderate Very high

Intermolecular attraction Very high Moderate Very high

Compressibily Incompressible Almost incompressible Highly Compressible

High density and Density Is lower than

Density Density is least and diffuse
do not diffuse solids and diffuse

Expansion on heating Very little Very little Highly expandable

Fluidity Can't flow Can flow Can flow

Interchange in states of matter

These three states are interconvertible on changing the conditions of temperature and pressure


Solid  
Heat

 Liquid  Heat
 Gas
Cool Cool

 Particles of matter are continuously moving ie they possess the kinetic energy
 As the temperature increases, particles moves faster so with increase in temperature the kinetic
energy of the particles also increases
 On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases which over-
comes the forces of attraction between the particles thereby solids melts and is converted to a liquid.
 The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called its
melting point
eg : Melting point of ice is 273.15 K
 The process of melting is also called ‘fusion’
 Solid CO2 is also known as ‘dry ice’ and it keeps at high pressure
 Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous states on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere
without coming into liquid state.
 Latent heat of fusion : The amount of heat energy required to change 1kg of a solid into liquid at
atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as latent heat of fusion.
 A change of state directly from solid to gas without changing into liquid state (or vice versa) is called
sublimation

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Evaporation and Boiling

In case of liquids, a small fraction of particles at the surface, having higher kinetic energy, is able to
break away from the force of attraction of other particles and gets converted into vapour. This phenom-
enon of change of a liquid into vapour at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.
 Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. So rate of evaporation increases with an increase of sur-
face area
 With the increase of temperature, more number of particles get enough kinetic energy to go into the
vapour state
 Evaporation cause cooling. The particles of liquid absorb energy from the surroundings to regain
the energy lost during evaporation
 When we supply heat energy to liquid, the particles start moving even faster ie kinetic energy
increases and which breaks the forces of attraction of each other and the liquid starts changing into
gas
 The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling
point . eg: Boiling point of H2O = 1000C = 373 K at 1atm
 Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk of the liquid gain energy to change in to the
vapour state
 Latent heat of vapourisation. It is the heat energy required to change 1kg of a liquid to gas at
atmospheric pressure at its boiling point
Chemical Classification of Matter

ELEMENTS
 The simplest form of pure substances made up of only one kind of particles and cannot be decom-
posed or divided any further into simpler substances by physical or chemical methods
eg : Oxygen, nitrogen, Carbon , hydrogen, gold, silver, copper etc
 The term element is given by Robert Boyle
 There are 118 elements in periodic table till date, out which 92 are naturally occuring while rest are
prepared artificially
 At room temperature most elements are solids

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 Mercury is a liquid element (metal) at room temperature

 Bromine is a liquid non metal element at room temperature
 There are 11 elements in gaseous state, Hydrogen, Helium, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Neon,
Chlorine, Argon, Krypton, Xeon and radon
 More man 80 elements are metallic while around 22 are non metallic elements
 Some elements are radioactive
Symbols of Elements
A symbol is a short from representation of an element
Symbols are selected in several ways
i) For some elements the first letter of the name of the element is taken
Element Symbol
Hydrogen H
Nitrogen N
Carbon C
Oxygen O
Boron B
Iodine I
Fluorine F
Phosphorous P
Sulphur S
ii) For some elements the first two letters of the name of the element are taken
Element Symbol
Calcium Ca
Aluminium Al
Neon Ne
Germanium Ge
Helium He
Silicon Si
Argon Ar
Nickel Ni
Bromine Br
iii) For some elements the first letter and another letter which is not the second letter is taken
example : Chlorine Cl
Magnesium Mg
Manganese Mn

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iv) For some elements the symbols are taken from their Latin names
Element Latin name Symbol
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Lead Plumbum Pb
Iron Ferrum Fe
Silver Argentum Ag
Copper Cuprum Cu
Gold Aurum Au
Antimony Stibium Sb
Tin Stannum Sn
* On a two letter symbol, the first letter is the ‘capital letter/ but the second letter is a ‘small letter.
Significance of the symbol of an element
i) Symbol represents name of the element
ii) Symbol represents one atom of the element
iii) Symbol represents one mole of the element
iv) Symbol represents a definite mass of the element ie atomic mass of the element
COMPOUNDS
A compound is a pure substance formed by the chemical combination of atoms of different
elements in a fixed ratio by mass. They can be split by suitable chemical methods. Compounds clas-
sified into
i) Organic: compounds which are present in plants and animals. They contain carbon as their essen-
tial constituent
example : Carbohydrates, proteins, oil, fat etc
ii) Inorganic compounds which are obtained from non-living sources
example : NaCl, Marble, Gypsum etc
Characteristics of compounds :
 Both organic and inorganic compounds can be synthesised in laboratory under suitable conditions
 Properties of a compound are totally different from those of its constituent elements
 Compounds can be broken down into their constituent elements by chemical methods but not by
physical methods like boiling, distillation etc
 Compounds have uniform composition
 A compound can be represented by its formula
MIXTURES
A mixture is a combination of 2 or more elements or compounds which are not chemically combined
together and may also be present in any proportion

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 The constituents of mixtures do not lose their identities and individual properties.
 Mixtures are classified into two types depending upon their composition
i) Homogeneous ii) Heterogeneous
Homogeneous mixtures
A homogeneous mixture has uniform composition throughout the mixture. The components are com-
pletely mix which each other
Example : Air, Solutions, Alloys etc
Heterogeneous mixtures : consists of two or more phases which have different compositions. These
mixtures have visible boundaries of separation between different constituents and can be observed
with naked eye.
Example : Sand and Salt, Vegetable salad, Rice and Stone, Concrete etc
ATOMS
The word atom is introduced by a Greek philosopher ‘Democritus’
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which may or may not have independent
existence
MOLECULES
The term molecule is introduced by ‘Avogadro’.
Molecules are the smallest particles of a pure substance that can exist independently.
Molecules are made up of two or more atoms combined chemically in a fixed proportion by weight and
exhibit all the properties of that pure substance

 Homoatomic molecules are formed by atoms belonging to the same element

example : H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, P4, S8 etc
 Heteroatomic molecules are formed by atoms belonging to different elements
example : NH3, CO2, H2O, SO2, SO3, H2SO4, HCl, HNO3 etc
ATOMICITY
Atomicity is the number of atoms of an element present in one molecule of the element
i) Monoatomic , only one atom is present in the molecule.
example : He, Ne, Copper
ii) Diatomic : Two atoms of the element are present in the molecule
example : H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
iii) Triatomic: Three atoms of the element are present in the molecule
example : ozone O3
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iv) Polyatomic : Three or more than 3 atoms of the element are present in the molecule
example : Phosphorous P4, Sulphur S8.
Formula of Compounds
A formula is a short form representation of a compound
Name of the compound Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulphuric acid H2SO 4
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Calcium oxide CaO
Calcium carbonate CaCO 3
Sodium chloride NaCl
Carbon dioxide CO 2
Sulphur dioxide SO 2
Methane CH4
Carbon monoxide CO
Magnesium oxide MgO
Magnesium sulphide Mg S
Zinc sulphide ZnS
Hydrogen sulphide H2S
SEPARATION OF COMPONENTS OF A MIXTURE :
The components of a heterogenous mixture can be separated by
 Simple methods like hand picking, sieving etc
 Special techniques like
i) Evaporation
example : Separation of a mixture of sugar and water
ii) Centrifugation
example : Butter from curd, fine mud particles suspended in water
iii) Decantation (using separating funnel) - Oil from water
iv) Sublimation - Camphor from salt, NH4Cl from impurities etc
v) Chromatography : Removal of colour from sugar
vi) Distillation and fractional distillation
example : crude oil to petrol, Diesel etc
viii) Magnetic separation : When one substance is magnetic and other one is non magnetic

