Module 1: COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Introduction
Communication is a vital part of our daily routines. We sit in school and listen to teachers. We
read books and magazines. We talk to friends, watch television, and communicate over the
Internet. The word communication is used in common talk, usually, to mean speaking or writing
or sending a message to another person. Communication is really much more than that. It
involves ensuring that your message has reached the target audience, (that is, the persons to
whom it is sent) and that the receiver understands and responds as you want them to. It also
involves ensuring that you yourself able to understand, interpret, and respond to messages that
you receive.

What is communication?
Communication is the process by which information is shared between individuals and/or
organizations by means of previously agreed symbols (words, signs, pictures, sounds etc.)
through a defined channel. The symbols must be understood by the person or persons with
whom we intend to communicate. Both must assign the same meaning to the symbols used;
otherwise, there is miscommunication. Unless there is a common understanding of the symbols,
it is not possible to communicate. This definition implies that communication is the exchange
of ideas, opinions and information through written or spoken words or actions.
The process of communication is successful only when the receiver understands an idea as the
sender intended it. Both parties must agree not only on the information transmitted but also on
the meaning of that information. Therefore meaning is crucial in communication, where no
meaning is transferred no communication has taken place.

Effective communication
Effective communication is communication that is clearly and successfully delivered, received
and understood.Effective communication takes place only when the listener clearly understands
the message that the speaker intended to send. In other words a speaker transmits a message and
must ensure that the message is delivered clearly. A listener takes delivery of the message and
must be an active listener.
Some skills associated with effective communication include:

 Being a good listener

 Using and recognizing body language and non-verbal communication
 Taking control of emotion and stress
 Understanding and empathizing with others

Communication is effective only when both the sender and the receiver are focused on the act of
communication. While the sender must sharpen and improve skills of speaking and writing, the
receiver must improve skills of listening and reading.

Functions/Reasons of communication
There are many good reasons why we communicate so much. We actually need to communicate
physically, socially and psychologically.

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Physically, we need to communicate just to stay healthy. Socially isolated people are two to
three times more likely to die prematurely than are people with strong social ties. In fact,
researchers have found poor communication and loneliness to increase the likelihood of many
serious diseases, including heart disease and cancer.

Socially, we need to communicate in order to feel included, to feel affection, and to feel some
sense of control over our lives. To feel a sense of inclusion, we must develop relationships where
we have a sense of belonging. To feel affection, we must develop relationships where we
experience a sense of caring and being cared for. And in order to feel a sense of control, we must
communicate some degree of influence over our environment.

Psychologically, we need to communicate so as to develop a sense of identity as human beings,

of who we are as related to other human beings. More specifically, we need to communicate for
the following concrete reasons:
 To inform and being informed- Most of us spend hours each day in a reciprocal acts
of informing and being informed. We ask and answer questions etc.
 To express feelings- this is achieved when we share our disappointments and
triumphs, congratulate each other, communicate sympathy. In doing this we invite
others to offer the emotional support we need.
 To express imagination- here, communication is used to express and describe the
fictitious events, people, and ideas. Normally used in storytelling, jokes, drama etc for
entertaining purposes.
 To perform social rituals- This is when communication is used to satisfy social
conventions. For example, we shake hands or say how are you in our first meetings
because it is a communication ritual formalised.Though in question form but the
respondent completes the ritual by repeating the same words.
 To persuade and motivate others- communication is used to attempt to influence the
thoughts and behaviors of others. E.g. Politicians convincing voters to vote for them.
Product advertisements etc.
Besides the above concrete reasons, other reasons as to why we communicate of which stem
from the comparative advantage nature of human beings include:
 To meet physical and physiological needs e.g. food, shelter, clothing etc without which as
human beings we are not able to survive.
 To pass on information or to receive information
 For decision making purposes
 To establish and maintain mutual relationships
 To entertain and be entertained

The Process of Communication

In order to analyse the activity of communication, we must know the process and the elements
involved in the process of communication.

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There are seven elements or factors which make up the process of communication to be
effective:
 Source /Sender, is the one who initiates the action of communicating.
 Audience/Receiver is the person(s) for whom the communication is intended.
 Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of
communication.
 Message/ Content is the information conveyed.
 Medium /Channel is the means or method used for conveying the message.
 Feedback is the receiver's response to the communication as observed by the sender.
 ] Environment /Context is the background in which the communication takes place.

Each of these is complex; any analysis of communication has to take into account the various
possibilities of each of these. The process of communication involves decisions and activities by
the two persons involved, the sender and the receiver.

Basic Model of Communication

The sender initiates the process of communication. He/she has to be clear about the purpose (or
goal or objective) of the communication and about the target audience (or receiver) of the
communication; that is, the sender decides why and to whom to send a message. We
communicate because we want to make someone do something or take some action, or think or
feel in a certain way, that is, to influence the person.

The sender has to decide what information to convey and create the message (or content) to be
conveyed by using words or other symbols which can be understood by the intended receiver.
The process of putting the idea into symbols is called encoding; in order to encode, the sender
has to select suitable symbols which can represent the idea, and can be understood by the
receiver.

The sender also chooses' a suitable channel or medium (like mail, e-mail, telephone, face-to-
face talk,) by which to send the message. The choice of the medium depends on several factors
like urgency of the message, availability and effectiveness of a medium, and the relationship
between the two communicants.

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Finally, the sender tries to note the effect of the message on the receiver; that is, he checks
whether the receiver has got the message, how the receiver has responded to the message and
whether he has taken the required action; this information about the receiver's response is called
feedback.

Sender's functions make up half the process of communication. The functions of the sender are:
 Being clear about the goal/purpose of the communication.
 Finding out about the understanding and needs of the target audience.
 Encoding the required information and ideas with symbols to create the message to suit
the receiver/ audience.
 Selecting the medium to send the message.
 Making efforts to get feedback, which is, finding out the response of the target audience.

The receiver becomes aware that a message has arrived when he perceives it with his senses (he
may see, hear, feel, etc). The receiver attends to the message and interprets it. The process of
translating the symbols into ideas and interpreting the message is called decoding. Interpreting is
a complex activity; it involves using knowledge of the symbols, drawing upon previous
knowledge of the subject matter, ability to understand, attitudes and values, in order to create
meaning.

The receiver understands and interprets the message on the basis of earlier knowledge. The
meaning that a receiver gives to the words and other symbols is influenced by his/her knowledge,
intelligence, past experience and relation with the sender. If the two have a common field of
experience, the receiver's understanding of the message will be closer to what the sender
intended.

The receiver also feels a reaction to the message; this reaction may be conscious or unconscious;
it may cause some change in the receiver's facial expression. It definitely leads the receiver to
think. The receiver may take some action, if required. He may also reply to the message. This
response or reply is feedback.
Receiver's functions complete one cycle of the process of communication. The functions of the
receiver are:

 Attending to the received message, that is, listening, reading or observing

 Decoding the received message
 Interpreting and understanding the meaning of the message
 Responding to the message
 Giving feedback to the sender of the message

This is a simplified description of a single cycle in the process of communication.

Communication really takes place in several cycles and the two persons take turns and
alternately carry out functions of sender and receiver.
Both, the sender and the receiver have important functions in the communication process; it can
be successful only if both are efficient and attentive

Types of Communication
a) Basing on the communication medium used

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There are two types of communication; Communication through words which is called verbal
communication and communication through other symbols which is called non-verbal
communication.

1. Verbal Communication
The term 'verbal' is colloquially used to mean oral but in communication studies, 'verbal' means
by using words and language. It includes both written and oral. Most of our communication is
done by using language; we speak and write whenever we have to convey information and ideas,
to discuss, to motivate, to appreciate, or to warn, reprimand, complain, and so on. We may do
any of these things orally or in writing.
Verbal communication is the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally. It
is usually done by word of mouth and a piece of writing.
Verbal Communicationis further divided into two categories:
Oral Communication
Written Communication

Oral Communication

Oral communication is the communication that uses spoken words. It includes face-to-face
conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet etc..
In oral communication, communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of
speaking.

Written Communication
mWritten communication is the communication that uses written signs or symbols. A written
message may be printed or hand written. In written communication, message can be transmitted
via email, letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the
vocabulary & grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.

2. Non-Verbal Communication
Nonverbal communication refers to sending or receiving wordless messages. It includes all
things, other than words and language that can convey meaning. For example, graphics like
pictures, maps, charts, graphs and diagrams in a written document, and body language and voice
qualities in speech. Non verbal communication involves the use of symbols, signs, gesture,
body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions.

Forms/codes of Non-verbal communication

a) Non verbal aspects of written communication
i. Color- may convey different meanings e.g Red- may mean danger, green may
mean life. In traffic lights Red means “stop”, yellow means “attention” and green
means “pass”.
ii. Diagrams, graphs and charts- these represent different information especially the
statistical ones. They are used to show relationships of information.
iii. Maps- they represent a territory and are used to convey the space relationship
between places. Also they are used to show direction of places.

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b) Signs and signals
A sign is a mark used to represent something e.g. + for “plus” skull and
crossbones for “danger”. Signs usually have fixed meanings. A signal is a
previously agreed movement which serves to warn or command. e.g. a coming of
a green light is a signal “to go ahead” or firing a gun up in gatherings is a signal
“to disperse”.
c) Auditory symbols
Are sounds that are used to convey certain meaning e.g. sirens used to warn about
enemy or warning about fire/accident. Whistles are used to instruct something in
sports or in police army to call members to assemble.
d) Body language – refers to the changes that occur in the body position and movements
that show what the person is feeling or thinking.
i. Clothing and accessories – refers to the kind of clothes one wears can make an
identification of where he/she works or belongs. e.g combats for soldiers or
militia, helmets for masons, or motorbike riders
ii. Postures – is the way we hold ourselves or the way we stand or sit. e.g. stiff
postures shows tensions, comfortable leaning back shows a relaxed mood, leaning
forward in conversation shows listener’s interest.
iii. Facial expressions – this can show one’s interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress,
shame, contempt, anger or fear. e.g. a frown/ yawns may convey displeasure,
raised eye brows may convey disbelief or surprise, smile may convey satisfaction
or joy, eye contact may convey attention/ surprise, avoiding eye contact may
convey that the speaker is lying or is shy.
iv. Gestures – refers to the movement of hands/head/body and these movements are
natural accompaniment of speech. A person who does not make any movement
while speaking appears somewhat stiff and mechanical.

e) Paralanguage is the non-verbal aspects of the spoken word.It includes the qualities of
the voice, the way we use our voice, as well as the sounds we make without uttering
words. Paralanguage describes the vocal quality of a spoken message such as, volume,
pitch, speed.

i. Volume is the loudness or softness, which can be consciously adjusted to the

number of persons in the audience and the distance between the speaker and the
listeners; speaking too loud shows lack of self-command or abrasive nature.

ii. Pitch is the highness or lowness of your voice; a high-pitched voice is often
unpleasant, and suggests immaturity or emotional disturbance; a frightened person
speaks in a high pitched voice. It is better to begin softly, in a low pitch and raise
the volume and pitch as required. e.g. Do-le-mi-so fe la ti do.

iii. Rate/Speed –How rapidly or slowly you speak. Rapid speech indicates
excitement; we increase speed of speaking to tell an interesting story, and reduce
speed to explain a difficult idea.

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 iv. Hesitations and non-fluencies which form a part of spoken language. Sounds
like Er-er, Mmmm-, indicate that the speaker is hesitating or cannot find the next
word to say. Sounds like, Ahem! huh! Ah-ha! Ouch! Oh-ok! Are used to convey
various ideas or emotions.

v. Silence can be a very effective way of communication. It is not a negative

absence of speech but a positive withdrawal or suspension of speech. Short
silences or pauses are very effective in giving emphasis to words. In
presentations, silence can be used effectively to emphasize a point.

In a face-to-face situation, silence may indicate several things. Facial expression

and posture may indicate the feeling behind the silence. It may mean that the
person is not sure what to say, or is so full of feeling as to be unable to speak.
Sympathy with someone who has suffered loss is often best expressed by keeping
silent rather than speaking. Some feelings like anger or displeasure can also be
expressed by keeping silent.

Nonverbal Codes and verbal codes work together to perform six functions:
 To repeat- Occurs when the same message is sent verbally and nonverbally
 To emphasize- The use of nonverbal cues to strengthen your message
 To complement- The verbal and nonverbal codes add meaning to each other and expand
on their message alone
 To contradict- Verbal and nonverbal conflict. e.g. When you are angry with somebody
you may say you are fine but non- verbally you show uncomfortability with a person
 To substitute-No use of verbal language at all.
 To regulate-Used to monitor and control interactions with others.

Characteristics of Non- verbal communication

Non- verbal communication has a number of characteristics that distinguish it from other
communication system:
 May be unintentional
 Nonverbal communication consists of multiple codes
When non- verbal codes work together to send the same message their impact is
intensified
 Nonverbal communication is immediate, continuous and natural. They occur when are in
a face to face situation
 Nonverbal communication is both universal and cultural have socially shared meaning.

Non-verbal communication can be independent of verbal communication; but verbal

communication is always accompanied by non-verbal communication. Nonverbal methods can
be used as a substitute for words like the red colour to mean danger, or nodding the head to mean
"yes." Or both may be used together as when we shake the head and also say "no." Sometimes, a
gesture like slapping the hand on the table may be used with words like, "We must do it," to
emphasize the point.
b) Basing on Purpose and Style
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Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears
their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:
 Formal Communication
 Informal Communication
Formal Communication
In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style.
Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergo formal pattern. In
formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal
communication.
Informal Communication
Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is established for societal
affiliations of members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It usually
happens among friends and family. In informal communication use of slang
words, foul language is not restricted. Usually informal communication is
done orally and using gestures.Informal communication, unlike formal
communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. It helps in building
relationships.
c) Basing on Levels/Settings of communication
Basing on the domains through which communication can occur, Communication can be
classified into six types:
 Intrapersonal Communication. This is the kind of communication that takes place within
an individual. It is in that you deal with yourself directly, arguing and discussing back
and forth, giving yourself constant feedback, and certainly constructing meanings.
 Interpersonal Communication. This takes place between two people. Communication
becomes interpersonal to the extent that the people involved can see each other’s
uniqueness and can explain and predict each other’s behaviour on the basis of that
uniqueness.

 Small Group Communication. This kind of communication takes place within a small
number of people. Between 3-15 and not exceeding 20 people e.g. in a seminar, tutorial
class. It takes place in a context where every person can participate actively with the
others.

 Large Group Communication. This is communication that takes place between 15-60
people and not exceeding 100. For example in a lecture room of about 80 students.

 Public Communication. This is similar to large group communication except that the
numbers exceed 100 and people are always gathered in one place such as a political rally
at the constitutional square or freedom square. Just one or few members talk, while the
rest of the group serves as an audience. This speaker-audience relationship implies that
there is less feedback than in small group communication. Feedback is certainly exhibited
through non verbal responses like applause, boos. Due to this lack of interaction, the

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 speaker is held responsible to plan and structure remarks than may be felt by the speaker
in smaller setting.

