CHM 111 GENERAL CHEMISTRY I Physical and chemical properties of Matter

(PHYSICAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY) Physical properties are qualities that are easily determined at any time on a
particular substance such as the physical state of the substance, colour, odour,
1. NATURE OF MATTER taste, density, melting and boiling points, solubility etc.

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It includes all living things Chemical properties are those properties involved which are involved when
such as plants and animals, and non-living things like stone, wood, water, air, matter undergoes a permanent change to form a new substance.
sand, shoe, sodium chloride etc. it can be an atom, element, mixture or Physical Change Chemical Change
compound. It is easily reversible It is not easily reversible
States of Matter
No new substances are formed e.g. New substances are always
There are three states of matter. These are solid, liquid and gaseous states. melting of wax, magnetizing iron. produced e.g. rusting of iron

The particles in solid state are held together by some cohesive forces, this gives It does not involve much heat A considerable amount of heat is
a definite shape to solids, The particles of solid exhibit only vibrational motion. change e.g. dissolving of sugar in involved e.g. action of acid in metals
water
The particles in the liquid state are held together by cohesive forces less than
those observed in the solid states. Liquids assume the shape of the containing No change in mass There is noticeable change in mass
vessels, Liquids under undergo vibratory, rotatory but no translatory motion. e.g. burning of wood or charcoal
The particles of the gases state are usually in rapid random motion, they
undergo vibratory, rotatory and translatory motion (zig zag). Gases occupy any 2. ATOMS AND MOLECULES
available space because of these types of movement they exhibit.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element, which can take part in a chemical
Some substances can exist as solid, liquid and gas at various temperatures. For
reaction. If a piece of solid element like copper or zinc is ground into very tiny
example, water can exist as solid at a very low temperature, it can exist as liquid
pieces, the smallest part of it which can take part in a chemical reaction is called
at ordinary temperature and as a gas (vapour) at a temperature of 100 oC or
an atom.
373 K and pressure of one atmosphere. Some substances can exist in only one
state, example of this is stone. iodine or ammonium chloride can exist in only A molecule of a compound or element is the smallest particle of a compound
two distinct states, they exist as solid at ordinary temperature but when heated or element which is capable of independent existence. A molecule may be
changes directly into the gases. Matter can change from one form to another composed of atoms of the same element or atoms of different elements. For
by evaporation, boiling, melting, sublimation etc. example, a nitrogen molecule (N2) contains two atoms of nitrogen, an oxygen
molecule (O2) contains two atoms of oxygen but a molecule of water (H2O)
contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms. It is formed as a result

of the loss or gain of electrons. The electrons lost or gained are equal to the
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valence of the ions. There are two types of ions. These are: Positively charged SYMBOLS AND CHEMICAL FORMULAE
ion or cation.
Symbol of an element is a simple method of representing an element. Chemical
formula is a simple system of representing molecules of elements or
compounds.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Elements Symbols
An atom is made up of three fundamental particles. These are electron, proton
Potassium K
and neutron. An electron is negatively charged and has a mass of 1/1840 Unit. Sodium Na
It is found in the shell or orbit. A proton is positively charged. It has a mass of 1 Calcium Ca
unit. It is found in the nucleus. A neutron has no charge. It has a mass of 1 unit. Oxygen O
It is found in the nucleus. Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl

Compounds and radicals are represented by chemical formula. A chemical

formula is a short hand method of representing a compound. A symbol is to an
element as a chemical formula is to a compound. A chemical formula of a
compound tells us:

i. The different types of element that make up the compound.

ii. The number of atoms of each type of element present in the compound.
Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. For
instance, if an atom has 11 protons, the atomic number is 11. In an atom, the Binary compounds are compounds containing only two elements and their
number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. An atom is therefore names always end in (ide) e.g.
said to be electrically neutral because of the equality of electrons and protons. NaCl = Sodium Chloride
Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. NaH = Sodium hydride
Mass no. = no. of protons + no. of neutrons H2S = Hydrogen sulphide
Mass number is also called an atomic mass. An atom with 10 protons and 12 AgI = Silver iodide
neutrons has an atomic mass or mass number of 22.
Classification of Element
An element X with mass number 14 and the atomic number of 7 has the symbol
Metal:
14
7X
A metal is an element which can ionize by electron loss. The number of
electrons lost per atom is equal to the valency of the metal and the ion formed