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SOLUTIONS :
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances
Solvent : The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it. Usually it is present
in larger amount.
Solute : The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent. Usually it is present in lesser
quantity
 Particles of a solution are smaller than 1nm (10-9 metre) in diameter. So they cannot be seen by
naked eye
 Solution is stable
 Saturated solution : The solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a particular tempera-
ture.
 The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution is called its solubility.
 If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level it is called an unsat-
urated solution.
Concentration of solution
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given amount
(mass or volume ) of solution or the amount of solute dissolved in a given mass or volume of solvent

Amount of solute Amount of solute

 Concentration of solution  Amount of solution or  Amount of solvent

COLLOIDS
 Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which size of solute particles is between 1nm to 1000 nm
 Colloids scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible. This is called Tyndall
effect.
 They do not settle down when left undisturbed, ie a colloid is quite stable
example : Fog, Mist, Milk, Jelly, Cheese, butter, Coloured gemstones, Smoke, Clouds etc
 Dispersed phase : component which is present in small proportion
 Disperson medium : component which is present in large proportion
SUSPENSIONS
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but
remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium
 Suspension is unstable
 They can be separated by the process of filtration
 Size of solute particles is more than 1000 nm
 Example Muddy water, Chalk and H2O
Aqueous solution : The solution in which the solvent is water
Non aqueous solution : The solution in which solvent is other than water ie ether, alcohol, Benzene etc

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Physical and Chemical changes

i) Physical changes : A change which alters some physical property of matter like its state, magnetic or
electrical conditions or its colour without causing any change in the composition of its molecules is
called physical change , provided it gets reversed, if the cause producing the change is removed.
example : Formation of dew
: Evaporation of water
: Freezing of ice cream
: Melting of wax
: Sublimation of Camphor etc
ii) Chemical changes : A change which alters the specific properties of a material by bringing about a
change in its molecular composition, followed by a change in state is called chemical change
example : Burning of wood or charcoal
: Ripening of fruit
: Baking of cake
: Photosynthesis
: Digestion of food
: Curdling of milk
: Rusting of iron
: Formation of wine
: Clotting of blood etc

MOLE CONCEPT
 All matter is made up of atoms
 Atoms of most of the elements are very reactive and do not exist in the free state (as single atom)
 Atomic radius is measured in nanometers (nm)
 1m = 109 nm 1nm = 10-9m
Laws of Chemical Combination
 The experimental laws which led to the idea of atoms being the smallest unit of matter
i) Law of conservation of mass
 Given by Lavoisier
 It states that matter can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction.
OR
It states that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of products is equal to the total mass of the reac-
tants

example : C  O 2  CO 2
12g 32g 44g
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Balancing of chemical equation is based on this law

ii) Law of constant proportions / Law of definite proportions
 Given by Proust
 The law states that, ‘A chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined
together in the same proportion by mass
example : CO2, can be formed in a no : of ways
1) By burning coke in sir

C  O 2  CO 2
 coke   air 


2) By the thermal decomposition of limestone CaCO3   CaO  CO2
In the above samples of CO2, C and O2 are in the ratio 12 : 32 ( 3 : 8) by mass
iii) Law of multiple proportions
 Give by Dalton
 It states that when 2 elements, combine to form 2 or more compound, the mass of one of the
element which combine with a fixed mass of the other bear a simple whole no ratio by mass (ie 1:1,
1:2, 1: 3 etc)
example : C and O when combine can form two oxides carbon monoxide CO and carbondioxide CO2
In CO, 12g C combines with 16g of oxygen.
In CO2, 12g C combines with 32 g of oxygen
 The mass of oxygen which combine with a constant mass of carbon (12g) bear simple ratio of 16 :
32 ie 1 : 2
iv) Law of reciprocal proportions
 Given by Ritcher
 According to this law, the ratio of the weights of two elements A and B which combine separately
with a fixed weight of the third element C is either the same or some simple multiple of the ratio of the
weights in which A and B combine directly with each other
example : The elements C and O combines separately with the third element H to form CH4 and H2O
and they combine directly with each other to form CO2

1
H

CH4 H2O

C O 16
12 CO2
12 : 32

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In CH4 12 parts by weight of carbon combines with 4 parts by weight of hydrogen

 In H2O, 2 parts by weight of hydrogen combine with 16 parts by weight of oxygen.
 Thus the weight of C and O which combine with fixed weight of hydrogen are 12 and 32
ie They are in the ratio 12 : 32 ie 3 : 8
Now in CO2 12 parts by weight of carbon combine directly with 32 parts by weight of oxygen ie they
combine directly in the ratio 12 : 32 or 3 : 8 which is the same as the first ratio.
V)G ay Lussac’s law of Gaseous volumes
When gases react together, they always do so in volumes which bear a simple ratio to one another
and to the volumes of the product if they are also gases. (At same temperature and pressure)

example : H 2  g   Cl 2 g   2HCl g 
1 vol  1 vol   2 vol 

VI) Avogadro\s hypothesis

 It states that equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal number of molecules
Relationship between vapour density and molecular mass

Density of gas
Vapour density (V.D)  Density of hydrogen

Mass of a certain volume of gas


Mass of the same volume of hydrogen at the same temperature and pressure

mass of n molecules of gas

ie , V.D  mass of n molecules of hydrogen

(Applying Avogadro’s law)

mass of 1 molecule of the gas

V.D 
mass of 1 molecule of hydrogen

molecular mass of the gas


molecular mass of hydrogen

molecular mass of the gas


2

ie, Molecular mass  2  Vapour density

ATOMIC MASS
It means the mass of 1 atom. Carbon -12 is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass unit
(amu) and masses of all other atoms are given relative to this standard.

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Atomic mass of an element is a relative quantity and it is the mass of one atom of the
th
element relative to 1 of the mass of one carbon - 12 atom
12

Mass of one atom of the element

 th
ie Atomic mass 1
 mass of one C  12 atom
2
ATOMIC MASS UNIT (amu)
th
1 amu is defined as a mass exactly equal to 1 the mass of one C-12 atom.
12
1 amu  1.66 1027 kg =  1.66 1024 g
Today amu has been replaced by ‘u’ which is known as unified mass.
GRAM ATOMIC MASS :
Atomic mass of an element expressed in grams. It is also called gram atom . It is the mass
of 1 mol of atom

Mass of the element in grams

No. of gram atoms 
Gram atomic mass of the element

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

The relative molecular mass of a substance is the mass of a molecule of the substance as
compound to 1/12th of the mass of one carbon -12 atom

Mass of one molecule of the substance

Relative molecular mass 
1
 mass of one C  12 atom
12

 The molecular mass of a substance , thus represents the number of times it is heavier than 1/12 th
of the mass of an atom of C-12 isoptope.
GRAM MOLECULAR MASS
 The molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams

Mass of substance in grams

No. of gram molecules  Gram molecular mass of the substance

 The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of its constituted atoms
present in a molecule