 Mass Communication. It occurs when a message is constructed and transmitted so that

many people, in different places and often at different times, can receive the same
message. This is the kind of communication to a dispersed audience and it is always
mediated. For instance the radio, television, internet are part of the mass media that
transmit to a dispersed audience. Feedback is greatly delayed as the speaker and the
audiences are in different places.
Note:
In each of the above settings one has to have both sufficient Receptive (listening and reading)
and productive( writing and speaking) skills to effectively communicate once encountered in
such a situation that requires you act as a communicator be it at school, home, professional work,
occupational work or in any other public domain.

Means/Channel/Media of Communication
A medium (plural: media or mediums) is the means of transmitting or conveying a message.
Some media carry written words and/or pictures/graphics (like the mail) and other media carry
the voice (like telephone). Electronic media can carry both voice and written material.

Conventional Media of Communication

Media which have been in use for a long time and depend on traditional carriers are called
conventional for convenience and to distinguish them from the modern media based on advances
in electronics. They include:
 Mail – letters or parcels sent by post
 Courier - a company or employee of a company that transports commercial packages and
documents.
 Hand delivery
 Telegraph - a machine used to transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses that
can be converted into data.
 Telex (short form of Teleprinter Exchange) an international system of telegraphy with
printed messages transmitted and received by teleprinters using the public
telecommunications network. Messages can be sent and received 24 hours a day.

Modern Media of Communication

Most communication in the more modern companies is done by electronic media. These are
media which transmit signals instantly from any source to any destination in the world by
modern electronic technology. They include:
 Telephone
 Cellular phone
 Voice mail
 Fax
 E-mail
 Teleconferencing
 Internet

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Choice of a Medium/Channel
You need to consider several aspects in choosing a medium for a particular message. The main
aspects are:
 The type of audience you want to reach.
 The speed with which the message should be conveyed: The pressure of time and the
distance between the sender and the receiver influence the choice of the medium. Some
media are faster and can travel distances rapidly, like the telephone, the fax and the e-
mail; these media also have the advantage of being person to person.
 Need for confidentiality of the message is an important consideration. The choice will
certainly be influenced by requirement of secrecy; all media do report on a customer's
credit standing, demands for overdue payment, and so on, are confidential. They cannot
be sent by media like telegram or telex or fax even if they are urgent.
 Need for accuracy in transmission is not the same for all messages. If the content to be
transmitted is mainly data, you make the choice for accuracy and speed in transmitting.
 Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor. Sending a message by hand
delivery is more reliable than ordinary mail; registered post is more reliable than ordinary
mail.
 Cost of the medium and its relative importance and urgency.
 Availability of a particular medium to the sender and to the receiver is obviously an
affecting factor. You can use only those media which both you and the intended receiver
can access. You may have a fax machine but if the receiver does not have one and has no
arrangements for receiving a fax message, you cannot use that medium.
 Feedback capacity of the medium: For some messages, you need immediate feedback;
you have to use a medium which will enable you to get it at once, like the telephone.
 Availability of hard copy for record.
 Formality of the medium must be suitable to content of the message. A letter of
congratulation is more formal and has a different effect from conveying the same
message orally.
 Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor.

Within each of these, there are further decisions to be made. Written messages are transmitted by
the mail, courier, telegraph, telex, fax, E-mail, notice boards and bulletin boards, newspapers,
magazines. Oral messages are carried by air vibrations, the microphone/loud-speaker, the
telephone, cellular phone, voice mail and the radio. The cinema and the TV are the most
powerful media as they can transmit all types of messages, written, oral, visual and auditory.

Barriers to Communication
People in the world are not exactly alike. Cultures or countries are not the same. These
differences, however, can cause problems in conveying your meanings. Each person’s mind is
different from others. As a result, message sender’s meanings and the receiver’s response are
affected by many factors, such as :
 Semantic barriers
 Physical Barrier
 Psychological barriers
 Emotional barriers
 Perceptual barriers

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  Barriers involving values attitudes etc

a) Semantic Barrier
A basic principle of communication is that the symbols the sender uses to communicate
messages must have the same meaning in both the sender’s and receiver’s minds. You can never
be sure that the message in your mind will be clearly sent to your receiver. The world is full with
errors, as a result of differences in semantic (meaning) understanding.
If someone talks to you in Italian, and you don’t know Italian, this is semantic barrier. Meaning
exists in the minds, not in the words.

Problem in Conventions of Meaning

Denotation
A denotation is usually the dictionary definition of a word. Denotative meanings name Objects,
people or events without indicating positive or negative qualities. Such words as car, desk, book,
house, and water convey denotative meanings. The receiver has a similar Understanding of the
thing in which the word is used.

Connotation
A connotation is an implication of a word or a suggestion separate from the usual definition.
Some words has connotative meanings, that is, qualitative judgments and personal reactions.
The word man is denotative, father, prophet, brother are connotative. Some words have positive
connotations in some contexts and negative meanings in others. For example, slim girl and slim
chances.
The denotation of this example is a red rose with a green stem. The connotation is that it is a
symbol of passion and love - this is what the rose represents. The denotation is a brown cross.
The connotation is a symbol of religion, according to the media connotation. However, to be
more specific this is a symbol of Christianity.

Stop Sign
Denotation—Stop (even without words, we recognize the meaning from the shape and color)
Connotation—Risk (accident or ticket)

b) Physical Barriers
Communication does not consist of words alone. Another set of barriers is caused by your own
physical appearance, your audience, or the context of the document or the presentation. Your
ideas, however good and however skillfully imparted, are at the mercy of various potential
physical barriers.
 For Writing: There is a whole barrage of possible physical blocks, jammed or jagged
margins, fingerprints or smudges, unclear photocopies, unreadable word processor
Printout, water or coffee, tea spots etc.
 For Speaking: Mumbling, not enunciating, speaking too quickly, noises become of
hissing ventilation.

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 c) Psychological Barriers
Because of the changing world, everyone has his own concept of reality. Also, human beings,
sensory perceptions – touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste are limited, and each person’s mental
filter is unique. In our daily interaction with others, we make various abstractions, inferences and
evaluations of the world around us.

d) Emotional Barriers
One possible psychological block is emotional, you may be emotionally block if you are
announcing a new policy you may become popular or unpopular:

e) Perception of Reality: The perceptual problem is that people think differently

Slanting -Is unfair in factual reporting. When presenting some particular facts, you include
your own biased ideas into it, you make slanting statement. Try not to let personal preferences
affect your factual reporting of information.

Inferring- Conclusions made by reasoning from evidence are called inferences. We make
assumptions and draw conclusions even though we are not able to immediately verify the
evidence. Some inferences are both necessary and desirable; others are risky, even dangerous.

Necessary Inferences- When we reach a foreign country, we are sure that we will be treated
politely. When we post a letter, we infer that it will reach its destination. Conclusions we make
about things we have not observed directly can often be against our wishes.

f) Barriers Involving Values, Attitudes etc.

Both personality and attitude are complex cognitive process. The difference is that personality
usually is thought of as the whole person whereas attitude may make up the personality. The
term attitude describes people and explains their behavior. More precisely an attitude can be
defined as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way towards some object.

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For example: Namei does not like night shift, so his attitude is negative towards his work
assignment.
A receiver’s attitude toward a message can determine whether it is accepted or rejected. The
effectiveness is influenced also by the values, attitudes, and opinions of the communicators.
People react favorably when they receive agreeable message. Receivers’ views of the
information will affect their response. This response could be what the sender desires or just the
opposite. Occasionally people react according to their attitudes toward a situation rather than to
the facts.
Closed Mind-Some people hold rigid views on certain subjects. They maintain their rigid
views regardless of the circumstances. Such a closed minded person is very difficult to
communicate to.
Sender’s Credibility
Other factors affecting attitudes, opinions and responses are;
 Environmental stresses
 Personal problems
 Sensitivity
A barrier to communication is anything that distorts the process of communication. It makes one
miss parts of a message or the whole message or creates misunderstanding of a message or
information. There are many barriers to communication. However, in this context they will be
categorized as follows:
a)Internal barriers: such as those inhabited by the people in the process of communication e.g.
their moods, preoccupations, attitude, taste and preferences, one who stammers etc
b) External barriers: this is anything in the communication environment that distorts the process
of communication e.g. noise. Noise can be physical such as breakdown in computers, telephone
etc. It could be from unwanted music, children shouting etc

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MODULE 2: GRAMMATICAL SKILLS
PARTS OF SPEECH
Words are the basic elements in any language which are formed out by combining letters to give
meaning. Parts of speech are the basic words combined together to form utterances or speech in a
language.

Expressing Nouns
Wren and Martin (2004)1 define noun as a word used as the name of a person, place or thing.
This definition does not complete the meaning of the noun, this is because there are words that
are nouns and yet they do not name thing, person or thing. How can we say about beauty,
kindness, judgment, etc.? I agree with Melaku, 2 that a noun is a word that we use for giving a
name to a person, place, things, quality, idea or action.
There are four characteristics that help to identify nouns:
 They are preceded by determiners (a, the, an, some, etc.)
 They are headwords of Noun Phrases e.g. The most dangerous person (HW)
 They can change into singularity and plurality, i.e. child- children
 They can have special endings, e.g. child-hood.

Types of Nouns
 Proper vs. Common Nouns
Proper nouns are nouns that can stand alone, they do not allow plurality, they have no
determiners and normally they start with capital letters. They are nouns of particular people or
things. In example [1] below the word Malegeza is proper noun since it agrees with the three
characteristics of proper noun.
[1] Malegeza is not a naughty boy.
Common nouns are nouns given in common to people, things or places. In the sentence [1]
above, the word boy is a common noun since it is given to a common boy who is not particular
but anyone. The major features of common nouns are that they begin with small letters in the
middle of the sentence, they take articles and determiners and finally they allow singularity and
plurality.
 Countable vs. uncountable nouns
1
Wren and Martin; High School English Grammar and Composition; 2004: 05.
2
Melaku, Simplified English Grammar pg. 2

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Countable Nouns are those nouns that can be counted either by single object or group of objects.
This kind of noun allows one to find the total number of things or people. Countable nouns can
be changed from singular to plural. The plural of count nouns can be done by adding suffixes –s,
-es, -ies, or putting the nouns into groups so we count them considering these groups. For
instance, a chair, group of people, an army of soldier, and or a swamp of bees are some of
common nouns.
 Non-Count or Mass nouns
These are nouns that cannot be counted. They are liquid, water, and floor and wood. It is
difficult to find the total number of these objects because of their nature. These nouns are always
in singular form. Thus, they have no indefinite articles a, an. Sometimes, these nouns are
preceded by some, any, little, etc. some uncountable nouns are abstract nouns while others are
substances that are considered uncountable (Thomson & Martinet 1986)3
Examples of uncountable nouns are shown in the table 1 below:

Table 1: Uncountable Nouns

W a t e r S u g a r Suggestion
M i l k F l o o r Information
a l c o h o l s a l t n e w s

furniture S o a p L o v e n e s s
firewood R i c e H a t r e d
w a l l S a n d Loneliness

 Abstract vs. Concrete Nouns

Abstract nouns are nouns that cannot be seen, felt, touched or smelled. Wren and Martin (2004) 4
assert that an abstract noun is name of a quality, action or state considered apart from the object
to which it belongs. Examples of abstract nouns are kingdom, hatred, blackness, childhood,
strength, theft, judgment, wisdom and gospel.

3
Thomson & Martinet, 1986
4
Wren Martin (ibid) pg 6.

15
Concrete nouns are nouns that can be seen, touched or even felt. These nouns are definite and
specific. According to Kajare (2007),5 concrete nouns are nouns that refer to tangible or physical
objects or substances which can be counted and uncounted.
For instance; chair, goat, salt, sand etc.

Expressing Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that is used to replace or represent the nouns. They are used instead or in
the place of nouns or noun phrase. Examples, he, she, it, I, we, you, her, that etc.

Characteristics of Pronouns
 They have similar function as NP, i.e. they can be subject or object
He loves her.
 They do not allow modification
The man with black suit
* He with the black suit.
 They differentiate human vs non-human
He/she/I/ We - for human and it for non-human.
 They distinguish singular and plural
 They indicate persons

1 I W e

2 Y o u Y o u

3 He/she/it They

Types of pronouns
There are many types of pronouns:
 Personal pronouns
These pronouns are used to identify the speaker or a person
5
Kajare, J.S. English language for Advanced level Students; 2007:58-59

16
 E.g. I, we, you, they, she, he
 Possessive pronouns
They show possession (attributive & predicative)
e.g. my, her, his, our, their for attributive and mine, hers, his, ours, theirs for predicative,
 Demonstrative PRO: demonstrate the position of the object and the number in relation
to the speaker. Example; these two pens are mine. This sentence tells something that pens
are in plural and are near to the speaker.
{This, this- these,that-those}
 Reflexive PRO: add suffixes self/selves and are used to refer back to the speaker or
hearer who is doing certain action. I will go there myself.
[Myself, ourselves, himself, themselves]
 Relative PRO: used to post modify relative clause. This means that they give more
information about the relative clause. They are different from interrogative pronouns
since they do not ask questions but they add qualities to the clause
That book, which is stolen, has been found. A boy whose mother came here passed the
exam. [Which, where, when, who, whose, that]
 Interrogatives: are used to ask questions,
They include: which, what, where, how, which, etc.
Example: When will you come back? How did it happen?

Expressing Adjectives
Adjective is a word class category that used to modify or give qualities of nouns or pronouns.
Adjectives are used to add something to the meaning of the nouns. The placements of adjectives
differ from language to language.
(2) English A + N: A good child
Swahili N + A: Mtotomzuri
Adjectives are contradicted with adverbs since they have the same forms of structures. What
differentiate them depends on how they are used in sentence construction. How can we identify
adjectives? Sreedharan6 asserts that adjectives are the complements qualifying the subjects; thus,
they do not modify verbs but nouns. The verbs such as ‘to be’, to seem’, to become’, appear,

6
Sreedharan, V. How to Write Correct English, pg 75

17
look, feel, turn, etc. have to be followed by the adjectives rather than adverbs for example: The
president felt sad.
(3) He grew big.
Mwanakombo appears smart
All bold words are adjectives as they add information about nouns and pronouns.
Characteristics of Adjectives
 Adjectives pre modify nouns, e.g. Thebig fat hen.
 Adjectives can be seen in comparative and superlative
Small – smaller, smallest
 Adjectives can occur as complements alone: the house is beautiful
 Most adjectives allow additional of -ly to make it adverb. Happily, kindly, etc.
 Adjectives can be intensified by very, etc.
Avery notorious girl
Suffixes of adjectives are as follow;
(4) -able, -al, -ous, -some, -y, -full, -like, -less, -ive, -ous, -ant, -ish etc.
Functions of adjectives
 They can function as complement or the object or subject:
Mary is beautiful, I will be sad
 Adjectives are used as exclamations
Marvelous!
 Adjectives can post modify nouns
E. g.Anythingnew?Something important?
 They (adjectives) can be shortened (verbless clause)
Call me later if possible
They may appear as the heads of NP, i.e. the unacceptable, you are talking the impossible.