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carries a positive charge that is equal to the number of electrons lost as shown ELEMENTS, COMPOUMDS AND MIXTURE
below;
An ELEMENT is a substance which cannot be split up into two or more simpler
Na - e- → Na+ substances by any known chemical process. Examples of element are: oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon, sodium, potassium, calcium, nitrogen, chlorine, silicon,
Ca - 2e- → Ca2+
aluminum etc.
Al - 3e- → Al3+

Some examples of metals are sodium, magnesium, iron, gold, silver, mercury. A COMPOUND is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically
combined together. Examples of compounds and the elements that make them
A non-metal is an element, which can ionize by electron gain. This means that
up are: water (Hydrogen & oxygen), common salt (Na & Cl), Potassium
non-metals are electronegative. The number of electrons gained per atom is trioxonitate (v) (K, N & O).
the valency of the non-metal. The ion formed carries an equal number of
negative charges, as shown below. A MIXTURE is anything which contains two or more substances physically
combined together. Or it can be defined as a physical combination of two or
½ Cl2 + e- → Cl-
more substances. Examples of mixture are; a mixture of sand and stone, a
½ Br2 + e- → Br- solution of common salt in water (brine). Other examples of mixture and their
constituents are; Air (O2, CO2, N2, water vapour & noble gases), Urine(Urea,
½ O2 + 2e- → O2- mineral salt & water), Petroleum (PMS, kerosene, diesel, engine oil) etc.
S + 2e- → S2-
Mixture Compound
No chemical bond between Constituent are joined by chemical
CHEMICAL EQUATION constituents bonds
Chemical equation is a shorthand method of representation a chemical
reaction. Constituents retains their Constituents lose their property;
1. Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water OR Hydrogen burns in air to properties; hence, can be easily Hence cannot be easily separated
form water. This statement can be represented thus: separated
H2 + O2 →H2O
2. Magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide. Constituents cannot be represented Constituent can be represented by
Mg + O2 →MgO by chemical formula chemical formula
3. Potassium trioxochlorate (v) decomposes on heating to form potassium
chloride and oxygen. Formation of mixture is not Heat change accompanies the
KClO3 → KCl + O2 accompanied by heat change formation of comounds
4. Calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) reacts with dilute tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid to
form Calcium tetraoxosulphate (vi), water and carbon (iv) oxide.
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

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PERIODIC TABLE evident that the nuclear attraction increases more rapidly across a period and
Periodic table is a table of elements arranged in order of their increasing as a result the atomic radius decreases with increasing atomic numbers.
atomic numbers. There are 118 known elements in the world. Modern periodic Atomic radius INCREASES steadily down the group, due to increase in number
table was created by a man called Mendeleev. of electronic shells, for instance the atomic size of potassium is greater than
that if Lithium.
The periodic table has horizontal rows called PERIODS, atoms in the same Atomic size DECREASES across a period from left to right due to increased
period have same number of electronic shells. The period occupied by an atom attraction that results form the addition of electron and proton to successive
is determined by the highest energy level in their electronic configuration e.g. atoms. Generally, Increase in nuclear charge (no of proton) decreases the
Mg (1s22s22p63s2) and Cl (1s22s22p63s23p5) are both in period 3, because their atomic radius as electrons are being added.
valence electron is found the third shell or energy level.
2. Ionization Energy: is the energy required to remove a valence electron from
A GROUP is a vertical column in the periodic table containing elements with the an atom of the element to form an ion. Ionization energy INCREASES across
same number of electrons in the outermost shell. Elements in the same group the period from left to right, this is because as the atomic number increases,
have similar chemical properties, valence electron and similar outermost shell the atomic radius decreases. This causes the positive nucleus to exert stronger
configuration (e.g. Li (2s1), Na (3s1), K (4s1)). The group number the number of attraction to the outermost electrons. Ionization energy DECREASES down a
electrons in the outermost shell of the element in the group. Certain groups of group because the outermost electrons are screened or shielded from the
elements have family name: G1(alkali metals), G2 (alkaline earth metals), G7 nucleus by the repelling effect of the inner electrons. Ionization energy is
(Halogens) and G8 (noble or inert or rare gases) dependent on three factors. They are:
In order words, all the elements in each group have the same valence electrons. i. The distance between the outermost electron and the nucleus.
Group 4 shows that element in this group have 4 electrons in their outermost ii. The screening or the shielding effect of the inner electrons.
shell. A group is a family of elements with similar chemical properties. There
are groups 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 0.