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ATOMIC MOLECULAR
ELEMENT
MASS MASS
H 1 2
He 4
Li 7
C 12
N 14 28
O 16 32
F 19
Ne 20
Na 23
Mg 24
Al 27
P 31 124(P4)
S 32 256(S8)
Cl 35.5 71
K 39
Ca 40
Fe 55.8
Cu 63.6
Ag 108
Au 197

EQUIVALENT MASS
It is the mass of the element which combines with or displaces 1.008 parts by mass of
hydrogen or 8 parts by mass of oxygen or 35.5 parts by mass of chlorine

Atomic mass
 Eq. mass of an element 
Valency

mol. mass of acid

 Eq. mass of an acid  Basicity of acid

* Basicity is the number of replacable H+ ions from one molecule of the acid

Molecular mass of base

 Equivalent mass of base  Acidity of the base

* Acidity is the no. of replacable OH- ions from one molecule of the base

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Molecular mass of the salt

 Equivalent mass of a salt  Total  ve ch arg e on ions

Equivalent
Compound
mass
HCl 36.5

HNO3 63

H2SO4 49

H2C2O4.2H2O
63
(Oxalic acid)

NaOH 40

KOH 56

CaCO3 50

NaCl 58.5

Na2CO3 53

MOLE CONCEPT :

The term mole was introduced by Ostwald.

 In latin mole means heap or collection or pile
 1 mole is the amount of substance that contains as many particles or entities as there are atoms
in exactly 12g of carbon - 12 isotope.

 1 mole is the amount of a substance that contain 6.022  1023 atoms, ions or molecules

 The number 6.022  1023 is called Avogadro’s number and denoted as NA.
Examples :

1 mole Carbon = 6.022  1023 atoms of C

1 mole oxygen molecule = 6.022  1023 molecules of oxygen

 2  6.022  1023 atoms of oxygen

1 mole Na+ ions  6.022 1023 ions of Na+

1 mole of O3 molecule  6.022 1023 molecules of ozone

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 3 6.022 1023 atoms of oxygen

MOLAR VOLUME OF A GAS:
It is the volume occupied by 1mol of any gas

Condition Temperature Pressure Molar volume

NTP
(Normal temperature 273 K 1 atm 22.4 L
and pressure)

STP
standard temperature 273 K 1 bar 22.7 L
and pressure

SATP standard ambient

298 K 1 bar 24.78 L
Temperature and pressure

1atm  1bar

 Generally molar volume is taken as 22.4 L or 22400 mL

ie, volume of 1 mole H2 at STP = 22.4 L
volume of 1 mole O2 at STP = 22.4 L

 Mass of 22.4  gas at STP = molecular mass

 V.D  mol.mass / 2
 Mass of 11.2 gas at STPs vapour density

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

Total mass of the element

Percentage mass of the element in the compound  Molecular mass
100

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EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms in a com-
pound whereas molecular formula shows the exact number of different type of atoms present in the
molecule of a compound
Example : E.F of glucose is CH2O
M.F of glucose is C6H12O6
CONCENTRATION TERMS OF SOLUTIONS:

w Mass of solute in grams

1) Mass %  w   Mass of solution in grams 100
 

v Volume of solute in m

2) Volume %  v   Volume of solution in m  100
 

3) Mole fraction   

It is defined as the ratio of number of moles of one particular component to the total no. of moles of
components.
Let A and B are the components and nA and nB be their no. of moles. Then mole fraction of
nA
A,  A  n  n
A B

nB
Mole fraction of B,  B  n  n
A B

 Sum of mole fraction of all components = 1 ie here  A   B  1

4) Molarity (M)
It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre (or dm3) of solution.

no.of moles of solute

M
volume of solution in litre

WB 1000
M 
MB V

WB = mass of solute
MB = molecular mass of solute
V = volume in mL
5) Molality (m)
It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per kg of solvent

no.of moles of solute

m
Mass of solvent in kg
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w B 1000
m 
MB w A

W B = mass of solute in g
W A = mass of solvent in g
MB = molecular mass of solute
6) Normality (N) :
 Normality of a solution is defined as the number of gram equivalents of the solute dissolved per
litre (dm3) of given solution.

No.of gram equivalents of solute

N
Vol.of the solution in litre

Mass of solute in grams

N
Equivalent mass of solute  volume of solution in litre

Relationship between Normality and Molarity

Normality of an acid = Molarity  Basicity
Normality of a base = Molarity  Acidity
STOICHIOMETRY
 STOICHIOMETRY is the calculation of the quantities of reactants and products involved in a chemical
reaction
 It is based on the balanced chemical equation and on the relationship between mass and moles
i) (mole - mole relationship)
 In such calculations number of moles of reactants are given and those of products are required or
if number of moles of products are given and then number of moles of reactants are required
ii) Mass - Mass relationship
 Write down the balanced chemical equation
 The unknown amount of substance is calculated using unitary method
Example : What is the mass of CO2 obtained by heating of 3g of C in excess of oxygen.

C  O 2  CO 2
12g 44 g

12 g C gives = 44g CO2

44
1g C gives = g CO 2
12

44
 3g C gives   3  11g CO2
12

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iii) Mass - volume relationship

 In such calculations masses of reactants are given and volume of the product is required and vice-
versa.
Example : What is the volume of SO2 at STP obtained by heating 8g of sulphur with excess of O2

S  O 2  SO 2
32g 22.4 L

32g sulphur gives SO 2  22.4L

22.4
1g sulphur gives SO 2  L
32

22.4
8g sulphur gives SO 2   8  5.6L
32
iv) Volume - volume relationship
 These calculations are based on two laws
i) Avogadro’s law
ii) Gay-Lussac’s law
Example : What volume of O2 at STP needed to cause the complete combustion of 200ml of
Acetylene(C2H2)

2C 2 H 2 g   5O 2 g   2CO 2 g   H 2 O   
2 vol 5 vol
2 ml 5 ml

2ml acetylene requires O 2  5ml

5
 1ml acetylene required O 2  ml
2

5
So 200ml acetylene requires O 2   200  500ml s
2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM

 The word atom is derived from the Greek word A-tomio which means indivisible (but actually atoms
are divisible)
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 The 1st proposed theory about an atom
 It is based on the law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportion
 The important points are
i) Matter is made up of very small and indivisible particles called atoms
ii) Atoms of the same element are identical in all physical and chemical properties

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iii) Atoms of different elements are different in all properties

iv) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio
v) Chemical reactions involve only rearrangement of atoms ie atoms can neither be created nor be
destroyed.
Limitations:
1) Actually atoms are divisible
2) Due to the existence of isotopes all the properties of the atoms of same element are always not
same
3) Atoms of different elements are not different in all respects since isobars have same mass number
4) In complex biomolecules and polymers there is no fixed ratio of elements always
5) By nuclear reactions, we can convert one atom to another atom
Electrons
 Negatively charged particle of an atom
 It constitutes the cathode rays
 Discovered by J.J. Thomson\
 Named by Stoney

 Mass of electron  9.11031 kg  5.4  104 u

1
 Mass of an electron is of the mass of an atom of hydrogen
1837
Protons
 Positively charged particles of an atom
 Discovered in anode rays when hydrogen gas filled in the discharge tube
 Named by Rutherford
 Mass of proton  1.672  1027 kg = 1.00728 u
 Mass of a proton is same as that of H-atom
Neutrons
 Neutral particles of atom
 Discovered by James Chadwick

 Mass of neutron  1.675 1027 kg  1.00866 U

 Mass of neutron is slightly more than the mass of proton
Thomson’s model of atom
An atom consists of a sphere of positive electricity in which electrons are embedded like
plum in pudding or seeds in a watermelon. This model is called plum pudding model or watermelon
model

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Merits
i) Explained the electrical neutrality of atom
ii) Explained the formation of ions and ionic compounds
Demeritis
i) Not explained the stability of atom
ii) Not explained the exact position of electrons
Ruthefords model of atom
 Rutherford took thin sheets of gold (or platinum) and   particles emitted from a radioactive
element such as polonium were allowed to strike the gold foil.