Kinds of Adjectives
Wren and Martin (ibid) propose that adjectives are divided into the following classes or kinds:
 Descriptive adjectives
These adjectives are used to describe or to show the qualities of the nouns or pronouns.
Examples
These are Chinese phones.
Lushoto is very mountainous district.
Mateso is a lazy guy.

18
 The italic words in examples 1 to 3 are descriptive adjectives because they describe the
qualities of corresponding nouns.

 Adjectives of Quantity
These adjectives give or show how much things are involved or how the nouns are meant. These
adjectives answer the question how much.
Examples
I had enough time to think about it.
She spent the whole day reading novel.
Few commodities were sold.
Again, examples above indicate quantity adjectives. These are the ones with italic and so they
show how much the corresponding nouns are meant.

 Adjectives of Number
These are sometimes called Numerical adjectives. They are used to show the number of
nouns involved. They always answer the question how many nouns.
Mama Masumbuko has twelve children.
He is the first born.
They were neither chosen president of IJASO.
 Demonstrative Adjectives
These are the adjectives that show demonstration which person or thing is meant. It points
out the particular noun in relation to the speaker.
Consider examples below:
This boy is naughty.
Those who came here yesterday.
 Interrogative adjectives
These are the adjectives together with nouns used to ask questions.
Examples
Which road shall I pass?
Whose book is this?

19
Expressing Adverbs
These words are used to modify other word classes such as verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.
Adverbs specify the mode of action of verbs.
Example: yesterday, very, frankly, normally etc.
There are two functions of adverbs. These functions are as defined below:
 They are used to modify other words
I am frankly tired
She spoke to every body
The day after tomorrow
 They are adverbial clause elements E.g. You are leaving tomorrow

Types of adverbs
There are three types of adverbs
 Single adverbs
These are made up of a single adverb i.e. soon, just, alike, etc. Example, I will be
there soon.
 Compound adverbs
They are combined with more than one adverb. E.g. please come early in the morning
It is somehow difficult.
 Complex adverbs
They normally end with suffixes such as –ly as in; normally, occasionally, happily, sandy
rainy, etc.

The Kinds of Adverbs due to their Meanings

Adverbs are further subdivided depending on the meaning they convey:
Space They live in rural (where)
I went to playing ground
Time I will visit him on Saturday (when)
I lived here since 1961
They often go to the dancing hall
Process (manner, instrument, and means) how
She walks slowly
I spoke to the phone
She eats with spoons

Degree You have answered it sufficiently

I ‘mbadly missed you

Modality I certainly accept your proposal.

20
Expressing Verbs
A verb is a word that expresses the event, action, the process or activity done by the subject.
Nouns are doing and action words. Verb refers to the kind of the word that shows the action,
state of being or event done by the subject.

Types of Verbs
According to Thomson and Martinet (1986)7 verbs are identified into two classes, which are:
 Main verbs (V)
 Auxiliary verbs (Aux)

Main Verb
The main verbs stand on their own and give complete meaning of the action. Example walk,
dance, play, sing, etc. because they show the action of doing something. The word goes is the
main verb since it shows the action of moving from one place to another.
Types of Main Verbs
Main verbs are also being subdivided into two types:
Regular verbs: they have special regular ending form used to mark past and past participle
played, danced, jumped, arrived, etc.
Irregular verbs: they have irregular or no special endings when marking past or past participle
come, see, run, eat, write etc.
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs are the verbs that cannot stand alone and give complete meaning. The main
function of the auxiliary verbs is to help the main verbs in its completion of their functions.
Examples of auxiliary verbs include verbs such as be, have, do, may, shall, ought.

Expressing Prepositions
This is a word that shows relationship among words. Prepositions combine with Noun Phrase to
form DP which modifies nouns or verbs.
Examples at, in, on, under, near, beside, inside, with, on behalf of, accordance to etc.
The man with knife
He ran down the river.

PREPOSITION D E S C R I P T I O N
i n
 Inside something, e.g. water is in the
bucket
 At its station, the train is in, the bus is
in
 If someone/somebody is in for it, he/she/it is going to be
punished]
7
Thomson and Martinet, A Practical English Grammar, 1986:105

21
  Used when saying a period of time which is not specific, e.g. in March, in
2014

O n  At the surface of something, like table, floor,

etc.
 P a r t i c u l a r a r e a . e . g . o n y o u r
l e f t
 A b o u t e . g . a r e y o u s t i l l s p e a k i n g o n
i t
 C o n t i n u e e . g . k e e p
o n
 W e a r s o m e t h i n g e . g . p u t y o u r s h i r t
o n
 Written e.g. he drives a car with his name
on
 Used when mentioning the exact date when something happened, e.g. On Friday, on 15th
May

I n t o  In a direction to get inside something, e.g. who is throwing stone into the room? He is going into the
room.
O n t o  In the direction to the top of something, e.g. throw stones into the roof, Don’t jump onto the
table

U n d e r  Below something, he is carrying his book under his arm; put it under the
table

A c r o s s  From one side to another, e.g. walk across the

field

B e h i n d At the back of thing or person e.g My mother is behind the house

O f Used to show what a part belong to or comes from e.g. part of your body
The quality that something has, e.g. the cost of the food, President of Tanzania

O f f Away from a place e.g. take it off the road

Out of bus, train, plane, etc. get off the bus
Not at work, school because of holiday or ill.
No longer liking or wanting something, e.g. I am off my drink nowadays

T o Used to show purpose or intention, e.g. I am going to cook

22
 Used after the verb be to show arrangements or give an order e.g. you are to wait
To say the direction where something or someone goes e.g. they are going to school
Used to show who receives something, told or shown something e.g. who said that to me?

F o r Used to say who is intended to get or use something e.g. he left a message for Vicky
To help someone or something e.g. I carried two buckets for you
Used to talk about a distance e.g. they walked for miles

A l o n g From one end of something to another e.g. along the road or a straight line.

A l o n g s i d e Used to say that things or people exist together at the same tim e
Simon spent a year working alongside the refugees

NB: It is important to know that some prepositions like ‘to’ and ‘for’ may be confusing with
other word categories. For example the preposition to may be confusing with infinitive to. You
can differentiate them by knowing the meaning of preposition to as described above; also
infinitive to is different from preposition to in that infinitive to is always followed by a bare verb.

Similarly, preposition for and conjunction for also confuse. Preposition for can be understood as
well by knowing its meaning as explained above, another quick way to differentiate them is that
preposition for is followed by a noun or pronoun where conjunction for is a substitute of
because, e.g. I came here because you called me = I came here for you called me.

It is advised that one takes time to discuss the meaning of these words which will make him/her
use the language in at ease and striking way.

ARTICLES
Articles are words which appear before nouns. Their function is to modify nouns, i.e. they tell
whether a noun is definite (known) or indefinite (not known) and number (whether a noun is
singular or plural). Articles are found in any language of the world for the same function.
However their place of occurrence differs from language to language. The English language
articles are a, an andthe. You will see that the meaning also depends on what articles appear
before it. For example look at the following sentences:
Please buy me an orange
The orange was so sweet!

The nouns above have different meanings which are introduced by the articles appearing before
them. The noun orange in one above means one orange, but orange in two above means one but
both the speaker and the hearer know the orange which is being discussed about. See the table
below to learn more about English articles.

23
 Article D e s c r i p t i o n

A This article plays the following functions in English:

It tells that the noun after it is singular, e.g. a book
It el s that he noun after it is not specif c, not known by the hearer. A construction like a teacher means that his is not known by the hearer. Thus in sentences a noun not known wil be writ en with article a in its first start. For example, a teacher who taught us English is tal , the teacher comes from central Tanzania. It is important o know that his article is used only before the nouns that heir pronunciations start with a consonant sound, i.e. their pronunciations and not spel ing.

A n This is another article which plays the same functions as the article a. In Linguistics, is cal ed a dif erent ap earance of a morpheme a. Article a becomes an when it ap ears before the nouns which start with a vowel in their pronunciations and not in their ap earance in writ ng. For example se why the noun hour uses article an, it is because pronunciation of the word starts with a vowel sound. It is emphasized here that he functions of article an are the same as those of article a.

T h e This article plays the following functions in English:

It is used before nouns that are plural, for example, you cannot say *a books but the books.
Used before nouns that are known by both the speaker and the hearer; for example when someone says the teacher is here. This means that the teacher is known.
Used when a noun is mentioned for the second time in speaking or writing. See the earlier used example, a teacher who taught us English is tal , the teacher comes from central Tanzania, where the second teacher uses article the.

O t h e r f u n c t i o n s o f a r t i c l e t h e
I t i s u s e d b e f o r e :
 Noun that is unique, for example, the sun, the earth, the sky, the president of Tanzania,
etc.
 Things that are found in the house, e.g. the roof, the window, the bedroom, the kitchen,
etc.
 Things that are shared by the community, e.g. the internet, the market, the stadium,
etc.
 Used before comparatives and superlatives, e.g. the tallest, the shortest in the
class.
 For generic reference, for example when one says the giraffe is good. This means that the class of giraffe is good. The Community Development is good; the whole class of Community Development at a certain institution
is good.

NB: It is important to know that some nouns may appear without nouns. For example, the noun
water, you cannot say *a water, though they may be used with article the when speaking about
the noun water, e.g. the water.

CONJUNCTIONS
These are words which are used to put together other parts of a sentence or phrase. One may say
that they are nails which hold other words together. There are different parts of conjunctions
which are explained below.
 Coordinating conjunctions
 Subordinating conjunctions
 Correlative conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions arefor, and, but, or, yet, so

24
These have the function of joining two equal parts of sentences together, i.e. words, clauses or
phrases. See the following examples
 I bought mangoes and you bought oranges
 My daddy and mummy went to town
 I bought mangoes for you to eat
 I called you but you did not pick the phone
 I will leave tomorrow so you better take your money soon

Subordinating conjunctions
A f t e r n o w t h a t
i n o r d e r ( t h a t ) w h e r e v e r
u n l e s s a s t h o u g h
a l t h o u g h o n c e
i n s o f a r a s w h e t h e r
u n t i l b e c a u s e
a s p r o v i d e d ( t h a t )
i n t h a t w h i l e
w h e n b e f o r e
a s f a r a s s i n c e
l e s t w h y
w h e n e v e r e v e n i f
a s s o o n a s s o t h a t
n o m a t t e r h o w e v e n t h o u g h
w h e r e s u p p o s i n g ( t h a t )
a s i f h o w
i n a s m u c h a s t h a n
t h o u g h i f
i n c a s e ( t h a t ) t h a t
t i l l

These are used to join an independent clause and a dependent (subordinating) clause together.
For example:
 I will give you a gift since you are hard working person
 Tanzania will be a developed country as much as there is plenty of gas in Mtwara
 Simba will beat Yanga though they have a Brazilian manager
 Take some juice with you in case the bus won’t stop at Mombo Restaurant
 I like eating Ugali than eating cooked rice
Activity
Construct at least two sentences for each of the above subordinating conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions

25
either. . .or
Used to show that only one of the two parts of sentence is possible or true, e.g. You can either
come or leave
both. . . and
Used to show two possible things, for example, both Juma and Ali are my friends
neither. . . nor
Used to say that the two arguments are impossible. The verb used in this type of construction is
singular for example, neither Mlundi nor Eliakimu is short.
not only. . . but also
Used to show that the arguments carried in the two constructions were done, possible, etc. For
example, not only does Lundi read story books, but also a very good footballer

Conjugative adverbs

a f t e r a l l i n a d d i t i o n n e x t
A l s o I n c i d e n t a l l y n o n e t h e l e s s
a s a r e s u l t I n d e e d o n t h e c o n t r a r y
B e s i d e s i n f a c t on the other han d
C o n s e q u e n t l y i n o t h e r w o r d s o t h e r w i s e
F i n a l l y I n s t e a d S t i l l
f o r e x a m p l e L i k e w i s e T h e n
F u r t h e r m o r e M e a n w h i l e T h e r e f o r e
H e n c e M o r e o v e r T h u s
H o w e v e r N e v e r t h e l e s s

Along with subordinating conjunctions, conjugative adverbs are used to join independent and
dependent clauses together. In using these adverbs, separate them from the rest of the sentence
by a comma if they appear at the beginning of a sentence; but, use a semicolon before them and a
comma after them when they appear at the middle of a sentence.

Activity
Construct two sentences for each of the above conjugative adverbs.

2.1 ENGLISH TENSES

Introduction
Tense is the relationship between the time of speaking and the time of event. One may be
speaking now about an event that occurred at the time before the speaking [known as past tense],
the event occurring now at the time of speaking [present tense] or speaking about an event to
occur after the time of speaking [known as future tense]. It is very important for a user of any
language to know that any sentence/utterance cannot be separated from the two – sentences and

26
time of event. Perhaps this is why it is said the “English is the tenses.” This particular chapter
introduces you into English tenses and provides you with some practices to make you understand
the tenses well and know how to use them in your daily conversation.
There is an acute debate on how many tenses do we have in English, and generally in all
languages of the world. Some have been arguing that there are three tenses, i.e. present, past, and
future tense; another group has been arguing that there are only two tenses and that the future is
not a tense because a verb does not change its shape to express the time of action. The last group,
and of course the camp which the author supports, argues that there are twelve tenses in
language. Since we agree that a tense is a relationship between an event and the time of
speaking, then there are twelve instances of this relationship. Each of these is delineated below;
the author puts these tenses into three groups, namely, the present group, the past group and the
future group.

The Present Group

 Simple present
 Present continuous
 Present perfect
 Present perfect continuous

Simple Present

It is called simple present because it is used to express about events which occur frequently. One
may argue that it is used to express about objects habits. Think of your habit to drink water, go to
school or job, go to church or mosque, to eat or not to eat Ugali. These are things one will
express by using simple present tense. One peculiar thing about this tense is that the verb in the
tense is the same and it is bare for all persons, except for third person singular only. See how one
may express the issues above using simple present tense.

For all other Persons

I eat Ugali every day. Or I don’t eat Ugali
I go to school.
I teach English.
You teach English
They fast for almost 30 days.

For Third Person Singular

He/she/it eats Ugali

27
 She/he/it teaches English
It/she/he fasts for almost 30 days

Present Continuous

In this tense, the speaker is saying that an action is now and it is still in progress. Therefore, the
speaking is going simultaneously with doing the action being spoken about. This is the tense
that goes with forms such as am, is, are + ing. The type of variation we experience in the simple
present tense is not the case here and any other tense except for the present perfect which we
shall also discuss later. For example,
I am studying English
We are cooking Pilau
You are playing football
They are walking slowly
One would agree with me that the tense [present continuous] is the most well-known and used
tense by English language learners.