BLOCKS OF ELEMENT
Elements in the periodic table are classified based on the location of their
valence electron in subshells.
s-block elements have their valence electron in the s orbital e.g.G1, G2, Helium
and Hydrogen
p-block elements have their electron in the p orbital e.g. G3, G4, G5, G6, G7, G8
d-block elements have their electron in the d orbital e.g. 21Sc - 48Cd, 72Hf – 80Hg,
f-block elements have their electron in the f-orbital 57La - 70Yb, 89Ac – 102No

Periodic Atomic Property iii. The size or the strength of the positive nuclear charge.
Property (physical or chemical) of element that varies with increasing atomic Half-filled and completely filled orbitals are extra stable, hence, elements such
number is a periodic atomic property. as Be ((Is22s2), N ((Is22s22p3), Mg ((Is22s22p63s2) and P(Is22s22p63s23p3) has
1. Atomic size or radius: the distance from the nucleus of an atom to the higher ionization energy than the element that succeeds them in the periodic
outermost shell. Atomic radii decrease with increasing atomic number. It is table.

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3. Electronegativity: is the tendency or ease with which an atom attracts a (B). Covalent bonding: involves sharing of paired electron between atoms of
shared pair of electrons to itself in a molecule. There’s a steady INCREASE in the same or different element, usually nonmetals. The shared electron maybe
the electronegativity value from left to right across the periodic table due to regarded as revolving in orbit controlled by both nuclei, thereby forming a
increase in nuclear charge and decrease in atomic size from left to right, metals covalent bond. Conventionally, a shared pair is represented by a stroke, 2 pair
are the least electronegative element while the halogens are the most is represented by 2 strokes e.g. H-H C=C. Covalent bonds are highly directional
electronegative element in their respective period, fluorine is the most and determines the shape of the molecule. The electron cloud of bond pairs in
electronegative element in the periodic table.
covalent molecules repels each other to an equal extent, in molecules where
Electronegativity DECREASES steadily down the group due to screening effect
lone pair and bond pair are present, the lone pair exert a greater repulsive
of inner shell of electron which in turn reduce the nuclear attraction for shared
electron. effect than the bond pair, due to this reason molecules such as methane,
ammonia, and water has tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal and V-shape
CHEMICAL BONDING respectively.