No Obs ervation Conc lus ion

M os t of the alpha particles pas sed through

1 M os t part of an atom is em pty
the foil without any deviation

P os itive c harge of the atom is

2 very few partic les deflected c onc entrated in a very s m all
s pac e, which is called nucleus

Nuc leus of an atom Is very s m all is

A very few alpha particles , ie 1 in 20000 were
c om pared to total s iz e and the partc les
3 deflec ted bac kward on their path at an
0 bounc ed bac k due to their collis ion with
angle of 180
nucleus

Limitation : In Rutherford’s atomic model, Nucleus and electrons are held together by electrostatic
force of attraction which lead to the fusion between them. This does not happen in the atom.
Atomc number (Z)
 It is the identity of an element
 Defined as the number of protons or number of electrons of a neutral atom
example : Atomic number of H = 1, He = 2, Oxygen = 8
Mass Number (A) :
 Defined as the sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
 A = Number of protons (Z) + Number of neutrons
 Number of neutrons = A - Z

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Representation of an element

example : 1 H , 42 He,126 C,16

1
23 24 27
8 O,11 Na ,12 M g,13 A etc

Bohr’s model of atom:

It states that
i) The electrons revolve around the nucleus through certain circular paths called orbits which are
designated as K,L,M,N etc or 1,2,3,4........etc
ii) Each orbit is associated with a definite amount of energy so they are known as stationary states
iii) While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy
iv) The emission or absorption of energy in the form of radiation can occur when on electron jumps
from one stationary orbit to another
v) Only those orbits are permitted for an electron in which the angular momentum is an integral mul-
h nh
tiple of ie mvr 
2 2
m = mass of the electron
v = velocity of electron
r = radius of orbit
n = 1,2,3.......number of the orbit
Distribution of electrons in to different orbits (Shells)
 Suggested by Bohr and Bury
 The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2; where n is the
number of orbit
ie First orbit or K-shell  2 12  2

Second orbit or L-shell  2  22  8

Third orbit or M- shell  2  32  18

Fourth orbit or N - shell  2  42  32 etc

 Electrons are not accomodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled
Valence electrons : The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom
Valency : The combining capacity of an atom ie number of electrons gained lost or shared to attain the
octet

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Atomic Structure
 An atom consists of two parts
a) Nucleus b) Extranuclear region
a) Nucleus
 The positively charged centre of an atom
 Consists of protons and neutrons (nucleons)
 The entire mass of an atom is almost concentrated in the nucleus
 The radius of the nucleus of an atom is of the order 10-13 cm and its density is of the order of
1014 g /cm3
b) Extranuclear Region
 The part outside the nucleus, where electrons are present . ie where the shells are present
 Each energy level is further, divided into subshells designated as s,p,d,f
1st orbit or K-shell contains 1 subshell (s)
2nd orbit or L-shell contains 2 subshells (s,p)
3rd orbit or M-shell contains 3 subshells (s,p,d)
4th orbit or N-shell contains 4 subshells (s,p,d,f)
 Subshells further contains orbitals
 Orbitals are the three dimensional region around the nucleus of an atom, where the probability of
finding electron is maximum
 The maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2
 The maximum number of orbitals in a shell = n2
Types of Orbitals :
1) s - Orbital
 S- subshell contains only one orbital and which is non directional & spherically symmetrical in
shape

2) p - orbitals
 The p- subshell contains 3 orbitals which have dumbbell shape and a directional character
 Designated as Px, Py, Pz which are oriented in the perpendicular axis x,y,z
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Y Y
Y
Z Z
Z

X X
X

Px
Py Pz

 P- subshell can contain maximum 6 electrons

3) d - orbitals

 d - subshell contains 5 orbitals ie d xy ,d yz ,d xz ,d x 2  y2 and d z2

Y
Z Z

X Y X

dxy dyz d xz

Y Z

X X

d x2 - y 2 d z2

 d- subshell can contain maximum 10 electrons

4) f - orbitals
 f- subshell contains 7 orbitals which are complex in structure
 f- subshell can contains maximum 14 electron

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Quantum Numbers
 The set of 4 numbers which gives an overall idea about an electron in an atom
a) Principal quantum number
 Denoted by ‘n’
 Given by Bohr
 Represents the name, size and energy of the orbit or shell to which the electron belongs
 Higher the value of n, higher will be the distance from the nucleus and higher will be the energy
 n varies fom 1 to 
b) Azimuthual quantum number
 Given by Sommerfeld
 denoted by 
 It represents the subshell present in shell
 For a given value of n, value of  is 0 to (n -1)

Value of n Values of  Subshell

1 0 s
2 0,1 s,p
3 0,1,2 s,p,d
4 0,1,2,3 s,p,d,f

 Relative energy is various subshells in shell s < p < d < f

 Maximum number of electrons present in a subshell  2  2  1

c) Magnetic quantum number
 Given by Lande
 It represents the orientation of subshells ie orbitals
 For a given value of  values of m varies from  to  including zero

 m

0 0
1 -1,0,+1
2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2
3 -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3

d) Spin quantum number

 Given by Goud schimidt and Uhlenbeck

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 denoted by s
 Represents the direction of spin of electron around its own axis and two spins are possible clockwise and
anticlockwise spin

 Clockwise spin represented by  1 2 or  and anticlockwise spin represented by  1 2 or 

 Electrons with same spin are called spin parallel and those with opposite spin are called spin paired
Electronic configuration of an atom
The arrangement of the electrons in different shells
Order of filling of electrons in subshells
These are different rules governing the filling of subshells
i) Aufbau principle
‘Aufbau’ is a German word means ‘building up’.
 The principle states that, Electrons first occupy the subshell with lowest energy and progressively fill the other
subshells in increasing order of energy.
ie 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p< 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p< 7s< 5f < 6d< 7p
ii) Pauli’s exclusion principle
It states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of 4 quantum numbers
 Number of electrons in an orbital is limited to two by this principle.
iii) Hund’s rule of Maximum multiplicity
It states that, in case of degenerate orbitals (ie orbitals with same energy) the electrons will first occupy
the orbitals singly with parallel spin, then only pairing takes place
Stability of half filled and fully filled configuration :
Half filled and fully filled configurations are more stable

Half filled Fully filled

s1 s2

p3 p6

d3 d10

f7 f14

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CHAPTER - 00
PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

CHEMISTRY
A periodic table may be defined as the table giving the arrangement of all the known elements
according to their properties so that elements with similar properties fall within the same vertical
column and elements with dissimilar properties are separated.
Importance of classifying elements
i) Classification of elements helps us to study them better.
ii) Helps us to correlate their properties
iii) Helps us to establish relationship between them
Dobereiners Triads :
 He arranged elements with similar properties in the groups of three called triads.
 According to Dobereiner, the atomic weight of the middle element was the average of the atomic
weight of the other two elements in each triad.