Present Perfect

Why do speakers use present perfect? A simple answer is that the speaker wants to show that an
action has been done now and it is complete. If a speaker says nimefungamlango in Kiswahili
then one can see the door closed; nimefuangua, then one can see the clothes hanged under the
sun or somewhere to dry. In this sense, a present perfect is used for actions which have just been
completed at the moment of speaking. In this type of tense speakers use the following structure
of sentences:
For all other Persons
I have closed the door
I have eaten Ugali
I have finished my assignment
I have done my laundry
For Third Person Singular
Just like it is for first person singular present, present perfect also adds –s in the verb, but here –s
is added into the auxiliary have and it changes into has. Thus,
He/she/it has eaten Ugali
She/he/it has finished its assignment
It/she/he has done his laundry

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

28
Here the speaker explains that an action started sometime earlier and it is still in continuation.
One may use this expression in Kiswahili as an instance of a present perfect continuous tense
NimekuanikifundishaKiingerezatanguwakatiule. Thus, the present perfect continuous tense takes
this form: Have + been + ing for all other persons, and has + been + ing for third person singular.
See the following examples:
For all other Persons
I have been teaching English for years now
They have been waiting for Donnas support since 2002
Simba and Yanga have been the best derbies in Tanzania
For Third Person Singular
She has been my favourites
He has been gossiping day and night
It is, however, important to know that one may easily cram the rules for the tenses and still get
problems when it comes into using them. So, the best way to master them is to make practices as
much as possible for easy and comfortable communication.

Past Tense

 Simple past
 Past continuous
 Past perfect
 Past perfect continuous

Simple Past

This tense is used by a speaker to say things which were done before the time of speaking, it may
be some minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, or years ago. It is called simple past, also known
as past tense, because it does not say whether the action was perfective or progressive. This type
of tense does add –edin regular verbs to form past. Remember that some verbs do change their
form or others, like cut, will not change their form when –ed is added. See the following
examples of simple past tense.
I cooked Ugali
I cut my finger when I was slicing onions yesterday
I wrote a letter to my darling
I was happy when I joined the Lushoto Institute of Judicial Education
Activity
Make a list of at least twenty irregular verbs and make sentences from each verb using a simple
past tense.
Past Continuous Tense
Here the speaker speaks of an action which was done in the past but it was progressive. Here the
speaker has an additional element in speaking which we call here “a point of reference.” i.e. I

29
was eating when Juma came in. When Juma came in is what we call a reference point here. Even
when you don’t overtly say the reference point, it is always in your mind (i.e. the speakers’ or the
hearer’s mind). In past continuous we use the form was/we + -ing. See the following examples.
I was teaching Mathematics last year
They were singing waalade
They were playing for Simba before they went to TP Mazembe
Past Perfect
In this tense, the speaker says that an action was done in the past and it was completed before
another. A reference point is usually said overtly in this time of tense. In the tense we use the
form had + -ed. See the following examples:
I had cooked Ugali before Kigodoro passed
I had eaten three pieces when they told me that was dog’s meat
She had a baby when she got married
NB: It is important to know that there are two forms of have:
Have as an auxiliary verb like, I have cooked, they have left, etc.
Have as a main verb, like I have money, they have two cars, etc.

Therefore forming past perfect from the constructions in 2 above, it becomes:

I had had money
They had had two cars
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Here the speaker is speaking of the event which was being done in the past but it was being done
before another. i.e. The action was in progressive and it happened before another thing. In this
type of tense the speaker uses the form: Had + been + ing. See the following examples:
I had been teaching Mathematics for two years before I went to Europe
She had been saying that for a long time.

Future Tense

 Simple future
 Future continuous
 Future Perfect
 Future perfect continuous

Simple Future

This is a tense where a speaker is speaking now but about things which will be done in the time
to come. It may be for the things to happen in a minute, day, week, month or years to come. It is
called simple future because it does not tell if the action is perfective or progressive, just the

30
action will happen in future. In this tense, a speaker uses the form will + verb. See the following
examples:
I will/shall cook Ugali
Simba will defeat Yanga
Yanga will defeat Simba
NB: It is important to learn the differences between will and shall here.
Both will and shall are used to refer things which will happen in future, but shall is used only by
the first person singular “I” and first person plural “we”. Example,
I shall come
We shall buy you a car for your graduation
But
They will come
She will buy you a car for your graduation
However, both first person singular and plural may use will. Then why shall for first person
only? A rational answer is that shall is used for commitments and it is a person who commits,
one can’t make commitment for another person.
Future Continuous
Here the speaker is saying about the event which will happen in future but it will be in
continuation. A speaker uses the form will/shall + -ing. See the following examples:
I will be studying next year
I will be travelling tomorrow afternoon
Future Perfect
Here the speaker is speaking about an event which will happen in time to come, but the action
will be completed before another thing (before a reference point). In this type of tense, a speaker
uses the form will/shall + have + -ed. See the following examples:
I will have cooked Ugali when they arrive from shamba
I shall have graduated my PhD before I get married
They will have spoken good English in 2015

Future Perfect Tense

Here a speaker is speaking about an action which will happen in time to come but it will have
happened before another thing and it will be in progressive. The speaker uses the form will/shall
+ ing. See the following examples:
I will have been cooking Ugali
I will have been dancing Makirikiri
We will have been eating the chicken

As it was highlighted earlier, for any person to speak confidently and understandably, grasping
of tenses in any language is, then, commanding. Accordingly, one needs to have all cares to

31
master the tenses of a language they 8are learning. It is likewise significant to underline here that
the best way to learn to speak a language is to speak it rather than learning the written
descriptions of the language. It is, thus, upon you to learn to speak the forms of the tense we have
described in this chapter, considering that some people may well master the formula and still fail
to speak them.
Sentence
A sentence is a group of words consisted of a subject and a predicate with a complete meaning.A
sentence is a group of words normally made up of subject and predicate that expresses a
complete thought or meaning.
- The subject is the part of the sentence that names whom or what the sentence is about.
- The predicate is the part of the sentence that says something about the subject.
e.g. Dogs were barking ; Peter jumped.
Tomatoes and carrots are colourful vegetables
 Neither the tomato nor the pepper grows underground.
- In the distance flowed a river.
Basing on their purpose, Sentences are in 4 kinds;
- A Declarative – that makes a statement.
- An Imperative – gives a command/ makes a request.
- An interrogative – asks a question.
- An exclamatory – expresses emotions/feelings

Formal agreement in English Sentences

The focus here is that the subject should agree with its verb in terms of number.
- Number refers to the form of a word that indicates whether it is singular or plural.
- Singular subjects require singular verbs while plural subjects require plural verbs.
Example,
The foliage on the trees provides shade.
Paul, along with his friends go/goes to the town.

Mistakes in subject-verb agreement are sometimes made in the following situations;

- When words come between the subject and the verb.
e.g. The sharp fangs in the dog’s mouth look scary.
- When a verb comes before the subject.
e.g. in the distance wasa box of chalks.
- With compound subjects
These are subjects made up of two linguistic units joined by a conjunction.
- Joyce and Brown are a contended couple.
N.B; when subjects are not joined by either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, the verb
agrees with the subject closer to the verb.
8
Note the use of they and themselves in this chapter; you may think that they are wrongly used in some
constructions, but they are used in that way for social reasons.

32
e.g. Neither the negotiator nor the union leaders want the strike to continue.
Neither the union leaders nor the negotiator wants the strike to continue.
 With indefinite pronouns (anyone, somebody, anything, everybody) – these do always
take singular verbs.
Quiz:
 Neither of those hairstyles……….you. Suit/suits
 Both of the puppies…..cute. Look/looks
 Either Lucas or Mwenda … needed. Is/are
 Neither the students nor the teacher……ready for the match. Is/are
 Neither the Speaker nor the members of parliament……… corruption. Accepts/accept
 In far away…..the police stations. Is/ are
 An old chair with broken legs…..ours. Are/is

Pronoun agreement
 A pronoun must agree in number with the word or words it replaces. The word referred to
by a pronoun is called antecedent.
e.g. Asha showed me her wedding ring.
- Students enrolled in the art class must provide their identity cards.
QUIZ: Each of these computers has… Drawbacks.
its/their.

Common Errors in English

- One of a common mistake involves using adjectives in places of adverbs as in :

- Peter needs a haircut bad instead of Peter needs a haircut badly.
- I laugh too loud when I am embarrassed instead of I laugh too loudly when I am
embarrassed.
- She is walking so slow= she is walking so slowly.
- ‘Well and good’
These two words are often confused. Good is an adjective that describes a noun while
‘well’ is usually an adverb describing verbs.
- When Amos got AIDS, he discovered who his ….friends really were. Good/well
- How is your shirt? It is ……good/well
- She has done …. in her examinations. Good/well
- Repetition of subjects in clauses:
- The girl who danced with you *she is my cousin.
- I know Mbalamwezi who *he is her brother.
- Misuse of the word cost in its adjective form.
- Most users are likely to mistakenly say
- something is very ‘costful’ instead of saying
- Something is very costly.
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 - Other errors base on spellings as in: peace/piece; plain/plane; salon/saloon;
principal/principle; whose/who’s; your/you’re
- Accept/except; advice/advise; effect/affect; among/between;

MODULE THREE: LISTENING AND READING SKILS

Meaning of Listening
Listening is the physical reality of hearing what another person says. The listener participates
psychologically with the speaker. In this process there is an active decoding and interpreting of
verbal messages.In short listening is the receiver’s activity in communication.

Comparison between Listening and Hearing

There is often confusion between these two related concepts that is listening and hearing.
However the two concepts are quite different in terms of their implication. Hearing is the process
of collecting the sound waves through the ears and sending them to the brain. Listening involves
hearing and listening with understanding. It involves both body energy and mind in the whole
process. Listening requires both deliberate efforts and keen mind. It needs both physical and

34
psychological efforts. On the other hand, hearing involves perceiving the sound. Hearing is the
physical component of listening. It is a passive activity and effortless.
Listening is a receptive skill. This means that listening is a process in which you do not produce
but receive, deal with and understand a language. This is an essential for good communication.
Listening means attentiveness and interest perceptible in the posture and expression. It implies
decoding i.e. translating the symbols into meaning and interpreting the message correctly.
Listening is an important skill in our daily life, especially when we talk to someone. We have to
understand the person we talk to in order to have a satisfying conversation. No matter how you
communicate, listening is the most important communication techniques one can master. It
involves concentration on what the other person is saying.

Listening as a Function of Communication

Listenin

g belongs to the category of receptive communication skills. Through listening one can acquire
ideas, information, and feelings from other people. Effective communication depends on the
ability to listen properly.
Listening involves communication of oral message between the speaker and the listener. This
serves as a basis for acquisition of information, ideas, attitudes and feelings from the speaker.

Steps of Listening
There are four steps of listening:
1. Hearing
The listener pays attention to the speaker in order to hear the message.
2. Interpretation
Interpretation exploits listener’s vocabulary, knowledge and experience in order to understand
the message.
3. Evaluation
This step allows the listener to decide what to do with the received information. Then he/she is at
liberty of choosing to believe or not believing.
4. Response
The listener’s response to the message may be in words or in body language. Response helps the
speaker to know if the listener has got the message including his/her reaction to it.

Strategies for Developing Listening Skills

Language learning depends on listening. Listening provides the aural input that serves as the
basis for language acquisition and enables learners to interact in spoken communication.

Listening Strategies
These are techniques or activities that facilitate comprehension and recall of listening input.
Listening strategies can be classified according to how the listener processes the input. Listening
strategies can be classified depending on how the listener processes the input.

35
1. Top- down strategy / Background knowledge

This is the listener based strategy; the listener taps into background knowledge of the topic, the
situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge activates a
set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate what will come
next. Top-down strategies include

 Listening for the main idea

 Predicting
 Drawing inferences
 Summarizing

2. Bottom-up strategies are text based; the listener relies on the language in the message, that is,
the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning. Bottom-up strategies
include

 Listening for specific details

 Recognizing cognates
 Recognizing word-order patterns

Types of Listening
a. Active listening: - this occurs when one decide to participate fully in the conversation. It
involves resisting all psychological and physiological distractions and investing mental
and emotional energy in the listening process.
b. Passive listening: - this occurs by exercising little or no energy in the listening process
e.g. listening with drifting mind. Passive listener cannot expect to understand much about
the message.

The Process of Listening

a. Receiving: - during listening one receives both verbal and nonverbal messages, not only
the words but also the gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice etc.
b. Understanding: - this involves learning what the speaker means. One put into
consideration both the thoughts that are expressed and emotional tone that accompanies
these thoughts. In this stage avoid premature judgment until you understood message
fully, you need to ask questions etc.
c. Remembering: - Simply mean retaining the massage that we receive and understand.
You can augment your memory by taking notes, tape recording the message.
d. Evaluating: -refers to the judging of message or rather doing a critical analysis. During
evaluation resist until you fully understand the speaker’s point of view.
e. Responding: - responses are feedback or information that one sends back to the speaker.
It tells the speaker how you feel and think about his or her message.

Effective Listening
The major aim of effective listening apart from others is to follow what the speaker is saying.
The following are the tips for effective listening:

36
  Stop talking: it is not possible to listen while talking.
 Put the speaker at ease: encourage the speaker to talk comfortably. Uneasy and
uncomfortable person does not speak clearly.
 Show a desire to listen.
 Show non - verbally that you are interested to listen and that you are listening. Make eye
contact and keep it still. Other acts which are disturbing make the speaker feel that you
are not attending.
 Write down the main points and check for their correctness.This makes the speaker more
responsible and clear in what s/he says. Since s/he realizes your serious attention.
 Do not create or tolerate distractions. Calling or receiving others or allowing others to
interrupt disturbs and irritates the speaker.
 Be patient: the speaker needs time to say what s/he wants to say. Some people are shy or
nervous or cannot easily find words to speak. If they are interrupted or hurried, they get
more nervous.
 Keep your temper under control-Since angry persons cannot speak clearly and cannot
listen.
 Listen between lines- Concentrate on what is not being said as well as what is being
said. Non – verbal signs provide clues to what is not said. People do not always say what
they mean, but body language reveals speaker’s attitudes and emotional states.
 Ask questions at suitable moments to get a clear understanding.If you are not sure of
what the speaker is saying, ask. This is quite acceptable. Also state what you understand.
It is a good idea to repeat in your own words what the speaker said in order to confirm
that you understood.
 Keep an open mind- Do not jump to conclusions. Avoid making any judgements until the
speaker has completed speaking, otherwise you will end up in prejudice. Proper
evaluation can be made only after getting full information, and understanding.

A good active listener will avoid:

 Having preconceived ideas about the speaker and/or topic
 Interrupting or finishing off the speaker’s sentences
 Thinking about unrelated thoughts, possibly triggered by the speaker
 Selective hearing - or only hearing what reinforces their point of view
 Tuning out because they don’t value or respect the speaker
 Jumping in and responding immediately
 Taking offence at something that is said or making negative assumptions about
something that is said.
 Reacting to a mannerism and/or to the speaker’s appearance.