1. INTRA MOLECULAR BONDING Note: the bond angle between any two covalent bond is 109o (as observed in
methane) and may decrease due to the presence of lone pair on the central
(A). Electrovalent (or ionic) bonding: involves the transfer of electron from atom (e.g. ammonia and water).
valence shell of metallic to non-metallic element. Elements or atoms with 1, 2,
or 3 valence electron requires less energy to donate their electron in order to Simple covalent compounds are often gases or volatile liquids because their
attain stable duplet or octet. Order of reactivity for metals is inversely “molecules, being electrically neutral, are not bound by strong attractive forces
proportional to the valence electron. Nonmetals attains stability by accepting (e.g. CO2, CH4, C2H5OH). In more complex covalent compounds, the molecules
electron from metals. are held together by weak intermolecular bonds such as hydrogen bonds and
van der Waals forces to form liquids and crystals. Covalent compounds are
In electrovalent combination, metals becomes positively charged while non usually volatile with low melting and boiling points as forces can easily be
metals becomes negatively charged, these particles are called ions. Ions are broken by a reasonably small amount of heat energy. In some covalent
held strong electrostatic forces, it is this force that constitute electrovalent or compounds, atoms are held in a continuous giant structure by-covalent bonds
ionic bonding. Na and Halogens, Mg and G6 elements. to form solids with exceptionally high melting and high boiling points
(Diamonds and graphite).
The oppositely charged ion do not pair up to form molecule, but exert their
force of attraction in all direction. Structurally, ionic compound consist of a (C). Coordinate covalent or Dative bonding: involves sharing of electron
positive and negative ion arranged in ordered repeating pattern to form 3- contributed entirely by one of the atoms involved. The lone pair of electrons on
dimensional crystal lattice. nitrogen and hydrogen in NH3 and H2O can be shared with Hydrogen ion.
Ammonium and oxonium ion are examples of coordinate covalent compounds.
Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature that typically melt at high
temperatures and boil at even higher temperatures. For example, sodium (D). Metallic Bonding: the valence electron of metals are loosely held and
chloride melts at 801 °C and boils at 1413 °C. ionic compounds are soluble in delocalized(mobile), they separates from their nuclei and move through the
water and acts as electrolyte, this is because ion are free to move about in crystal lattice to form a combined electron cloud. Atoms of metals are held
aqueous state. together by the attraction between positively charged nuclei of one atom and
the mobile electron of another. Thus, metals are said to be made up of positive
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ions embedded in a sea of negative ions(electrons). Hammering of metals MOLE
results in sliding of metal ions over one another without shattering of the
A mole is the amount of chemical substance that is equivalent to elementary
crystal lattice, the bonding only readjust by moving the electron cloud. Alloys
units in 12g of 12C. the mass of one mole of any chemical substance is called
(mix of metals) are more resistant to hammering than pure metals. metals are
Molar mass. The number of particles in 1 mole of a chemical substance is given
able to conduct electricity due to change In the random flow of
by the Avogadro number, L and it’s equal to 6.02 x 10 23 atoms.
electron(random to ordered). more than one intermolecular forces may be
present between molecules e.g. NH4Cl and Na2CO3. A molecule is a chemical combination of two or more atoms: H2 molecules
contains 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1 mole H2O molecules contains 2 atoms of
2. INTER MOLECULAR BONDING
hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen, weighs 18g and contains 6.02 x 10 23
Intermolecular forces exist between molecules of covalent compounds, noble molecules.
gases etc. Van der waal forces are weak attraction non-polar, polar molecules,
Examples
the two types are London dispersion force and dipole dipole attraction.
1. How many grams are in 1 mole of the following NH3, NaCl, Fe2O3.
1. London dispersion force (LDF) : are attractive force observed in non polar,
polar and symmetrical molecules e.g O2, H2, Cl2, CO2 and noble gases. This 2. How many molecules are in 1mole of CO2?
attractive force arises as a result of the constant motion of electron which leads
to uneven charge distribution. If this happens, the molecule forms a temporary 3. How many atoms are present in one mole of the following NaOH,
dipole that induces the neighbouring molecule to form a dipole. LDF are the H2SO4.
weakest electrical forces that acts between atoms and molecules and NaOH = 3 x 6.02 x 10 23 molecules
responsible for liquefaction/solidification of halogens and noble gas at low
temperature. H2SO4 = 7 x 6.02 x 10 23 molecules

2. Dipole-dipole attraction: exist between polar covalent molecules Calculation using mole concept
(unsymmetrical), molecules with permanent dipoles. Hydrogen bond is a Using first principle method, obtain the statement of fact and the required
special type of dipole-dipole attraction. statement, cross multiply to determine the unknown. Mathematical formula
(A). Hydrogen Bonding: it Is observed in covalent compound formed between obtained from S.I unit can also be used e.g. mass, (g)/amount, (mol) =molar
hydrogen and highly electronegative elements such as halogens, G6 elements mass.
etc. the shared pair of electron pulled by the electronegative element in Examples
bonding with hydrogen, this result in formation of partial dipoles, electrostatic
attraction arises between the partially positive pole of one molecule and the 4. How many moles are in 15g of carbon?
partially negative pole of another molecule. This type of bond is found in ice
5. Calculate mass of Fe in 0.025mol?
crystals, liquid water, ethanol etc.
6. If 0.123 mole of X weighs 8g, what is the RAM of X? use formula.

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7. Calculate the mass of calcium that contains the same number as 9g of 1 molecule 3 molecule 2 molecule
carbon? Firstly, calculate the number of atoms in 9g of C, use the number of
1 Volume 3 volume 2 volume
atom to calculate the equivalent mass.
Examples
8. How many atoms are in 2g of Ca?
10. What volume of oxygen will combine with 10cm3 of hydrogen and how
The number of atom per one mole of monoatomic element is the avogadro’s
many volume of water is produced under the same condition of temperature
constant L, it is numerically equal to 6.02 x 1023 atoms.
and pressure?
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠, 𝑁⁄
L= 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡, 𝑛 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

9. How many atoms are in 24g of Oxygen gas? 2 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes

32g O2 = 6.02 x 10 23 molecules 2 cm3of H2 = 1 cm3 of O2

24g O2 = x ; x = 4.52 x 10 23 molecules 10 cm3 of H2 = (1 x10)/2 = 5 cm3 of O2

One molecule of O2 contains 2 atoms of oxygen To calculate the volume of water produced, either of the reactant can be used.