Relative Average
Sl. No Triads
atomic mass atomic mass

7  39
1 Li, Na, K 7,23,39  23
2

40  137
2 Ca, Sr, Ba 40,88,137  88.5
2

35.5  127
3 Cl, Be, I 35.5,80,127  81.25
2

Merit : It recognised a relationship between properties of elements and their atomic weights.
Demerits : i) He identified only 3 triads from the elements known at that times
ii) It was restricted to few elements therefore discarded
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Newland’s law of Octaves :

He arranged the 56 elements known at that time in the increasing order of
atomic weights. He observed that every eighth element had properties similar to that of the first. Newlands
called this relation of ‘law of octaves’ due to the similarity with the musical scale
eg : H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Limitations
 It is applicable only upto calcium
 In order to fit elements into his table he adjusted two elements in the same slot, but also put some
unlike elements under the same slot.
Mendeleev’s periodic table
 Mendeleev examined the relationship between atomic masses of the elements and their physical
and chemical properties
 63 elements were known at that time
 He concentrated on the compounds formed by elements with hydrogen and oxygen, because they
are very reactive and formed compounds with most elements
 The elements were arranged in the form of a table based on the periodic recurrence of the proper-
ties and so the tabular arrangement was called Periodic Table
 Mendeleev’s periodic law states that ‘the properties of elements are the periodic function of their
atomic masses
 Mendeleev’s periodic table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called
‘periods’.
Merits :
1. When Mendeleev presented his periodic table inert gases like He, Ne, Ar were not discovered when
they were discovered, they could be nearly put as the last group of elements, without disturbing the
rest of the table.
2. He predicted the properties of those missing elements from the known properties of other elements in
the same group
Demerits :
1. Position of hydrogen is uncertain
2. The positions of isotopes could not be accomodated within the table
3. In certain pairs of elements, the increasing order of atomic masses was not obeyed
4. Mendeleev’s classification does not give importance to the electronic configuration of elements which
is very important factor in deciding chemical property
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
 Based on modern periodic law, which states that ‘ The physical and chemical propeties of the
elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers’.
 The vertical columns are called groups (18).

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 The horizontal rows are called periods (7)

Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

No. of
2 8 8 18 18 32 25 incomplete
elements
Atomic
1,2 3-10 11-18 19-36 37-54 55-86 87-118
numbers

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Based on the type of subshells which receives the last electron periodic table is classified into 4
blocks.
a) S- block elements
 Last electron enters the s-orbital of the outermost shell
 Group 1 & 2
 General electronic configuration ns1-2
 Total number of elements 13 including H
b) P- block elements
 Last electron enters the p-subshell of the outermost shell
 Groups 13 to 18
 General electronic configuration ns2np1-6
 Includes, metals, all non metals and metalloids
 Total number of elements - 31
* Except 18th group all s-block and p-block elements are collectively called representative elements
* 18th group elements are called Noble gases.
c) d - block elements
 Last electron enters to the (n-1)d orbital
 groups 3-12 * General electronic configuration (n-1)d1-10ns1-2
 All are metals
 Total number of elements = 39
d) f- block elements
 Last electron enters to the (n-2) of orbital
 All belongs to 3rd group
 General electronic configuration (n-2) f1-14 (n-1)d0-1ns2
 All are metals
 Classified into Lanthanoides and actinides

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PERIODIC PROPERTIES
These are the properties that show gradual variation ie increase or decrease
in a period or group in the modern periodic table.
I. Atomic radius
a) Covalent radius : It is one half of the distance between the centres of the nuclei of two similar atoms
bonded by a single covalent bond.
* Applicable to non metals
b) Vanderwaal’s radius : it is half of the internuclear distance between two adjacent atoms of the same
element belonging to two nearest neighbouring molecules of the same substance
c) Metallic radius : It is half of the intermolecular distance between two adjacent atoms in metallic
lattice
Trend in atomic radius (atomic size)
i) Across the period, size decreases , while down the group atomic radius increases

ii) Order of radius rvander waals  rmetallic  rcovalent

iii) Cation radius is always less and anion radius is always greater than the its parent neutral atom
iv) In the case of isoelectronic species, when the number of protons increases, radii decreases
II. Ionisation energy (IE) or Ionisation enthalpy
 It is the energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous isolated atom
 Ionisation energy decreases with
i) Increasing atomic size
ii) Increasing screening effect - (The electrons in the inner shells acts as a screen or shield between
the nucleus and the outermost electrons
iii) Going in the group from top to bottom
 Ionisation energy increases with
i) Increasing nuclear charge
ii) Going in the period from left to right
iii) When the element has half filled or completely filled subshells
III. Electron affinity or Electron gain enthalpy
 The amount of energy released when an electron is added to an isolated neutral gaseous atom in
its ground state
i) It is inversely proportional to atomic size and screening effect
ii) It is directly proportional to the effective nuclear charge
iii) For inert gases and for atoms having filled orbitals , electron affinity is zero
iv) Down the group electron affinity values generally decrease
Exception, Chlorine shows more electron affinity than fluorine. This is because of small size of fluorine
and high electron - electron repulsion in fluorine.

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iv. Electronegativity : it is a measure of the tendency of an element to attract electrons towards itself in a
covalently bonded molecule.
 Across the period electronegativity increases and down the group electronegativity decreases
 Fluorine is the most electronegative element and Cs is least electronegative
 It has no unit
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
 A chemical reaction takes place when one or more substances (elements / compounds) undergo
a chemical change forming one or more new substances with or without energy changes
 The substances that undergo the changes are called reactants
 The substances that are formed as a result of chemical changes are called products
 A chemical equation is a short form representation of a chemical recation using symbols and for-
mulae
 The reactants and products are separated by an ‘  ’ mark.
 The special conditions like temperature, pressure, catalyst etc are writing above the arrowmark.

eg : C  O 2  CO2

 - heat
 The numbers before the formula in a chemical equation are used for balancing the chemical equa-
tion.
Special symbols used in chemical equations
Symbol Meaning
A(s) A is a solid

B  B is a liquid

C (g) C is a gas
(a2) A is in the form of an aqueous solution ie dissolved in
H2O

A A is a gas which is evolved

B B is an insoluble product and is precipitated

 Heat energy is supplied

 The reaction takes place only in one
direction(Irreversible)
 The reaction takes place in both directions
(Reversible)

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TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

a) Combination reaction (Addition reaction)
 It is a union of two or more than two substances to form a new substance. It may be brought
about by the application of heat, light, electricity or pressure.

eg : H 2  Cl2  2HCl
b) Decomposition reaction :
 It is breaking up of a substance into simpler compounds and it may be brought by the application
of heat, light, electricity etc

eg : CaCO3  CaO  CO2

2H2O E 
lectricity
2H 2  O 2

2AgBr L 
ight
2Ag  Br2
* Decomposition reaction is just opposite of the addition reaction.
c) Displacement reactions:
 It involves displacement of one of the constituents of a compound by another substance

eg : Fe s   CuSO4 aq   FeSO 4  aq   Cu  s 

d) Double displacement
It is mutual exchange of the radicals of two compounds to be part in the reaction and results in the
formation of two new compounds

eg : NaCl aq   AgNO3 aq   AgCl s   NaNO3 aq 

e) Exothermic reactions
 The reactions in which energy is liberated

eg: CH 4 g   2O 2 g   CO 2 g   2H 2O     Energy

f) Endothermic reactions
 The reactions in which energy is absorbed

eg : CaCO3  CaO  CO2

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ACIDS , BASES AND SALTS

Acids
 An acid may be defined as a substance which releases one or more H+ ions in aqueous solution
 Acids form an aqueous solution with a sour taste
 It can turn blue litmus to red and react with bases and certain metals to form salts
 The word acid is derived from the latin ‘acidus’ meaning sour..
CLASSIFICATION OF ACIDS
I. On the basis of source
A) Organic acids : Acids which are usually obtained from organisms and natural substances
eg : Acetic acid - From microorganism
Citric acid - From citrus fruits
Formic acid - From oats
Malic acid - From apples
Oxalic acid - From tomatoes
Tartaric acid - From Tamarind
Lactic acid - From milk
B) Inorganic acids : The acids which are usually obtained from minerals so these are also called
mineral acids.
eg : Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Nitric acid(HNO3)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) etc
II. Classification based on their basicity
The basicity of an acid is defined as the number of hydronium ions
H 3O   aq  that can be produced by the complete ionisation of one molecule of that acid in aqueous
solution.