Developing Listening Comprehension Skills

37
Listening and comprehending are closely related. This is because one listens in order to
comprehend. More over one comprehends while listening. As one listens he/she should be able
to comprehend.
Comprehension is manifested in different levels during the listening process. One may have full
comprehension and partial comprehension (when points are less important).
Some points need proper attention because the matter being presented is very crucial. Remember
flexibility in listening and comprehension is very important.

Listening comprehension skills

Listening for comprehending presupposes the listener to:
 Listen attentively
 Follow the speaker
 Possess a wide range of vocabulary which is related to the subject being discussed.
 Recognize general speech pattern and major speech divisions i.e. introduction, main body
of speech, transitional words, change of ideas, shift of emphasis, summary and
conclusion.
 Relate the topic with the experience of the world (prior knowledge)
 Get interest in the topic.

Steps to Listening - Comprehension

S/N C O M P R E H E N S I O N S T E P S H O W T O T A K E T H E S T E P S
1 . L i s t e n a t t e n t i v e l y  Show high
concentration
 Avoid noise and
distractions
 Be focused, do not let your mind absent from the topic(do not wonder
away)
 Fix your eyes on the
speaker

2 . F o l l o w t h e s p e a k e r  Imagine what he is
saying
 Speak along with
him
 Be close to him in
thought
3 . P o s s e s s v o c a b u l a r y  Read widely on the topic before the
lecture
 S e a r c h t h e
l i b r a r y
 Bring to memory all words related to the
topic

4 . Recognize general speech patter n  Know what introduction is

given
 Be conscious of the major speech
38
 divisions
 Note transitional words such as now, then, later, on the other hand, firstly,
however etc.
 Note shift of emphasis, change of ideas
etc.
 Note when the speaker is summarizing all points (that moment is
important).
 Not e t he
c onc l usi o n
5 . P r e v i o u s k n o w l e d g e  Think about what you know about the topic
before.
 Think about what is going on at the moment related to the
topic
 Think about the horrible or pleasant experience about the
topic

Adopted from; NOUN (2004) pp. 21

Developing Listening Comprehension Skills

Listening comprehension is a key initial step in communication. The better students can
understand what is being said, the better will be their ability to communicate. In addition, they
will be better able to notice the characteristics of the target language which will help to improve
their language development.

In order to have good skills in listening comprehension and to speak it fluently, a learner should
practise listening to audio and video aids (dialogues, thematic texts and narrative stories). It is
preferable to have English transcripts of audio and video material. Learners should practice
listening comprehension with subsequent speaking in the following sequence:

1. Learners should listen to each sentence several times. At the same time they should see each
sentence in the transcript.
2. Learners need to make sure they understand everything clearly in each sentence in terms of
pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
3. Without looking into the transcript, learners should try to repeat each sentence (say it aloud)
exactly as they heard it. Without being able to repeat a sentence, a learner cannot understand it.
4. Then it is essential that learners listen to that particular conversation or text (story) in short
paragraphs or chunks, say each paragraph aloud, and compare to the transcript.
5. Finally it is necessary that learners listen to the whole conversation or story without
interruption several times, and try to tell the content of the whole conversation or text (story)
they heard. They can write key words and phrases, or main ideas as a plan, or questions on that
particular dialogue or text to make easier for them to convey their content in English. It is
important for learners to compare what they said to the transcript.

Skills for Note Taking in the Lecture

39
Note taking is one way of enhancing listening. Note taking which is done improperly creates a
barrier to effective listening. The listener has to be vested with skills for note taking before,
during and after the class as follows:

A. Before Class
1. Develop a mindset which is geared towards listening
2. Go over the materials of the previous lecture while waiting for the next lecture to begin.
3. Preview the assigned readings to establish some background knowledge.
4. Determine what you know and what you do not know about the material in order to focus your
listening or learning.
5. Skim relevant reading assignments to acquaint you with the main ideas, new technical terms
etc.
6. Do what you can to improve your physical and mental alertness (tiredness, hunger, sleepiness,
the place where you sit in the classroom, can affect motivation and attention).
7. Choose note books that will enhance your systematic note – taking; have a separate note book
with full sized pages for each course.
8. Develop the positive intention to listen.

B. During Class
The following steps are aimed at improving your note taking strategies in lectures and seminars.
1. Arrive on time. Often it is at the beginning of the lecture that the subject is
introduced and the outline of the lecture is set out. If you miss this, you may
spend the rest of the lecture trying to work out what is going on.
2. Sit where you can see and hear the speaker easily and where there are no
distractions. Resist distractions, emotional reactions or boredom.
3. Make sure you are an active listener. Active listening is a thinking activity. The
more you think about the ideas you are noting down, the more you will
understand and remember them at a later date.
4. Concentrate on what the speaker is saying. Note that the speaker’s body language
provides clues to what is important.
5. Decide why the lecture is important to you. If you do not have a clear reason for
listening to a speaker, you will not be a motivated listener.
6. Develop a flexible note-taking strategy, which can be adapted to suit the style of
the lecture. Learn your lecturer’s style. Notice how s/he operates. Some lecturers
will give you an outline of what the lecture will cover at the beginning and some
lecturers may sum up the most important points at the end. Some will distribute
handouts, or will post lecture notes online in advance or after the lecture, to which
you can add your own comments.
7. Note the pattern of organization in the lecture. Does it begin or end with a brief
summary of the main concepts, themes or ideas? How are details or examples
used to develop specific points? What is the relationship between the points
presented?
8. Review your notes after the lecture. You should think about how your lecture
notes relate to your notes from the course readings. Look out for the developing
themes of the course, and think about how this lecture relates to the previous
lectures in your course

40
 9. Ask yourself: what questions does this lecture answer? What is the relationship
between the lectures and the readings recommended? What possible examination
questions could be answered from the information you have gathered?
10. Organize your notes as a way to review, test your understanding of ideas, and
prepare for examinations.
11. Use abbreviations when necessary. The use of abbreviations saves time and
energy. Examples: b/4 – before, i/c – in charge, sb – some body
12. Use symbols (where necessary or important) Science students apply more
symbols than students of arts or social sciences. In sciences there are
internationally accredited symbols. Examples: = equals, > more, % percentage
13. Be consistent in your use of form, abbreviations etc in your notes. Give headings
to important points and organizational clues: main points and examples.
14. Write the notes in your own words, but if you cannot don’t let it take away your
attention from the lecture.
15. Ask questions if you don’t understand. The lecture/presenter may allow time for
questions at the end of the class. Otherwise approach the lecturer or presenter
after the class.
16. Listen carefully to the information given toward the end of the class; summary
statements may be particularly valuable in highlighting main points; there may be
possible quiz questions etc.

C. After Class
1. Clear up any questions or doubts raised by the lecture by asking either the teacher or
classmates.
2. Fill in missing points or misunderstood term from text or other sources.
3. Edit your notes. Label main points, add questions to be answered. Highlight key points
in the notes with different colours of ink.
4. Think over what you have learnt; make separate notes of your ideas and reflections.

The Lecture
Lectures are rather like an extended review article. They attempt to introduce a new subject in an
accessible way, providing an outline of both its principal debates and its various chronologies. At
their best they usefully review the latest unpublished research and its effects on previous debates,
while also linking up other components of the course. Because of the necessary speed of the
lecture it is imperative that you listen and understand before you take notes. Do not try to write
everything down or even everything you could. Follow the argument(s), and selectively note the
evidence deployed.
The Seminar
Seminar classes take a wide variety of forms, which require students to engage differently.
However, generally they are intended to examine issues in greater depth than allowed in lectures
and, consequently, demand substantial preparation from students to work effectively. As their
purpose is to enable students to explore their ideas, the quality and coherence of the discussion
varies, and with it your need is to take notes. Although the tutor's job is to keep the discussion
relevant, what is relevant to you may not be to someone else.
Again, do not write everything down, or just note what the tutor says (s/he may be playing devil's
advocate to promote debate). Follow the discussion so you understand its principal themes and

41
then note them down. You may find it easier to write up your notes after the tutorial. Again, here
are some suggestions:
 Do be punctual. It is at the beginning of lectures and seminars that the subject is
introduced and the approach to be taken is set out. Miss this and the rest will seem a
mystery.
 Do not rush to pack up and go as soon as you hear the tutor/lecturer start to sum up. The
closing remarks often raise important issues that will be discussed in the following
class/lecture.
 Note down the names of the historians associated with particular arguments or schools of
thought. If in doubt ask the tutor/lecturer to write a name on the blackboard.
 Do not go to sleep when you receive a handout. Mark and annotate it; refer to it in your
other notes; so in six months' time you know why you were given it.
Note-Taking Skills
Effective note taking from lectures and readings is an essential skill for university study. Good
note taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant points that you can
integrate with your own writing and speaking. Good note taking reduces the risk of plagiarism. It
also helps you distinguish where your ideas came from and how you think about those ideas.
Effective note taking requires:
 recognizing the main ideas

 identifying what information is relevant to your task

 having a system of note taking that works for you
 reducing the information to note and diagram format
 where possible, putting the information in your own words
 recording the source of the information

Barriers to Effective Listening

Effective listening requires the listener to direct all the attention to the speaker otherwise
communication may be blocked. The factors which can hinder communication are simply
referred to as communication barriers. The following are the barriers to effective communication.
1. Mental distraction - trying to think of other things than the lecture or speakers talk acts as a
barrier to listening.
2.Wandering attention - this is when the listener’s mind is set away from the speaker’s talk or
presentation. The outcome of which is communication breakdown.
3. Planning to present a good argument - listener’s efforts to prepare an argument or a
question in order to ask the speaker leads him to lose listening concentration. The outcome of
which is to miss the rest of the speaker’s points.
4. Lack of interest - this hinders listening since the listener gets bored to the subject presented or
topic under discussion.

42
5. Avoiding the effort to understand what is difficult - in attempts to avoid understanding
difficult concepts or topic, the listener diverts attention hence blocking communication.
6. Listener’s tendency to criticize the speaker - criticizing speaker’s appearance, mannerisms,
voice, language and others causes poor listening. This is because most of the listener’s time is
devoted for criticism rendering less attention to listening.
7. Emotional blocks (deaf sports) - the listener is carried away by emotional fantasies and
imaginations which are not related to the topic being discussed. In this situation the listener is
blocked away from effective communication.
8. Emotional excitement - irritating emotions which result from feeling angry due to gender
bias, racial prejudice or any other causes may lead a speaker to be mentally upset. The outcome
of which is that the listener set away from the speaker’s intended message.
9. Impatience - in communication the rule of turn taking is very important. This means that the
listener has to allow the speaker to speak without unnecessary interruptions. But in case the
listener does not wait until the speaker has finished then this interruption decreases the ability of
the listener to comprehend the intended message.
10. Poor health - when the listener is overwhelmed by illness i.e feeling pain, headache or any
other illness then his/her ability to listen gets affected hence impeding listening ability.
11. Excessive note taking - trying to take down extensive notes is one of the factors that disturb
listening. This has an adverse out come to the listener, since he/she misses the points.

READING AND STUDY SKILLS

Reasons for Reading
Normally beginners are not accustomed to many types of texts and reading assignments required
at college.
There are two basic reasons for reading: One reads because he enjoys reading and they feel like
reading. One also reads because he has to. That is for a specific purpose.

Types of Reading
Reading for Pleasure
Reading is one of the most pleasurable as well as most awarding pursuits in life. One can engage
in leisure reading for sheer relaxation, e.g. lunch break, in the evening, during the weekend. In
this case it does not matter whether we understand what we are reading or not. Some people do
leisure reading seriously to “improve themselves” i.e. they read for entertainment with a more
serious purpose of widening knowledge or skills e.g. buying newspapers, magazines and journals
to keep themselves updated on topical issues. We tend to skim over the whole text because our
understanding will not be tested.

Reading for Study

When we read because we have to read. In this case whether we read individually or in groups
we know that our understanding will be tested. We therefore set aside time for it. We take
trouble to prepare ourselves physically, mentally and emotionally. We create conducive
environment for reading. We also think of the purpose for reading. We should ask ourselves,
what exactly we want out of what we are reading. The answer then governs the reading strategy.

Reading Strategies

43
Skimming/reading for general idea
Skimming, also known as survey reading is a process of looking over a text quickly to get a
general idea of the text or impression of it. We do not trouble to read all the words. Reader’s
eyes move fast at the titles of the materials, tables of contents, and the first and the last sentences
in paragraphs. Students skim when reviewing for examinations, few moments before entering in
an examination room; some people skim newspapers before buying them, getting the details
during the presentation, we also skim books to see if they are relevant for our purpose. We are
advised to skim materials in libraries to see if they are relevant for our defined purposes before
we start reading them or before we buy them for sale.

Scanning/reading for specific information

We scan when we are looking for particular information in a text. We scan over the sections,
chapters, passages that are not relevant. This occurs when one knows what he wants and where
to get it, so he moves eyes quickly down the page seeking for specific words and phrases.
Usually, a reader has a specific information or concept in mind and he/she looks it up in the
material to find its meaning and other related information. We scan in order to find the specific
details we require and which we must remember completely and precisely.
Scanning is useful in: locating statements, definitions, formulas, new terms and concepts, the
charts and figures.
Examples of scanning: a telephone directory, a conference guide, a train time table.

Intensive reading/study reading

This is a type of reading in which a reader reads and thinks about what is being read so that it is
understood, remembered and contextualized. It needs to be worked at, with time for reflection,
thought analysis, criticism, comparison, notes made, points highlighted and emphasized, the
whole summarized. Study reading is done when one is reading for assignment, presentation and
for answering examination. Students are advised to read intensively in order to be able to write
meaningful assignments, reports and presentation.

Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading many and variety of books for general or universal meaning
and pleasure. In extensive reading, reading is beyond reading the school books. In extensive
reading, one reads large quantities of materials or long texts for global or general understanding,
with the intention of obtaining pleasure from the texts. In this kind of reading people (students)
are allowed to choose the books they want for reading. Students are not restricted in class to
choose the same.

The Process of Reading

There are a number of actions readers can take in order to understand a word or passage. This are
listed possible remedies in the order of increasing disruptiveness to the flow of reading. The
more drastic the action taken, the more you lose the thread of what you are reading. The
following steps will help a reader to read the passage carefully and get the benefit out of it.

1. Ignore and read on. If the word or passage is not critical to understanding, then the most
effective action is to ignore it. For example, failures within descriptions and details usually can

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safely be ignored. If the reader fails to understand a large proportion of the text, this is evidence
that the ‘ignore and read on’ strategy is not working.

2. Suspend judgment. These are a wait and see strategy that should be applied when the reader
thinks the failure will be clarified later. For example, new words or general principles are often
explained in subsequent text. The structure of the text should tell the reader when an idea is
likely to be clarified later. If it is not, it may be necessary to go back and reread.