1molecule O2 = 2 atoms 2 cm3of H2 = 10 cm3 of H2O

4.52 x 10 23 molecules = x; x = 9.04 x 10 23 molecules 10 cm3of H2 = (2 x 10)/2 =10 cm3 of H2O

AVOGADRO'S LAW 11. If 20 cm3 of nitrogen were mixed with 90 cm3 of hydrogen under
The law states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and suitable condition, calculate;
pressure contain the same number of molecules.
V α N {constant temperature and pressure} (a) which gas is in excess and by how much

The law shows that the volume occupied by a gas depends on the number of (b) What will be the volume of ammonia produced
molecules it contains at a given temperature and pressure, increase on the (c) What is the total volume of gas mixture at the end of reaction (i.e. product
number of gas molecules leads to an increase in gas volumes. plus excess reactant)
In a balanced gas equation, the ratio of number of molecules of all gases is N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
expected to be equal to the volume of the gases
1 cm3 3 cm3 2 cm3
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
(a) Determine if hydrogen will be completely used up.
1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecule
1 cm3 of N2 = 3 cm3 of H2
1 Volume 1 volume 2 volume
20 cm3 of N2 = (20 x 3)/1 = 60 cm3 of H2 out of 90 cm3
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
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Determine if hydrogen will be completely used up. 1 atm, it is 24.5 dm3 (or 24500 cm3). Under any condition of temperature and
pressure, molar volume contains 6.02 x 10 23 molecules. Hence at STP
3 cm3 of H2 = 1 cm3 of N2
One mole of H2 gas occupies 22.4 dm3, contains 6.02 x 10 23
molecules and
90 cm3 of H2 = (90 x 1)/3 = 30 cm3 of N2 out of 20 cm3
weighs 2g
From the calculations above, it is evident that hydrogen is in excess.
One mole of O2 gas occupies 22.4 dm3, contains 6.02 x 10 23
molecules and
(b) either of the reactants can be used weighs 32g

Using N2, One mole of CO2 gas occupies 22.4 dm3, contains 6.02 x 10 23
molecules and
weighs 44g.
1 cm3 of N2 = 2 cm3 of NH3
14. How many molecules are in the molar volume of gas at (a) STP (b) 20
20 cm3 of N2 = (2 x 20)/1 = 40 cm3 of NH3 o
C
Or Using H2, 15. Calculate the number of molecules that are present in 112 cm3 of CO2
3 cm3 of H2 = 2 cm3 of NH3 collected at stp?

60 cm3 of H2 = (2 x 60)/3 = 40 cm3 of NH3 22400 cm3 of CO2 = 6.02 x 10 23 molecules

(c) Total volume of gas after reaction, 40 cm3 of NH3 and 30 cm3 of H2; (30 112 cm3 of CO2 = (6.02 x 10 23 x 112)/ 22400
+ 40) = 70 cm3 = 3.01 X 10 23 molecules
12. The following reaction occurred when 100 cm3 of CO was burnt in 70
cm3 of oxygen 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
GAS LAWS
Calculate the total volume of gas mixture (residual gas) in the reaction vessel at
the end of reaction. (Answer = 120 cm3) BOYLE’S LAW
13. determine the volume of hydrogen that will be left when 300 cm 3 of The two variables that determines the volume of a fixed mass of gas are
oxygen and 1000 cm3 of hydrogen are exploded in a sealed tube. (Answer = 400 temperature and pressure, this observation was a result of the studies carried
cm3) Note: it is believed that hydrogen is in excess, the question is asking to out by English Physicist Robert Boyle. Boyle’s law states that the volume of a
calculate by how much. fixed mass is inversely proportional to the pressure, provide temperature is
kept constant
MOLAR VOLUME OF GAS
Mathematically;
One mole of a gas occupies 6.02 x 10 23 molecules, the volume occupied by one
mole of a gas under any condition of temperature and pressure is called the V α 1/P
molar volume, Vm. The molar volume of ideal gas depends on the condition of
temperature and pressure, at STP, it is 22.4 dm3 (22400 cm3), while at 25 oC and V = k/P; PV = Constant

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{PV = K} m, T where m (mass) and T(temperature) are constant At absolute zero temperature, the is no motion and the kinetic energy is zero.
It is observed that if a given mass of gas is cooled to -273oC or (0K), its volume
P1V1 = P2V2
becomes zero, sine it would turn to solid. Kelvin scale is used for calculation
If a fixed mass of a gas in a cylinder of volume V, has it pressure P double to 2P, involving Charles law, the kelvin scale helps to eliminate the use of zero or
the new volume becomes half of the initial volume, ½ V negative temperature value when solving problems in gas laws.