i) Monobasic - produces only one H3O

eg : HCl, HBr, HNO 3 , CH 3COOH, HCOOH etc

ii) Dibasic produces two H3O

eg : Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Sulphurous acid H2SO3

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Carbonic acid H2CO3

Oxalic acid H2C2O4

iii) Tribasic acids produces three H3O ions

eg : Phosphoric acid - H3PO4
III. Classification base on their strength
A) Strong acids: Acids that completely dissociate into their ions in aqueous solution
eg : HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
B) Weak acids : Acids that do not completely dissociate into their ions in aqueous solutions
eg : Acetic acid CH3COOH
Formic acid HCOOH
Oxalic acid COOH - COOH
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Sulphurous acid H2SO 3
Hydrocyanic acid hcn
IV. CLASSIFICATION : On the basis of concentration of acid.
A) Concentrated acid : The sample of an acid which contains very small amount of water
B) Dilute acid : The sample of an acid which contains more amount of water than its own mass.
Chemical properties of acids
i) Action with metals
Dilute acids like HCl, H2SO4 etc react with certain active metals like Na, K, Zn, Fe, Ca, Mg etc gives
hydrogen gas
eg : 2 Na(s) + 2 HCl (dilute)  2 NaCl (aq) + H2(g)
ii) Action with metal oxides
Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water up on heating

eg : ZnOs   2HCl aq   ZnCl 2 aq   H 2 O  

iii) Action with metal carbonates and metal bicarbonates

 Both metal carbonates and bicarbonates react with acids to evolve CO2 gas and form salts
eg : CaCO 3s   2HCl aq   CaCl 2 aq   H 2 O    CO 2 g 

iv) Action with base

 Acids react with bases to give salt and water

HCl aq   NaOH  aq   NaCl  H 2 O

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BASES
 A base is a substance capable of releasing one or more OH- ions in aqueous solution
 They taste bitter
 Changes red litmus to blue
 Reacts with acids to form salts
 They are slippery to touch
 They accept protons from a proton donor
Alkali
A base which is soluble in H2O is called an alkali
‘All alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis’
Classification of bases or alkalis
I. On the basis of their acidity
Acidity of a base is the number of OH- ions produced by one molecule of an
alkali on complete dissociation in water
i) Monoacidic bases
eg : NaOH, KOH, NH4OH, Ammonium hydroxide
ii) Diacidic bases
eg : Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Magnesium hydroxide Mg (OH)2
iii) Triacidic bases
eg : Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3
Ferric hydroxide Fe (OH)3
II. On the basis of strength
A) Strong bases : The alkalis or bases which undergo almost complete ionisation in aqueous solu-
tion to produce high concentration of OH- ions.
eg : NaOH, KOH etc
B) Weak alkalis or bases : The alkalis or bases which undergo partial ionisation in aqueous solution
eg : Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
III. On the basis of their concentration:
A) Concentrated alkali  A solution of alkali having high percentage of alkali in its aqueous solution
B) Dilute alkali  A solution of alkali having low percentage of alkali in its aqueous solution

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
i) Action with metals
Metals like zinc, tin, Aluminium etc react with strong alkalies like NaOH, KOH etc to evolve H2 gas

eg: Zn s   NaOH  aq   Na 2 ZnO 2 aq   H 2 g 

sodium zincate

ii) Action with non metallic oxides  salt and water

2NaOH  aq   CO 2 g   Na 2 CO 3 aq   H 2 O  

iii) Action with acid  salt and H2O

eg : NaOH  aq   HCl aq   NaCl aq   H 2 O

Theories of Acids and Bases

Theory Acid Base

H+ donor in aqueous solution

OH- donor in aqueous solution
1) Arrhenius theory HCl, HNO3,H2SO4,
eg : NaOH, KOH, NH4OH, Ca(OH)2 etc
CH3COOH,H2CO3, HCN etc

H+ ion donor
H+ ion acceptor
2) Lowry Bronsted concept eg : HCl, HNO3, H2SO4,
eg : NH3, H2O etc
H2CO3,CH3COOH, H2O etc

A species which can accept

A species which can donate a pair of electrons.
3) Lewis concept a pair of electrons.
Eg : NH3,H2O, R-OH, CN-, OH-, R-O-R etc
Eg : BF3,AlCl3, H+, CH3+ etc

INDICATORS
 An indicator indicates the nature of a particular solution whether acidic , basic or neutral
 Indicators are basically coloured organic substances extracted from different plants
eg : i) Litmus - a purple dye extracted from Lichen (a plant)
ii) Phenolphthalein - Colourless in acidic medium and pink in basic medium
iii) Methyl orange - Red in acidic medium and golden yellow or orange in basic medium
NEUTRALISATION :
Acid + Base  Salt + H2O
eg : HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
 Exothermic

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pH Scale
 Introduced by German Chemist Sorensen
 Used to find out whether given substance is acid base or neutral
 pH stands for ‘Potenz de hydrogen’ ie potential of H
 At 298 K scale varies from O-14
O- 7 Acid
7 Neutral
7 - 14 Base

 pH is defined as negative logarithm of H3O ion concentration

ie pH   log H
 3O    log H  p   log OH 
  OH 

SALT :
 A substance which ionises in water to produce ions other than H+ and OH- is called a salt
 Salts are produced by neutralisation reaction
i) Salts of strong acid and strong base
eg : NaCl, KCl, Na2 SO4, K2SO4, NaNO3, KNO3, NaBr etc
 These salts are neutral
ii) Salt of strong acid and weak base
eg : NH4Cl, NH4NO3, (NH4)2SO4, AlCl3 etc
 Acidic in nature
iii) Salt of weak acid and strong base
eg : CH3COONa, NaCN, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3 etc
 Basic in nature
iv) Salt of weak acid and weak base
eg : CH3COONH4, (NH4)2CO3, NH4CN etc
 Generally neutral
SALT HYDROGEN
 Reverse of neutralisation
Salt  H 2 O  Acid  Base