3. Form a tentative hypothesis. Here the reader tries to figure out from context what a word,
sentence, or passage means. The hypothesis may be a partial hypothesis or a quite specific
hypothesis. It acts as a pending question (Collins, Brown, Morgan, & Brewer, 1977) that the
reader tests as he or she continues reading. This is a particularly useful strategy to apply if a
statement is abstract or vague, or if an unknown word is fairly central and there are clues to its
meaning.

4. Reread the current sentence (s). If the reader cannot form a tentative hypothesis, then it often
helps to reread the current sentence or sentences, looking for a revised interpretation that would
clarify the problem. This is especially useful if the reader perceives some contradiction or several
possible interpretations. But it is a fairly disruptive remedy.

5. Reread the previous context. Jumping back to the previous context is even more disruptive to
the flow of reading. But if there is a contradiction with some earlier piece of the text or the reader
is overloaded with too many pending questions, then jumping back and rereading is the most
effective strategy.

6. Going to an expert source. The most disruptive action the reader can take is to go to an outside
source, such as a teacher, parent, dictionary, or other book. But this is sometimes required, for
example when a word is repeatedly used and the reader cannot figure out what it means, or when
a whole section of text does not make sense.

Reading Comprehension Strategies

The following strategies can ensure that students are successful on reading comprehension tests.

Finding main idea:a reader should read by looking about the main idea; what a reading passage is
mostly or mainly about. One may also think about the best title for a reading passage. The title
sometimes tells about the main idea of the whole passage. Students should ask themselves what
the reading passage is about.

Recalling facts and details:students/readers should look for facts and details that has happened in
a reading passage. Paying very close attention to the events of the story and the order in which
they happened will help with this strategy.

Understanding Sequence:the reader should check the sequence of certain things and events
happened within the reading passage in order. Scholars explain that words such as first, second,

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last, before, or after appearing in the passage may be of help to understand the sequence of the
passage.

Recognizing cause and effect:a reader should be able to identify thecause and effect of
something happened and why it happened. When the text uses words such as because, why,
reason or what happened, this signals cause and effect.

Making Predictions-readers should also makeprediction and guess about what will happen next
in a reading passage. Words like predict, probably or most likely can help a student to predict or
guess something that follows.

Find Word Meaning in Context:because some words have more than one meaning, readers need
to know the meaning of a word used in a reading passage. Try each answer meaning in the
sentence where the word appears, and choose the one that makes the most sense in the reading
passage.

Distinguishing between fact and opinion:in the reading passage one may find several facts and
opinions. A reader should be able to determine which of course is a fact or opinion. Students
simply need to ask themselves two questions: ‘Can this statement be proved?’ or ‘Does this
statement tell what someone thinks or feels?’

Identifying author’s purpose:readers needto understand the reason an author wrote a particular
passage. This should be done to the entire passage, and/or about a specific paragraph.

Making inferences:when asked to make an inference, students need to figure something out that
a reading passage does not explicitly state. This often contains the words you can tell, determine
or conclude.

Interpreting figurative language:in the passage one may find figurative languages such as
similes, metaphors and idioms. Students will have to identify a particular type of figurative
language.

Summarizing:a reader should be able to choose the best summary of a reading passage. You may
not find the direct way of doing this in the reading passage. Students will need to think about the
most important ideas to find the best summary.

Reading and Note-Taking strategies

Reading for pleasure or as a way to relax, like when reading a novel, newspaper or magazine is
usually a ‘passive’ exercise. When you are studying reading should be seen as an ‘active’
exercise, in other words you engage with your reading to maximize your learning. One of the
most effective ways of actively engaging with your reading is to make notes as you go along –
linking points, taking out key points of information etc. By writing notes, in your own words,
you will be forced to think about the ideas that are presented in the text and how you can explain
them coherently. The process of note-taking will, therefore, help you retain, analyse and
ultimately remember and learn what you have read.

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What not to do?

It is important to understand that effective note-making means writing notes on what you have
read in your own words. Copying what others have said is not note-taking and is only
appropriate when you want to directly quote an author. It can be tempting, especially if your
reading material is online, to copy and paste straight into a document. If you do this then you are
unlikely to learn what you have read, as copying is not engaging with the text. Also, and
especially if you are a student, copied text that ends up in an assignment is plagiarism - a serious
academic offence. Use online sources as appropriate but summarizes, re-write and/or paraphrase
and always reference.

Effective Steps for Note -Taking

There is no magic formula to taking notes when reading; you have to find out what works best
for you. Your note-taking skills will develop with practice and as you realize the benefits. The
tips for effective note-taking, below, should help you get started.

Effective Note taking Skills

1. Be Selective and Systematic

As you take notes from a written source, keep in mind that not all of a text may be relevant to
your needs. Think about your purpose for reading.

 Are you reading for a general understanding of a topic or concept?

 Are you reading for some specific information that may relate to the topic of an
assignment?

Before you start to take notes, skim the text. Then highlight or mark the main points and any
relevant information you may need to take notes from. Finally - keeping in mind your purpose
for reading - read the relevant sections of the text carefully and take separate notes as you read.

A few tips about format

Set out your notebooks so that you have a similar format each time you take notes.

 Columns that distinguish the source information and your thoughts can be helpful.
 Headings that include bibliographic reference details of the sources of information are
also important.
 The use of colour to highlight major sections, main points and diagrams makes notes easy
to access. BUT remember it is not allowed to highlight or scribble in the public books.

2. Identify the Purpose and Function of a Text

Whether you need to make notes on a whole text or just part of it, identifying the main purpose
and function of a text is invaluable for clarifying your note-taking purposes and saving time.

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  Read the title and the abstract or preface (if there is one)
 Read the introduction or first paragraph
 Skim the text to read topic headings and notice how the text is organised
 Read graphic material and predict its purpose in the text

Your aim is to identify potentially useful information by getting an initial overview of the text
(chapter, article, pages) that you have selected to read. Ask yourself: will this text give me the
information I require and where might it be located in the text?

3. Highlighting and Emphasizing: a quick and easy way to be active when reading is to
highlight and/or underline parts of the text. Although the process of highlighting is not ‘note-
taking’ it is often an important first step. Of course, this is not a good idea if the book or journal
does not belong to you!

Highlighting key words or phrases in text will help you:

 Focus your attention on what you are reading – and make it easy to see key points when
re-reading.
 Think more carefully about what the key concepts and ideas in the text are, the bits that
are worth highlighting.
 At a glance you will be able to see that you have already read pages or sections on text.

When you come across words or phrases that you are not familiar with it may be useful to add
them to a personal glossary of terms. Make a glossary on a separate sheet (or document) of notes,
so you can easily refer and update it as necessary. Write descriptions of the terms in your own

4. Making Written notes: although highlighting is a quick way of emphasizing key points, it is
no substitute for taking proper notes.

Remember your main purpose for note-taking is to learn, and probably to prepare for some form
of writing. When you first start out note-taking you may find that you take too many notes, or
not enough, or that when you revisit them they are unclear, or which is your opinion and which is
the opinion of the author. You will need to work on these areas - like all life skills, taking
effective notes improve with practice.

Tips for making effective written notes

The following guidelines may be of help:

i. It is important to keep your notes organised and well-structured, so you can easily find them
later. Use a notebook or set up folders on your computer - keep your notes in good order.

ii. Use headings or different sheets (or documents) to separate different themes and ideas.

iii. Use bright colours to highlight important points in your notes. You may find it useful to have
a simple system of colour coding, using different colours for related areas.

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iv. Always keep a record of your information source, this is generally good practice – so you can
easily find information again in the future. In academia it is essential to reference your work.

 When referring to a book, record the author’s name, the date of publication, the
title of the book, the relevant page number, the name of the publisher and the
place of publication.
 When referring to a magazine or newspaper, record the name of the author of the
article, the date of publication, the name of the article, the name of the
publication, the publication number and page number.
 When referring to internet sources, record (at least) the full URL or web address
and the date you accessed the information.

5. Identify how Information is Organised

Most texts use a range of organising principles to develop ideas. While most good writing will
have a logical order, not all writers will use an organising principle. Organising principles tend to
sequence information into a logical hierarchy, some of which are: past ideas to present ideas, the
steps or stages of a process or event, most important point to least important point, well known
ideas to least known ideas, simple ideas to complex ideas, general ideas to specific ideas, the
largest parts to the smallest parts of something, problems and solutions, causes and results.

6. Page by page notes: The simplest and most direct way of taking notes, but also the most
detailed, is to write page-by-page notes. At the start of your notes write the full reference of the
book/journal etc. that you are taking notes from. Write the page number in the margin of your
notebook and jot down, in concise phrases, the points that strike you as relevant from each
paragraph. If a particular point reminds you of a personal experience or of something similar that
you have read, jot this down too.

If a particular sentence or quotation appeals to you or seems to encapsulate the essence of a point
made by the author or highlights the subject you are studying, transcribe it completely inside
quotation marks. Remember to record exactly where the quote came from. As you work through
the text, highlight and make notes on things with which you disagree, stating the reasons why.

7. Summaries: As well as page by page notes, you should compile a summary at the end of each
section or chapter. A summary is, by definition, precise. Its aim is to bring together the essential
points and to simplify the main argument or viewpoint of the author. The author will usually
expand on their ideas, putting them into context and aiding understanding. You should be able to
use your summary in the future to refer to the points raised and use your own explanations and
examples of how they may apply to your subject area.

8. Organising your notes: Depending on your circumstance you may find you accumulate a lot
of notes. Notes are of no use to you if you cannot find them when you need to, and spending a
lot of time sifting through piles of papers is a waste of time. How you organise your notes will
depend on whether they are ‘physical’, written on paper or ‘digital’ stored on a computer – or a
combination. Some quick ideas for organising and storing notes include:

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  Folders: Either in the traditional sense - the type you may find in a filing cabinet - or on a
computer, folders are an easy way of keeping related documents together. Folders are
particularly good for assembling information and material for written assignments. Keep
all relevant items in a folder – either hard copies or digitally. It’s sometimes useful to
include notes to yourself in your folder as you plan a written assignment.
 Binders: Loose-leaf ring binders can enable you to assemble all your page notes, chapter
summaries, mind maps and a lot of other printed materials in one location. Binders can
be used, like folders, to store additional notes and information.
 Cards: These come in various sizes and types and enable you to keep a sketch of what
you have read. Cards can be particularly useful when planning a writing assignment - try
re-ordering them or arranging them on the floor like a large mind map, a low-tech way of
linking together your ideas and thoughts.

9. Include your thoughts

When taking notes for an assignment it is also helpful to record your thoughts at the time. Record
your thoughts in a separate column or margin and in a different colour to the notes you took from
the text. For instance, what ideas did you have about your assignment when you read that
information? How do you think you could use this information in your assignment?

4.0 SPEAKING AND WRITING SKILLS

4.1 SPEAKING SKILLS

4.1.1 Qualities of an effective Communicator

Even in today’s electronic age, effective interpersonal communication skills are a key factor in
your professional and personal success. Unfortunately, communication doesn’t come naturally
for everyone. The good news is that you can learn good communication skills by learning from

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the best communicators. Consider these 10 characteristics of effective communicators that will
help you improve your own communication skills.

 A Clear, Concise Message

No one likes a rambler, so have your primary purpose in mind when you begin your
communication. Simplify your thoughts, so you can present your point in a precise
manner. Once you have made your first important point, move on to the next.

 Understanding of the Recipient

Effective communicators know who they are talking to, and they understand that the style
of communication will vary based on the recipient. For example, you probably talk to
your co-workers very differently than you talk to your boss.

 Empathy for the Recipient

Empathy involves putting yourself in the other person’s shoes. Effective communicators
always see the situation from the perspective of the other person, including the emotions
that might be involved with the message.

 Effective Listening

Communication isn’t all about talking to someone. Effective listening means really
hearing what the other person is saying as well. Paraphrasing the message and repeating
it back to the individual will let you know that you understood their point accurately. It
also shows that you care enough about their message to get it right the first time.

 Asking for Clarification, when Necessary

Effective communicators are not afraid of asking for clarification if they don’t understand
the message they are receiving. When you ask for clearer understanding, it shows that
you really care what the person is talking about and ensures the conversation to proceed
appropriately. Clarification can come from paraphrasing what you heard the other person
say or simply asking him to relay his message in a different way that is easier for you to
understand.

 Adherence to the Facts

Effective communicators are much more interested in passing of facts than assumptions
or gossip. Avoid the rumor mill at all costs, and unless you can verify your information
through the original source, do not pass it on to others. If you are conveying a message
from another person, it is also important to get that person’s permission to do so before
passing the information onto others.

 Awareness of Body Language

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 Body language makes up a large percentage of our messages, so effective communicators
learn how to tune into the nonverbal message they are sending. Make eye contact with the
person you are talking to as much as possible, particularly when that person is speaking
to you. Avoid potentially offensive body language like fidgeting, biting your lip or rolling
your eyes that might convey boredom, cynicism or lack of honesty.

 Provision of Proper Feedback

When you offer feedback to another person, make sure it is constructive. Feedback is
important to maintain a positive conversation and ensure you are both on the same page.
Feedback might involve requests for clarifications, questions to expand a particular
message, or constructive criticism about another’s performance. Pepper potential
criticism with plenty of positive feedback so the recipient is more likely to hear your
message and take it to heart.

 Inclusion of Praise, when Appropriate

Effective communicators know how and when to offer praise. Positive feedback is
always welcome, as long as the recipient knows it is authentic. When you praise another
person, be specific in your compliment by linking it directly to a specific activity or
attribute. Praise someone publically whenever you can, and make sure the praise coming
out of your mouth is genuine. When you must convey negative information or criticism
try starting out with praise and ending with a positive statement. This “hamburger”
approach usually helps others take criticism in stride.

 A Positive Attitude

No one likes to listen to a complainer, so effective communicators work hard to keep their
messages positive. Instead of using phrases like, “I can’t” or “We won’t” in your conversations,
focus on what you can do for others. Even if you cannot grant a request the way someone hopes,
keeping your message positive will allow the other person to accept your “no” with grace.

Effective communicators are typically the successful people in life that others admire. If you
would like to join this elite group, practice these tips to improve your own communication skills.
The improvement in your professional and personal relationships will make the work on your
communication worth the effort.

4.1.2 Speaking in public and Developing Skills for Oral Presentation

Public speaking refers to a delivery of a message in the spoken form, usually to a special
group of people for a special purpose (Mohamed,2002). In general terms, public speaking is
a form of communication in which one person talks face to face to a relatively big number of
people.Three major elements in the speaking process are involved;
 speaker/ sender
 Speech/ message

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  Listeners/ receivers of a message

Public speech is normally delivered aiming at any of the following purposes;

 Informing an audience: Aims at imparting knowledge to the audience such as teaching
whose success depends on whether the audience has learnt what you intended to teach.
For example, a teacher telling students on the importance of Communication Skills
course or the Vice Chancellor telling first year students about UDOM etc.