Note: the atmospheric pressure 1 atm or 760 mmHg or 1.01 x 10 5Nm-2 and
temperature 273k (0oC) are called standard temperature and pressure (STP), it
is employed to compare the various gases.

Explanation of Boyle’s law using Kinetic theory

The pressure exerted by a gas is due to the continuous bombardment of the

molecule with the wall of the container. At constant temperature, kinetic
energy remains constant. If the size of the container is halved, the frequency of
collision increase by double and will decrease by half if the size of container is Mathematically, Charles law is represented as:
doubled. Any gas that obeys the gas laws at all temperature and pressure is
an ideal or perfect gas. A real gas obeys the laws at high temperature and low [V α T] m,P
pressure [V = kT] m,p
Example [V/T = constant k] m,P
16. A certain gas occupies 200cm3 at 1.0 x 103Nm-2, calculate the volume V1/T1 = V2/T2
when the pressure is 2.0 x 103Nm-2? Answer = 100cm3
Kinetic theory explanation of Charles’ Law
17. A sample of nitrogen gas occupies 0.6dm3 at 400K and atmospheric
pressure. What will be its volume at 400K and 507mmHg? Answer = 0.9dm3 An increase in temperature enhances the frequency of collision and kinetic
energy of gas particles, for gas pressure to remain constant the temperature
CHARLES’ LAW and the volume must be increased.
Jacques Charles proposed the law that relates volume to temperature at Contrarily, decrease in temperature lowers the average kinetic energy of gas
constant mass and pressure. molecules.
Charles’ law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly Examples
proportional to the absolute temperature (Kelvin temperature) at constant
mass and pressure. The law implies that gases expand or contract in volume by 18. Calculate the volume of a given mass of gas at atmospheric pressure, if
the same the quantity as temperature change if the pressure and mass is kept it occupies 3dm3 at 27oC. Answer 4dm3.
constant.
19. A gas of volume 92cm3 is heated from 3oC to 18oC, calculate it volume
at 18oC. Answer 97cm3
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GENERAL GAS EQUATION 20. 20dm3 of H2 were collected over water at 17oC and 79.7 kNm-2 pressure.
Calculate (a) Pressure of dry hydrogen at this temperature (1000 Nm-2 = 1 kNm-
The general gas equation is a combination of Boyle’s and Charles’ Law; 2
) (Vapour pressure of water = 1.90 kNm-2 at 17oC)
Boyle’s law: V α 1/P m, T constant
Ptotal = Pgas + Pwater vapour; Pgas = 79.7 – 1.9 = 77.8kNm-2
Charles’ law: [V α T] m,P constant
21. Two flask were connected with a narrow tube equipped with a control,
V α T α 1/P one flask contains 300 cm3 of gas A at a pressure of 1.0 x 102 Nm-2 while the
second flask contains 200cm3 of gas B at 2 x 102 Nm-2. Calculate the partial
V = kT/P pressure of A and B if the tap is opened.
PV/T = k Before tap opens
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 Volume of A = 300 cm3
DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE Volume of B = 200 cm3
The physical behavior of mixture of unreacted gases was studied by the After tap opens
originator of Atomic theory. Dalton’s law states that the pressure exerted by
mixture of gases is equal to the sum of their partial pressures, provided they Volume of A = 500 cm3
remain unreacted at a given temperature. Partial pressure is the pressure a gas
Volume of B = 500 cm3
exerts on its own at a given temperature.