 Salt of strong acid and base not hydrolyses

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METALS AND NON - METALS

The 118 elements can be broadly classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids.
 Majority of the elements are metals
 There are 22 non metals
 10 non metals solid, I- liquid (Br) and II - non metals are gases
Characteristics of metals
i) A metals are solids at room temperature excluding mercury which is a liquid
ii) Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity
iii) Metals are malleable ie they can be beaten into thin sheets
iv) Metals are ductile ie they can be stretched into the wires
v) Metals have lustre
vi) Metals occur to the left and Centre in the periodic table
vii) Metals have high densities (exception - Na, K, Mg, Al)
viii) Metals are hard (Exception Na & K. They are soft and can be easily cut with a knife)
ix) Metals have high melting and boiling points (except Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ga)
x) Metals lose electrons relatively more easily when compared to non metals to form cations
xi) Metals are sonorous ie hey make sound when hit with an object
xii) The oxides of metals are mostly basic in nature (some metal oxides are amphoterin eg : Al2O3)
Electronic configuration of metals
The atoms of metals have 1 to 3 electrons in their outermost shells
eg : Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs - have one electron in outer shell Ca, Mg, Ba, -2 electrons in outer shell
Al - 3 electrons in outer shell
Characteristics of non metals
i) Non-metals are brittle
ii) Non -metals are soft solids or gases . The only liquid non-metals is Bromine
iii) Non-metals are poor conductors is heat and electricity (Exception, Graphite is a conduction of
electricity)
iv) Non metals are not malleable, not ductile and are not sonorous. They do not have lustre
(Exception : Graphite, Iodine)
v) Non - metals occur to the right in the periodic table. (Exception - Hydrogen)
vi) Non- metals gain electrons relatively more easily when compared to metals to form anions.
vii) Non- metals have generally low melting and boiling points .(Exception , Graphite, Melting point
37300C)
viii) Non - metals have low densities (Exception : Iodine)
ix) The oxides of non metals are mostly acidic in nature. Sme are neutral eg : N2O

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Electronic configuration of Non - metals :

 The atoms of non -metals have usually 4 to 8 electrons in their outermost shells
eg : C - 4 electrons in outermost shell
N - 5 electrons in outermost shell
O - 6 electrons in outermost shell
F - 7 electrons in outermost shell
Ne - 8 electrons in outermost shell
Chemical Properties of metals
The metal atoms lose electrons and form positively charged ions, therefore, the metals are called
electropositive elements
i) Reaction with oxygen
Metals + O2  Metal oxide
 Basic in nature

4 Na  s   O 2 g   2Na 2O s 
eg : Sodium oxide

 When metal oxides are dissolved in water they give alkaline solutions
 Metals like Na, K and Ca react with oxygen even at room temperature
 Metals like Mg burn in air on heating.
 Metals like Zn reacts with oxygen only on strong heating
ii) Reaction with water
 Some metals react with codl water, some react with hot water, some reacts with steam while
some metals do not react even with steam
a) Na and K reacts vigorously with cold water to form hydroxides and hydrogen

2Na  s   2H 2O    2NaOH aq   H 2 g 

cold water sodium hydroxide

Ca reacts with cold water but the reaction is less violent

b) Mg reacts rapidly with hot boiling water to form magnesium oxide and hydrogen

Mg s   H 2O    MgO s   H 2 g 
Boiling water

c) Metals like Zn, Al, and Iron reacts only with steam to form their oxides and hydrogen

Zn  s   H 2 O g   ZnOs   H 2 g 
steam zinc oxide

d) Metals like Cu, Ag and gold do not react with water even under strong conditions. The order of
reactivity with water is
Na  Mg  Zn  Fe  Cu

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iii) Reaction with dilute acids

Metals + dilute acid  H2
 Dilute HNO3 is an oxidising agent which oxidises metals, but does not produce hydrogen.
Exception : Mg & Mn, They produce H2 on reaction with dil. HNO3.
 Copper does not react with dil. HCl or dil. H2SO4
 The order of reactivity of different metals with dilure acid
Na  Mg  Al  Zn  Fe  Cu
iv) When a more reactive metal is placed in a salt solution of less reactive metal , then the more reactive
metal displaces, the less reactive metal from its salt solution

eg : Zn s   CuSO 4 aq   ZnSO 4 aq   Cu s 
 Blue colour   Colour less 

Reactivity Series of Metals

The arranement of metals in the order is decreasing reactivities is called reactivity series or
activity series of metals.

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Usefulness of Activity Series

 The metal which is higher in the activity series is more reactive than the other.
 The metals which have been placed above hydrogen are more reaction than hydrogen so they
displaced hydrogen from water and acid but which ave been placed below hydrogen cannot displace
hydrogen from water and acids.
 Metals of the top do not occur free in nature
 Metals at the bottom , normally occur free in nature
Occurrence of metals
 All metals are present in the earth’s crust in the free state or in the form of their compounds
 Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust
Minerals and Ores
The natural substances in which metals or their compounds occur either in natuve state or com
bined state are called minerals
The mineral form which the metal can be conveniently and profitably extracted is called an ore
eg : Bauxite Al2O3. 2H2O and clay (Al2O3. 2SiO2. 2H2O) are minerals of Aluminium.
Aluminium can be conviently and profitably extracted from Bauxite so Bauxite is an ore of Aluminium.
 Ores occurs as oxides, carbonates , Sulphides, Sulphates, halides etc
a) Example of oxide ores
i) Cuprite - Cu2O
ii) Haematite - Fe2O3
iii) Magnetite - Fe3O4
iv) Corundum - Al2O3 etc.
b) Examples of sulphide ores
i) Zinc blende - ZnS
ii) Copper pyrites - CuFeS2
iii) Galena - PbS
iv) Cinnabar - HgS
c) Examples of Carbonate Ores
i) Limestone - CaCO3
ii) Calamine - ZnCO3
d) Examples of Halide Ores
i) Rock salt - NaCl
ii) Carnalite - KCl. MgCl2. 6H2O
iii) Flurospar - CaF2
iv) Horn Silver - AgCl

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e) Example sof Sulphate ores

i) Gypsum - CaSO4 . 2H2O
ii) Epsom salt - MgSO4 . 7H2O
iii) Barytes - BaSO4
Metallurgy
The process of extracting metal from their ores and the refining them for use is called metallurgy.
Some important terms in metallurgy are
i) Gangue or matrix - unwanted impurity in the ore such as sand, stone, mud, mica etc.
ii) Leaching : A widely used extraction method that covertes the ore into aqueous solution.
iii) Matter : A term used for the molten metal sulphides formed during the extraction of Cu, Ni & Iron ores
iv) Roasting : The heating of ore to convert impurities to oxides and alao to convert the ore to its oxide
form
v) Calcination : Roasting of ore in limited supply of air to remove volatile impurities and make the ore
porous to increase its surface area.
Steps in metallurgy
a) Crushing and grinding of the ore
b) Concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore
c) Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore
d) Refining or purification of the impure metal
Corrosion of metals
Corrosion is a process of determination of metal as a result of its reaction with air or water (present
in environment) surrounding it.
 Corrosion of iron is called rusting
 The oxide layer of aluminium ( due to the corrosion) actually prevents aluminium from further
corrosion.
 Copper reacts slowly with CO2 and water of air to form a green coating of basic copper carbonate
[CuCO3. Cu (OH)2]
 Tarnishing of silver happens over time due to formation of a thin sulphide layer so silver blackens
over time
 Gold, Titanium etc are resistant to corrosion
Alloys
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or metals or a metal and a non metal
eg : Brass - Cu (80%) + Zn (20%)
Bronze - Cu (90%) + Sn (10%)
Alnico - Al + Fe + Co + Ni
German silver - Cu (60%) + Zn (20%) + Ni (20%)
Magnalium - Al (95%) + Mg (5%)
Duralumin - Al (95%) + Cu (4%) + Mg (0.5%) + Mn (0.5%)

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CHAPTER - 00
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

The non-metal carbon plays a very important role in our day to day life. Carbon is an important con-
stituent of starch, sugars, fat, fuels, drugs, perfumes, proteins, vitamins etc.
 All the living things, plants and animals are made up of carbon base compounds
Vital fore Theory or Berzelius hypothesis
 Organic compounds cannot be synthesized in the laboratory because they require the presence
of vital force which exists only in living organisms.
Wohler’s synthesis :
Friedrich Wohler synthesized are in the laboratory by heating Ammonium cyanate.