 Persuading an audience; Aims at convincing people to change in someways especially

on attitudes, point of views, belief or way of doing things etc.It can also convince people
to do what they did not know before. E.g the use of newly discovered medicine.

 Entertaining an audience: aims at making pleasure to the audience e.g. comedy

 Demonstrating: Aims at teaching through actions.Such a speech will be successful if by

the end of the speech the audience can do what you showed them to do.Example, A
teacher demonstrating to students how to make power point slides.

Delivering Effective Public Speech

For effective public speech delivery, four major considerations need be taken into account:
- Deciding on the topic and purpose : for better resultsselect a topic and narrow your
purpose for a speech, read intensively about and around the topic, collect and evaluate
evidence you will use in the speech, order the information obtained reflecting the
available time for presentation, outline activities to be done while presenting and lastly
thoroughly edit your material by removing all communication barriers.

 Analysing the audience :Analyze your audience and adapt your message. Focusing on:
education level, age range, Language ability, socio-cultural background attitudes,
professional profiles, sex- do females/males need special attention, appearance- do you
appear similarly to them and any other variable thought important.
what do all these help? They lead a presenter to be aware of what the audience is likely to
know, what might interest the audience, appropriate method of presentation appropriate
level of materials to be presented and reasonable duration for your presentation

 Appropriate application of delivery procedures: apply asystematic delivery pattern-

Introduction, body and conclusion then consider the following aspects.
- Speaker’s liveliness- not dull, adapt to feedback during the speech, composure and
control-move eyes around the audience, not be nervous, dressing style- adhere to the
occasion dressing code, talk from notes not reading everything, be generally polite and
behave in a manner to make you win the audience’s credits. Likewise offer effective
responses to questions- do not modify questions, provide complete answers, do not try to
answer questions you have not understood instead ask from the audience and lastly
appropriately apply and control your body language.Speak in a reasonable speed allowing
your audience to follow, adapt your volume level to the size of the audience and

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 venue.Abide to the standard variety- consult dictionaries, watch TV programmes like the
CNN for accuracy. Be honest by providing researched knowledge, be flexible by accept
different ideas and as you finish your presentation you better thank the audience for
attendance and active participation.

 Effective use of visual media: A visual aid refers to anything that communicates its
message through the eye rather than the ear. These are objects/drawings used to
demonstrate processes/systems in a visible manner during teaching/presenting. For
example, maps, figures, flow charts, drawings, tables, computer power point, actual
objects etc. consider the following:Choose appropriate visuals for your audience basing
on age, background, knowledge, attitude and occasion, be sure of your ability to operate
the visual aid you have chosen.In case you use drawings, they need to be BIG, BOLD
and BRIGHT, simple and appropriate to the topic and audience and check that all electric
equipment you use is properly connected.Timing-Display each visual only as you talk
about it, focus on your audience not your visual, familiarize your visual before the
speech, avoid long pauses as you demonstrate the steps in a process to maintain focus.
And finally rehearse your speech to check relevance on visual aid.

Roles of Visual aids: create interest and attraction, make complex ideas clear and simple,
make abstract ideas concrete, make the audience’s attention withheld by the speaker’s
message, help audience to organize ideas, save time by compressing presentations, and
facilitate memory retention to the audience

Stage fright: is a state of developing an anxiety which is expressed by shivering, sweating, and
experiencing rapid heartbeats facing many inexperienced public speakers.
Remove/ control stage fright by;
 Recognizing that you are beneficial rather than harmful
 Making a thorough Preparation to your speech
 Arriving early
 Using the podium if available
 Moving around the venue as you speak
 Familiarizing with the venue/microphone
 Talking to people- audience to be...get familiar
 Feeling relaxed
 Reducing anxiety
 Knowing that you can do your best as a speaker
 Practicing/rehearsing your presentation before the actual presentation

4.1.3 How to communicate with officials

Officials in the current context mean people serving people in the government at various
positions. At some time you may need to appeal to a governmental official to act on a problem.
Whether help is given will depend upon how persuasive you are. Critical to your success will be

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how well you listen to the explanations you receive. Keep the following tips in mind so as to
effectively help you call, write, and set up meetings with public officials. The message can be
rendered in person, on the phone, via letters, faxes, or emails, as an individual or in a group.

Necessary conditions
 Do your homework by being sure that you understand the issue of concern and that all
your facts and figures are accurate.
 Have a clear, focused purpose for your action. Address one issue at a time. The more
 prepared you are, the more persuasive you can be. Be specific about what you want to
achieve. What do you want your senator, representative, or other decision-maker to do for
you?
 Learn which official can help you. Do not waste time appealing to people who are
powerless.
 If you will be speaking to a specific official, try to learn more about his or her
personality, power and biases.
 Make an appointment and arrive on time in case it is via a face to face talk.
 Choose the method that is most comfortable for you. There are many ways to make your
opinions known. The important thing is to take action.
 Show the official how his or her position is specifically affected by or concerned about
the issue.
 Present your case in a concise, well-organised manner. End with a summary and request
for action.
 Speak effectively and sincerely, but avoid emotional displays. Be respectful, but not
intimidated.
 Be courteous and reliable. Don't promise what you cannot deliver in terms of help or
information. Leave your contact information. Always follow up on requests for
additionalmaterials or further clarification. If you have questions or want additional
information, ask to speak with the staff person who works on the issue about which you
are concerned (for example: “May I speak with the staff person who works on budget
issues?”). Feel free to ask if you can leave a message on voicemail if the staff is
unavailable, and be sure to include your name and phone number.
 When you have finished your presentation, ask for a specific date or time when you can
learn whether action has been taken.
 A day or two prior to your meeting, confirm the appointment by calling the scheduler or
staff person with whom you will be visiting. In addition, if you have a written
confirmation, bring a copy to the meeting.
 On the day of your meeting, be prompt. If the legislator or official is late, be patient and
flexible.
 Follow up your appeal by speaking to or phoning the official to see what action has been
taken. And always send a thank-you note after a meeting.

TIPS ON WRITING TO PUBLIC OFFICIALS

Like phone calls, congressional offices keep track of emails from constituents on various issues
and report the numbers to the representatives and senators on a regular basis. Sending an email to
your member of Congress is another important way to advocate for the issues about which you
care.

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  Email is an easy and efficient way to send a message to your legislators. Be sure to sign
up. Use it to send a pre-written letter to decision-makers on selected topics of concern to
the concerned official. (You may edit the pre-written letter.
 If you are writing a letter of your own, it is best to send it by email or fax. You may need
to call the parliamentary office or look on their website to find the correct email address
or fax number. Letters sent to parliament go through a rigorous and lengthy security
screening process, slowing delivery by several days or more.
 Clearly state your purpose at the beginning of your letter (include the bill name/number
and what you would like the parliament to do).
 When possible, include personal examples of why you support/oppose the particular bill.
 Address only one issue per letter and keep your message short and to the point.
 Unless you are an official spokesperson, your letters should be sent by you as an
individual and not in the name of the organization.

Sending Emails
When addressing an email to a public official, follow the same suggestions as for a printed letter.
For the subject line of your e-mail, identify your message by topic or bill number.
The body of your message should use this format:
Your Name
Address
City,
Dear (Title) (Last Name),
Insert your message here…
Addressing Correspondence to an MP
The Honorable (Full Name)
United of Tanzania Parliament

TIPS FOR MAKING A PERSONAL VISIT TO A LEGISLATOR

Meeting with a member of Parliament or the staff is an effective way to convey a message about
a specific issue or legislative matter and to build a relationship.
 Call the MP’s office to make an appointment. Ask to speak to the scheduler.
 Often you will be asked to fax or email a written request. Include the number of people
joining you and what issues you want to discuss.
 A day or two prior to your meeting, confirm the appointment by calling the scheduler or
staff person with whom you will be visiting. In addition, if you have a written
confirmation, bring a copy to the meeting.
 On the day of your meeting, be prompt. If the legislator or official is late, be patient and
flexible.
 Don’t be disappointed if your meeting is with a staff person, or if your meeting begins
with the public official and ends with staff. There is great value in educating and building
a relationship with the key staff people who cover your issues — they play a vital role in
the legislative decision-making process.
 Bring some succinct written materials outlining your position and leave them with the
person you are visiting.

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 An effective visit should include the following components:
 A clear statement of who you are and why you are there
 An explanation of the issue(s) and what you want the decision-maker to do about it
 One or more personal stories illustrating why these issues are so important to you and
your community (This is a great opportunity to discuss your views as a person of
faith!)
 A direct ask: “Will you support/oppose this proposal?” (Give the person you’re
meeting with time to respond)
 A thank you :Follow up on the meeting with a thank-you letter outlining what was
covered and reiterate your main message on the issue.

4.2.0 WRITING SKILLS

4.2.1 Introduction

Writing needs planning for effective product. To attain such objective the following ten hints on
writing as proposed by Forest (1998) should be put into consideration.

i. Before writing anything, make a short plan of your entire composition, using any help
given in the question.
ii. Use only words and constructions with which you are familiar.
iii. Avoid flowery and pompous language. The best writers of English express
themselves in simple and clear language.
iv. Avoid abbreviations. The place for these is in notes.
v. Make your writing interesting by illustrating what you say with examples where
relevant.
vi. Do not begin writing a sentence until you know how it will continue and end.
vii. Begin a paragraph for each new topic.
viii. Pay close attention to mechanical skills- grammar, spelling and punctuation.
ix. Do not switch tenses unless the sense requires you to.
x. Check you work thoroughly at least twice. This will necessitate allowing a few
minutes at the end of the time allotted.

4.2.3 Letter Writing

This part has been to a large extent adopted from Eliakimu, (2012(Ed.)
Despite the development of simplified means of communication other than letters,
communication through letters has remained to be a very useful and important means of
communication in the society particularly in organisations. Among the letters written include;
job application letters, complaint letters, resignation letters, letters to ask for permission,
covering letters for job recommendation, inquiry/order letters, confirmation letters etc. Since not
many people understand the importance of letters before they start job applications and that the

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majority of people focus on other forms of communication, letter writing skills remain largely
unknown to a relatively big number of people. As a result, many people write poor letters and
some do copy their friends’ letters. It should be known that the letter you write for job
application or for any official purpose is a good tool to judge your intellectual abilities even
before seeing you or interviewing you. The way you structure, choose words to use in your letter
and grammaticality of your sentences portrays your reality before your addressee. It is, therefore,
suggested that people should learn to write official/business letters because letter writing remains
central in the day to day life.

Aspects to Consider in Official Letter Writing

 Official letters should be in a good structure with at least two addresses.

 Official letters should be short. Only the necessary information should be included in a
letter (i.e. the purpose of writing the letter) since you will attach your CV with the letter
which offers much more description about you. A letter should be limited to one page.
 Formality: Your letter should be formal and polite, do not use colloquial or shortened
words in your letter, even when the addressee is your close friend. You should be polite
even when you are writing a letter for complaint. Formality and politeness is shown
through the choice of words in your letter.

Parts / Sections of official letters

1. Sender’s address: This is written on top of the right hand corner of the paper. It should
only be the writer’s address and not his/her names in this part.
2. Date: It is important to show the date of writing the letter. Date helps for references when
needed in future. It also helps in understanding if the letter is received on time, or there
were some delays somewhere. It should be immediately after the writer’s address.
3. Reference number: reference numbers help in keeping and retrieving the file when
needed. Reference numbers may be arranged department wise, school wise depending on
the organisational structure. Taking example of the University of Dodoma where there
are around 1000 staff workers. The central administration may have categorized its staff
in terms of academic staff and administrative staff, and each staff has his/her personal file
and copy of letters written to these staff need to be filed in their personal files. Writing a
letter to any academic staff, the administration may use a reference number such as
UDOM/AC/PF538/6. UDOM stands for the University of Dodoma; AC stands for
academic staff; PF538 stands for personal file number 538; and 6 stands for the number
of the letters written to the particular staff until that particular time. If you are replying to
a letter which had a reference number, you should repeat this on your letter above the
addressee’s address (It should be preceded by the words “Your ref:). Leave a space
between the reference number and the addressee’s address.
4. The name and address of the addressee, the person you are writing the letter to. This is
written below the date, on the left hand corner of the paper. You should start writing the
address with the title of the addressee. For example, “The general manager,” “The head
master,” “The DVC ARC,” etc.

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5. Salutation: This is written below the addressee’s address. Leave a single space after the
addressee’s address. Salutation depends on whether you know the person you are
addressing the letter, i.e. if the addressee is a man or a woman. If you know the sex of the
person, just write Dear sir! (For a man), Dear madam! (For a woman). Again, salutation
depends on the status of the person you are writing the letter. For example, if the
addressee is your subordinate, salutation can include his/her name, e.g. Dear
Eliakimu. /Mr. Eliakimu, /Dear Flora,/Mrs. Flora, / etc.
6. Title of the letter: This is written below the salutation. It is the synopsis of your letter.
Normally, the addressee will first look at the title of your letter before looking at anything
else. Since the title of the letter introduces the aim of your letter, it should be formatted to
catch your readers’ attention. Therefore, the title of the letter should either be bolded or
underlined. You should only underline it when your letter is hand written. Don’t do both
bolding and underlining at the same time. Some people may decide to introduce the title
with a preposition re others may just write the heading/title, all are right.
7. Body of the letter
The body of your letter should be structured in four short paragraphs with the following
contents:
Paragraph one: State why you are writing the letter and where you saw or heard the job
advertisement. For example you may write:
Iwould like to apply for a post of …as it was advertised on the daily
newspaper on 21st August 2012. Or With reference to you advertisement
on the daily newspaper of 21st August 2012, I am writing to apply for a
post of… at your organization. Or I would like to apply for a position as
a teaching partner at your organization, if there is any position to offer
me. I have learned about your organization through its outstanding
performance in serving the community at rural areas in Arusha against
HIV/AIDS related problems.

Paragraph two: Briefly explain about your qualification and experiences, especially that
which is related to the job you are currently applying. You may give the
following arguments for example: I have two years experience of
working as …During this time I gained enough experience in designing
and preparing new television programs. Or working as a customer care
officer for two years, I gained enough experience in understanding and
working on customers’ needs, especially with new customers in an
organization.

Paragraph three: Show that you believe that you are suitable for the job that you are
applying. Explain why the company should employ you. Or why are
you seeking to change the job you are currently employed. For
example you may provide the following arguments: Given the
experiences I have in this job, I have a feeling that I can work to meet
the needs of the organization. Or I believe that I will be able to bring
my useful experiences to the success of your company. Or if you offer
me the opportunity to work at your company, I will use my talents,

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 experiences, and creativities to work hard for the success of your
organization.