Gases becomes wet as a result of collection over water, the total pressure of
gas collected over water is the sum of partial pressure of gas and water vapour Using P1V1 = P2V2
at that temperature.
P2= 0.6 x 10 2 Gas A
Ptotal = Pgas + Pwater vapour
P2= 0.8 x 10 2 Gas B
The pressure of dry gas (without water vapour) is determined by calculating the
Ptotal = I.4 x 10 2
difference between total pressure and vapour pressure.
GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
Explanation of Daltons law using kinetic theory
Gases spreads out in all direction to fill up any available space, gaseous
At constant temperature and volume, the kinetic energy of a gas is fixed. In a
materials such as perfume, exhaust fumes spreads quickly to fill up available
mixture of gases, molecular collision is perfectly elastic (no loss of energy). The
space and gradually disappears in a process called diffusion. Diffusion of gas is
pressure exerted by individual gas with the wall of their respective container is
non directional, it is due to the zig zag motion of gas molecules.
equal and same to pressure exerted as part of a mixture in container of the
same volume.

Example
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Graham’s law of diffusion states that the rate “r” of diffusion of a gas is inversely motion about their mean position. Solids have definite shape and volume. Solid
proportional to the square root of its vapour density or molecular mass “d” at has high density.
constant temperature and pressure.
Liquid
Vapour density = ½ x relative molecular mass
In liquid, particles are relatively spaced out in comparison to solids. The force
Mathematically, {r α 1/ √𝑑} t,p constant that binds the particles or molecules together is not as strong as the force
experienced by particles in the solid state. So the molecules, particles or ions
𝑟1 √𝑑2 𝑟1 √𝑀2
= -------------1 = --------------2 have little freedom of movement. The molecules could move very short
𝑟2 √𝑑1 𝑟2 √𝑀1
distance. The liquid have definite volume but no definite shape. The liquid boils
Examples at a temperature when the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
17. A gas X diffuses through a porous partition at the rate of 3 cm3/sec, atmospheric pressure.
Determine the molecular mass of X, if it takes 15 cm3 of Hydrogen to diffuse Gas
under the same condition.
In gases, the particles, or molecules are widely spaced out. The force that
Use equation 2 and take square root of both sides to determine Mx. Answer = matter binds the molecules of gas together is very weak. The molecules have
50. greater freedom of movement.
18. if 100cm3 of Oxygen diffuses in 4 secs and 50 cm3 of gas Y diffused in 3 secs, They could move about freely in space. Gases have no definite shape and
calculate the relative molecular mass of Y? volume. Gas molecules move about randomly, colliding with one another and
Firstly, calculate the rate and use equation 2 to determine My. My = 72. the walls of the container.

The lower the relative molecular mass of a gas the faster the rate of diffusion, Properties of Gases
Hydrogen gas diffuses faster than O2, CO2 and SO2 A substance is a gas if it boils below room temperature
KINETIC THEORY OF GAS, LIQUID AND SOLIDS 1. gas expands to fill available space
Kinetic theory is the theory which deals with the way in which the 2. Gases have low density
arrangement of the particles of a substance determine the properties of
the substance and the state in which the substance is likely to be found 3. under condition of high pressure and low temperature, gases turns to liquid
under given conditions. in a process called liquefaction or condensation (as observed in gas cylinders)

4. Gas molecules exerts pressure and undergo diffusion.

Solid 5. Gases undergo vibratory, rotatory and translatory motion(zig zag); because
the molecules are far apart and independent
In solids, the particles or atoms are closely packed. The force that binds the
molecules of the solid together is very strong. The molecules or particles in solid Kinetic theory of Gases
have no freedom of movement. However, they show or exhibit vibrational
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The theory was postulated to account for and explain the general behavior of ACID BASES AND SALT
solids, liquids and gases in terms of the cohesive forces that exist between their ACIDS
particles. The following are the postulations that explains the behavior and Acids are classified as organic and inorganic depending on their source.
properties of ideal gas. Organic acids occur naturally in plants and animals) The following are examples
of organic acids: Ethanoic acid from vinegar, Lactic acid from milk, citric acid
1.A gas is comprised of large number of tiny molecules in a state of constant from lime and lemon, amino acid from protein, fatty acid from fat and oil,
random motion Palmitic acid from palm oil, methanoic acid from bee and ant sting etc.
Acids are also classified on basis of strength as WEAK (organic acids) and
2. Gas molecules collides with one another and with wall of container
STRONG acid (mineral or inorganic acid), weak acid ionizes partially in water
3. The volume of gases are negligible as they expand to fill available space while a strong acid ionizes completely in water.