NH4CNO NH2 C NH2

Ammonium Urea
cyanate

 Urea is the first organic compound synthesized in the laboratory

MODERN DEFINITION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
The study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives is called organic chemistry.
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON
About 3 million organic compounds are known today. The main reasons for this huge num-
ber of organic compounds are
i) Catenation : The property of self linking of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long straight
or branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation.
Carbon shows maximum catenation in the periodic table due to its small size, electronic
configuration and unique strength of carbon - carbon bonds.
ii) Tetravalency : Carbon has 4 valence electrons so it can bond with four carbon atoms, monovalent
atoms, oxygen , nitrogen and sulphur.

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iii) Tendency to form multiple bonds : Due to small size in carbon it has strong tendency to form
multiple bonds (double and triple bonds ).
Hydrocarbons
The organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. These
are the parent organic compounds. All other compounds are considered to be derived from them by
the replacement of one or more hydrogen atom by other atoms or groups of atoms.

i) Saturated Hydrocarbons
A) Alkanes contains carbon - carbon and Carbon - Hydrogen single covalent bonds.
General formula CnH2n+2
n - number of carbon atoms
eg : CH4 methane C2H6 ethane
Alkanes are also called Paraffins
ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
A) Alkenes
 Contains carbon -carbon double bond
 General formula CnH2n

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 eg : C2H4 - Ethene
C3H6 - Propene
 Also known as Olefines
B) Alkynes
 Contains Carbon - Carbon triple bond
 General formula Cn H2n-2
 eg : C2H2 : Ethyne
C3H4 - Propyne
 Also called Acetylenes
Nomenclature of organic compounds:
 Nomenclature means the assignment of names to organic compounds
 Most of the carbon compounds have two types of names
A) Common name : They are derived from the source of the compound
eg :The name of formic acid is derived from ‘Formicus’ the Greek word meaning red ants
B) IUPAC name
 A committee called the ‘International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) put forward a
system of giving proper scientific names to carbon compounds . These names are called IUPAC
names
 In this system the name of carbon compound has two or three of the following parts.
a) Word root. This indicate linear or continuous number of carbon atoms
eg : C1 - Meth
C2 - Eth
C3 - Prop
C4 - But
C5 - Pent
C6 - Hex
C7 - Hept
C8 - Oct
C9 - Non
C10 - Dec
b) Suffic
i) Primary suffix - Added to the word root to show saturation or unsaturation in a carbon chain
ii) Secondary suffix - Suffixes after the primary suffix to indicate the presence of a particular functional

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group in the carbon chain are known as secondary suffixes.

c) Prefix : This denotes the presence of other functional groups and their position
 Some of the functional groups are indicate by prefix and some by suffix

Type of bond Suffix used

Single bond -'ane'

Double bond -'ene'

Triple bond -'yne'

Functional group
At atom or group of atoms in an organic compound or molecule that is responsible for the compounds
characteristic reactions and determines its properties is known as functional group

Funcitonal group Profix Suffix

Chlorine Chloro
Bromine Bromo
Alcohol -ol
Aldehyde -al
Ketone -one
Carboxylic acid -oic acid

Note : The name of the compound in general is written in the following sequence
(Position of substituents) - (Prefixes) - ( word root) suffix
Alkane - H  Alkyl
CH4 - H  ch3 methyl
IUPAC rules for naming branched chain hydrocarbons
Rule I : Longest chain rule : Select the longest possible continuous chain of carbon atoms. If some
multiple bond is present , the chain selected must contain the multiple bond.
i) The number of carbon atoms in the selected chain determines the word root
ii) Saturation or unsaturation determines the primary suffix
iii) Alkyl substituents are indicated by prefixes

eg : CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH3

CH3

Prefix - methyl
Word root - Pent
Suffix - ane
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Rule II : Lowest number rue :The chain selected is numbered in terms of arabic numerals and the
position of the alkyl groups are indicated by the number of the carbon atom to which alkyl group is
attached.
i) The numbering is done in such a way that the substituted carbon atom has the lowest possible
number
ii) If multiple bond is present in the chain, the carbon atoms involved in the multiple bond should get
lowest possible numbers

eg : CH3 CH CH CH2 3- methylbut-1-ene

CH3

Rule III : Uses of prefixes di, tri etc : If the compound contains more than one similar alkyl groups, their
positions are indicated separately and an appropriate numerical prefix di, tri etc is attached to the
name of the substituents. The positions of the substituents are separated by commas

CH3 CH3

CH3 CH CH CH2 CH3

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
2,3- Dimethylpentane

Rule IV - Alphabetical arrangement of prefixes: If there are different alkyl substituents present in the
compound their names are written in the alphabetical order. However the numerical prefixes such as
di, tri etc are not considered for the alphabetical order

CH3
1 2 3 4 5
CH3 CH C CH2 CH3

CH3 C2H5
3-Ethyl-2,3-dimethyl pentane

Rule V : Numbering of different alkyl substituents at the equivalent positions.

Numbering of the cain is done in such a way that the alkyl group which comes first in alphabetical
order gets the lower position

CH3 C2H5

CH3 CH2 CH CH CH2 CH3

(6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

3- ethyl-4-methylhexane
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Rule VI : Lowest sum rule : Numbering of chain is done in such a way that the sum of positions of
different substituents gets lower value

C2H5
6 5 4 3 2 1
eg : CH3 CH2 C CH2 CH CH3

CH3 CH2

sum of positions =  2  4  4  10
Homologous series
Homologous series may be defined as a series of similarly constituted compound in which
the members possess similar chemical characteristics and the two consecutive members differ in
their molecular formula by -CH2
Characteristics of homologous series
i) All the members of a series can be represented by the same general formula and have a similar
functional group.
ii) All the members of the series exhibit similar properties, but the extent of the reactions varies with
increasing relative molecular mass
iii) The members of a particular series can be prepared almost by the identical methods
eg i) Alkanes are homologous
ii) Alkanes are homologues
Isomerism
The compounds which have same molecular formula but different physical and chemical
properties are known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism

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Structural isomerism
a) Chain isomerism
The isomerism in which the isomers differ from each other due to the presence of different
carbon chain skeletons
eg : C4H10

CH3
CH3 CH2CH2 CH3
CH3 CH CH3
n- butane
2-methylpropane(Isobutane)

b) Position isomerism : In this isomerism, isomers differ in the structure due to difference in the
position of the multiple bond or functional group.
eg : 1) C4H8

CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH3 CH CH CH3

But-1-ene But-2-ene
2) C3H8O

OH
CH3 CH2 CH2 OH
CH3 CH CH3
Propan-1-ol
Propan-2-ol

c) Functional group Isomerism

In this type of isomerism, isomers differ in the structure due to the presence of different
functional groups
eg : 1) Alcohols and ethers
C 3H 6 O

CH3 CH2 CH2 OH CH3 CH2 O CH3

Propan-1-ol Methoxyethane
2) Aldehydes and Ketones

O
CH3 CH2 CHO
CH3 C CH3
Propanal
Propanone

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