4. Collision between gas molecules is perfectly elastic (No loss of energy, which
results in decreased speed). inorganic acids otherwise called mineral acids, they are man--made acid
synthesized from mineral ores. Examples are HCl, H2SO4, HNO3.
5. The average kinetic energy of the molecule is directly proportional to 1. Arrhenius definition of acid and base
temperature.
acid interacts with water to produce Hydroxonium ion, H3O+ in aqueous
Kinetic theory of liquids solution HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
General properties of Liquids CH3COOH + H2O → H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-
A substance is a liquid if it melts below room temperature When an acid dissolves in water, it dissociates to produce hydrogen ion, which
1.Liquid are without shape and will take the shape of the containing vessel combines readily with water to form aqueous hydroxonium ion H3O+

2. the particles have no fixed position and regroups easily, Hence a liquid can 2. Bronsted Lowry concept
flow According to Bronsted Lowry, an acid is a proton donor,
3. Liquid are incompressible due to close contact between their particles HCl + NH3 → NH4+ + Cl-
4. liquids undergo vibratory, rotatory but no translatory motion. Acid base CA CB
5. liquids also undergo diffusion albeit slowly. H2O + NH3 → NH4+ + OH-
6. liquid particles at the surface can undergo evaporation if they acquire Acid base CA CB
enough kinetic energy to overcome intermolecular forces.
The HCl is the Bronsted Lowry acid (proton donor) and NH3 is the Bronsted
Lowry base (proton acceptor)

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In Bronsted Lowry acid-base reaction, the acid gives up its proton and becomes H2SO4(aq)+ CaO → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
conjugate base (it can now accept proton). Conversely, the original base H2SO4(aq)
accepts proton and becomes a conjugate acid as it can donate its proton.
PREPARATION OF ACIDS
3. Lewis definition of Acid and Base 1. Acid is prepared by the dissolution of an acid anhydride in water. An
A Lewis acid is any substance that can accept a pair of nonbonding electrons acid anhydride is a nonmetallic oxide which dissolves in water to form acid
e.g. H+, H3O+, AlCl3. solution. Some examples of acid anhydride are: Carbon(iv)oxide,
NH3 + H+ ➔ NH4+ Sulphur(iv)oxide, Sulphur(vi)oxide etc.
H2O + H +
➔ H3O+ i. CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
4NH3 + Cu2+ ➔ [Cu(NH3)4]2+ ii. SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
NH3 + HCl → NH4+ + Cl- ii. SO3 + H2O → H2SO4(aq)
LB LA 2. Acid is prepared by the displacement of a weak acid or a volatile acid
A Lewis base is any substance that can donate a pair of nonbonding electron (from its salt) by a strong acid.
e.g OH-, simple anions with electron pair can act as Lewis base by donating i. 2KNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + HNO3(aq)
these electron (Cl-, H-, Cl-, SO42-) ii. 2NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + HCl(g)
Iii. HCl(g) + H2O → HCl(aq)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACID The order of decreasing strength of acid is H2SO4>
1. Acids turn wet blue litmus red, HCl>HNO3>H2SO3>H2S>H2CO3. Concentrated H2SO4 will displace or liberate
2. Concentrated forms of strong acids are corrosive (i.e. burning effect other acids from their salt.
on skin) When dilute HCl is added to CO32- salts, CO2 is produced which is weakly acidic
3. Dilute acids have sour taste. Vinegar and unripe fruit have sour taste in water
due to the presence of acid in them. 2HCl + Na2CO3 → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS USES OF ACIDS

1. Acids react with highly electropositive metals like zinc, magnesium 1. They are used in the manufacture of drugs, fertilizers, soaps and detergents.
and iron to liberate hydrogen gas. 2. Industrially, some acids are used as:
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) i. Drying agents
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(s) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) ii. Oxidizing agents
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) iii. Catalysts
2HCl(aq) + Fe(s) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2. Acids reacts with trioxocarbonate(iv) and hydrogentrioxocarbonate(iv) BASE
salts to liberate carbon(iv)oxide A base is an oxide or hydroxide of a metal e.g. CaO, MgO, K2O, NaOH, KOH etc.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 most bases are insoluble in water, the soluble bases (NaOH, KOH, NH4OH,
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(OH)2) are called alkali
K2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2O + CO2
3. Acids reacts with base to form salt and water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
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