Paragraph four: Tell the reader that you are ready to be interviewed when needed. If
the advertisement for the job did not require your CV, include your
phone numbers in this paragraph so that they can contact you for an
interview. For example, you may provide the following arguments:
I am ready for an interview when needed. I can be contacted at 0761
000 001. Or as requested in the advertisement, I attach a copy of my
CV with this letter. I am ready to appear for an interview if contacted
three days before the interview date.

8. Ending: To end the letter you would write phrases such as “yours sincerely” or “yours
faithfully,” etc.
9. Signature: You should sign your letter before sending it. This should come after ending
your letter and your full name should appear just below the signature.
Example of a Job Application Letter

P.O.BOX 11031,
DODOMA,
TANZANIA.

28th November, 2014.

THE VICE CHANCELLOR,
THE UNIVERSITY OF PONGWE,
P.O. BOX 411,
NAIROBI, KENYA.

Dear Sir,
A REQUEST FOR A POST OF ASSISTANT LECTURER IN LINGUISTICS
I am writing to apply for the post of assistant lecturer in linguistics which was advertised on the
daily newspaper dated 24th October 2014.

I hold master’s degree in linguistics and I have a two years working experience as an English
teacher in secondary school. I have also worked as a part-time instructor in English at the
University of Moshi in Kilimanjaro Region and a part-time instructor in communication skills at
the institute of Judicial Education in Singida Region.

Having enough experience in teaching and being a very motivated teacher, I have a feeling that I
will work to meet the objectives of establishing the course at your institution if you offer me a
chance to work as a part-time lecturer in Linguistics.

I have attached a copy of my curriculum vitae together with the copies of my certificates with
this letter for reference. I am ready to appear for an interview when needed.

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I thank you in advance for your consideration.

Yours faithfully,
……………..
NajutaKuzaliwa

Letters Addressed to More than One Person

Some requests require authorities from heads of different sections. For example, an employee at
a University requesting a permission to travel out of the region of employment has to request
permission to travel from the college Principal. For the college Principal to grant the permission,
he/she has to know if the employee has everything related to his/her work in a good order before
his travel and his absence may not affect the college’s functions. The Principal will know these
through the head of the department and dean of the school in which the employee is working, or
any other authorities depending on the University.

In such circumstances, a letter has to be addressed to more than one person. The addresses for all
the people who should authorize the request are written on the left hand side of the paper. All the
subordinates in the hierarchy are introduced by an abbreviation u. f. s which stands for ‘under
further signature.’ The letter should have all the addresses for the people to authorize it in the left
hand side arranged according to the rank of the people addressed, i.e. the address of the person
with high rank in the organization should appear at the top and followed by those with lower
ranks. This is so because the letter will pass to the officers with lower ranks before it reaches the
top authorities. For example, a letter will pass to the head of department before it reaches to the
dean of school. See the example in the next pages:

Examples of Letters Addressed to More than One Person

Box 300,
Dodoma-Tanzania.

25th June, 2012.

The Director of Human Resource Management,
Patapata Secondary School,
Box 201,
Dodoma.

u. f. s. The Discipline Master,

School of Fine Arts and Arts Subjects.

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u. f. s. The Head,
Department of Arts Subjects,
P. o. box 626,
Dodoma-Tanzania.

Dear Madam!

RE:A REQUEST FOR A STUDY LEAVE

I would like to call your attention on the heading above. I am Eliakimu Sane, who is an
employee at your school, working at the Department of Arts Subjects.

I am writing to inform you that I intend to start my bachelor degree studies (B. A. Education) in
the next academic `year 2013/2014 at the University of Dodoma and, therefore, I am requesting a
study leave of three years, that is from 21st January, 2013 to pursue my intended studies.

I attach with this letter a copy of my admission letter from the University of Dodoma for further
reference.

I hope that you will consider my request.

Yours sincerely,

……………..
Eliakimu Sane

Example of a Letter to Ask for Promotion at Job

27th December, 2010.

THE DEPUTY VICE CHANCELLOR (ARC),
THE UNIVERSITY OF ZIZO,
BOX 305,
MWANZA-TANZANIA.

U. F. S. THE PRINCIPAL,
COLLEGE OF ARTS STUDIES.

U. F. S. THE DEAN,
SCHOOL HUMANITIES.

U. F. S. HEAD OF DEPARTMENT,

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 DEPARTMENT OF FINE ARTS AND PERFORMANCE.

Dear Sir!

RE: REQUEST FOR PROMOTION

I am writing this letter to request your attention on my career. First of all, I would like to take
this opportunity to express my thanks and appreciation for accommodating me as a member of
ZIZO academic staff where I have been working as a tutor in the department of mathematics. I
have been working with the team while pursuing my master’s degree studies (Master of Science
in Mathematics) and I have successfully completed my studies with very good passes.

Having completed and passed my master’s degree studies, I am requesting you to move me to
upward position from a tutor to an assistant lecturer in Mathematics.

I thank you in advance for your time and consideration.

Yours sincerely,

………………….
John Kajasho

NB: In some organizations you may not be required to write a letter to ask for promotion because
they may be automatic. The management may know that you are on studies and when you
graduated or expected to graduate. Remember that you might have asked for a study leave before
you went for the studies, therefore your progress report will help.

In replying the letters such as those above, the persons addressed will use the same channels to
inform those in authority and the persons with requests that the request(s) are agreed or not.
Using one the letters above, for example, the human resource manager will have the addresses of
those with higher ranks (bellow him/her) starting at the bottom and lastly the name of the
addressor. If there are other people with higher ranks and authorities or even with lower ranks
and authorities but need to be informed about the matter, these will be carbon copied the letter,
just to let them know about the fact and if there is anything they need to do about the decision. In
addition, the reply will have a reference number since it will be kept in the personal file of the
person with the request. See the following example:

Patapata Secondary School,

Box 201,
Dodoma.

18th December, 2012.

Ref: PT/AC/PF-23/5

Eliakimu Sane
Patapata Secondary School

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u. f. s. The Head,
Department of Arts Subjects.

u. f. s. The Discipline Master,

School of Fine Arts and Arts Subjects,
P. o. box 626,
Dodoma-Tanzania.

RE: A GRANT OF STUDY LEAVE

Reference is made to your letter of 25 th June, 2012. I am glad to inform you that your request for
study leave is accepted as from 21st January, 2013 as you requested. However, you will be
required to submit your progress report to the headmaster’s office at the end of every semester
for the whole period of your study.

Patapata secondary school would like to congratulate you for having been selected to pursue
your degree in education at the University of Dodoma and wish you good luck in your studies!

Parapanda M. N.

…………….
Human Resource Manager

c. c. Head master
c. c. The School Manager
c. c. Bursar

JOB RECOMMENDATION/COVERING LETTERS

These are letters written to recommend someone to a particular organization in which he/she is
applying for a job. They are also written to recommend someone to pursue further studies. They
are usually written by someone who supervised you in a job, taught or supervised you in
education. You must be honest when recommending someone for a particular job because you
may cause serious problems by recommending someone for a particular job when you know that
she/he doesn’t possess the required qualities. Just think how you will cause serious problems by
recommending someone for a medical doctor position while the person is not qualified for the
position.

Important Things to Consider when Writing a Recommendation/Covering Letters

 Your address and the contact information: You should have your address and contact
information, i.e. your address (usually the organization/institution address, phone
numbers and e-mail address) written at the top right corner of the paper.
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  Date: The date of writing that recommendation letter should appear just below your
address and contact information. Leave a space between the address and the date.
 Addressee’s address: If you know where the letter is going, use the full address of the
addressee. Usually, we don’t know the addressees’ to whom for the recommendation
letters are directed to. The person you are recommending may use the letter in many
places when applying for job or positions, we do not write addresses; instead, we write a
sentence ‘To whom it may concern:’ on the right hand side of the paper below the date.

 Title of the letter: This appears below the words ‘To Whom It May Concern:’ It should
include the name of the person and the organization. See the following examples,
Eliakimu’s service with Afrocquick; or Eliakimu’s schooling at UDOM; or Re: Eliakimu
at UDOM; or RE: ELIAKIMU
 The body of the letter: The body of the letter should have the following structure and
contents:

Paragraph one: Introduce that the person is known to you and the organization and for how
long.
Paragraph two: In this paragraph, explain the position or if the applicant is a student, the courses
taken by the applicant.
Paragraph three: Explain the strength or weaknesses of the person you are writing the covering
letter.

In ending the letter, include your full name, signature and you title/position you hold at the
institution.

EXAMPLE OF A COVERING LETTER FOR JOB RECOMMENDATION

Box 209
Dodoma
Tanzania
0762 355 321
John Kajasho
Tanzania chief coordinator
kijoti@gmail.com

17th December, 2012

To whom it may concern:

RE: ELIAKIMU SANE’S SERVICE WITH AFROQUACK

In regard with the heading above, Eliakimu Sane is an individual who is well known to
Afroquick Society Organization with a record of service spanning three years. He has had roles
of teaching at the organization at the following dates:

English language teacher May, 2006-January, 2008

African history teacher February, 2008-January, 2009

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As a teacher, Eliakimu worked as advanced secondary school students’ teacher. In his teaching,
he was responsible for preparing lesson plans and teaching the subjects to Form Five and Six
students. As a teacher, Eliakimu lived and worked with other teachers coming from cross-
cultural environment.

Afroquick Society Organization is a charity based organization found in Arusha rural, providing
education to students from poor families.

During his time with Afroquick, Eliakimu has been working hard, passionate, and reliable, and
his effectiveness is indicated in the times he has been invited to return.
Please feel free to contact us with any question.
……………………..
Posh Kijoti
The chief coordinator- Southern Highland zone.

4.2.4 Report Writing

A report is an informative written document that is written after research, investigation or critical
study or observation. Usually a report contains details that can’t be found in normal letters and
memos.

Importance of Reports
 Help in decision making
 Efficient way of disseminating complex info. Systematically to a large number of people
in business
 Are a permanent record
 Present suggestions on ways in which a situation may be improved
 Key for future plans
 Identify the weaknesses of the company
 Help in the Assessment of the performance appraisals
 Help in making conclusions and interpreting the information
 For company literature review( source of reference)
 Evaluate and assess the progress of the company

Qualities of an effective report

 A report will achieve its objectives if it provides the necessary and sufficient balance of
the following characteristics relating to the specific audience and situation.
 Accuracy of facts
 Precision- being clear with the purpose of a report.
 Relevance- each fact must be significant to a report.
 Clarity- everything should be made clear.
 Design(Organisation, logic progression and layout)
 Emphasis (of the most important points).

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  Reader oriented – put the report reader in mind as you write (layman or expert) otherwise
it will not be comprehended.
 Objectivity of recommendations- they should be impartial/ bias free. They should be
derived from logical conclusion to investigation and analysis.
 Simple and unambiguous language- use common core and formal language.
 Grammatical accuracy – language rules, punctuation marks should be appropriately get
applied.

Issues to consider before writing any report

 Define the problem and purpose (TOR)
 Consider who will receive the report
 Determine ideas to include
 Collect needed materials
 Sort, analyze and interpret data
 Organize data and prepare final outline (know what will form which chapter).

Types of Reports
Based on Tambwe (2011), reports are classified under various criteria as follows:
 Level of formality i.e. formal and informal.
 Purpose i.e. informative and analytical or investigative reports.
 Destination i.e. management report, public report.
 Time interval of presenting i.e. periodic or routine reports like the daily, weekly,
monthly, annual reports,
 Level of complexity i.e. simple vs complex report.
 Event oriented- special reports.

 Length i.e. short and long. The short ones 1-2 pages) includes part of the elements
required in formal reports while long ones must have all required elements in a formal
report.

Based on Shumbusho and Mwaijande(2002)

a) Routine/Periodic reports
These are reports that are made on a regular, prescribed interval in the usual routine of day to day
activities. Normally only facts are presented with no recommendations.
 Managers’ reports on the work of their departments
 Equipment maintenance reports
 Progress reports, Accident reports etc.

They aim at presenting a correct and coherent picture of the working of the firm concerned
during the period concerned.

b) Special reports

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These are reports written in response to requests for specific information, for market research,
regarding a change of policy, or made after research and investigation. Examples include;
Proposal reports, feasibility reports, Investigative reports.

c) Progressreport
These describe and assess the progress made during a particular period. They account on the
work already done, work in progress with other relevant facts and details yet to be completed.
They cover a brief introduction to the project; a brief account of the work completed plus any
special problems encountered and their solutions, important aspects of the work not yet
completed and any obstacles that might slow down the work.

d) Analyticalreports
These are reports specially commissioned to study important aspects or events where old files are
studied, personal interviews are held, questionnaires are circulated, relevant literature is studied
and then facts are compiled, analysed and conclusions are drawn and recommendations follow.

Parts of a report
Parts of reports do differ from one report to the other depending on the nature of it i.e. length,
subject matter presented, level of formality etc, however most complex reports include the
following elements:
a) Preliminary sections
 Title
 Terms of reference
 Synopsis
 Table of contents
 List of illustrations (abbrev., symbols)
 Glossary
b) Main body – Introduction, Main content part,(Literature review, methodology, data analysis
and presentation of findings)
c) Conclusions, recommendations and
d) List of references and Appendices

Formal simple reports on the other side contain the following parts;

Heading
There should be two headings to a report, the name of the company, and the report topic
………….

Terms of reference
This section should state exactly why the report is written. Why are you writing the report? What
was requested? Who requested it? When were you asked to do it?

Procedure
Give a brief description of the methods used to collect the information. Perhaps interviews were
held, visits made, questionnaires issued? Use numbered points if appropriate.

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Findings
This will be the longest section of the report. Go through the procedure point by point and use
number and sub headings for this section. Under each heading state what information was
gathered at each stage.

Conclusion
No new fact must be introduced in this section. You must look at the findings and state
the logical implication of them. What can you infer or conclude from the findings.

Recommendations
Again no new facts must be introduced here. On the basis of information presented in findings
and conclusions, make some suggestions for action. Remember that the writer of the report can’t
make report decisions- he or she only suggests what action should be taken.

Closing section
A report should be signed and there should be a name and title shown at the foot plus the date the
report was written.

Example of a Simple Formal report;

Mbalamwezi Petroleum Company

Report on complaints about poor customer service

Terms of reference
To investigate complaint about poor customer service provided by the staff and make
recommendations, as requested by Mr.Moon Peter.

Procedure
 An interview was held with Mr. NwankwoKanu, the sales manager on 2/11/013
 Interviews were held with a cross section of customers (60) who we provide to our
services

Findings
 Interview with Mr. NwankwoKanu , (the sales manager)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………… …………………………………………

 Interview with customers

..
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………

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Conclusions
1……………………………………………………………………………
2……………………………………………………………………………

Recommendations
1……………………………………………………………………………
2……………………………………………………………………………

Bibliograph/ references
…………………………………………………………………………………

Friday Stephano
Business administration officer

4.2.5 Speech Writing

Introduction
A speech is a logical oral presentation of ideas and concepts to a group of people in a specified
setting. Speech writing on the other hand is the presentation of originally oral ideas and related
concepts in a form of writing. Normally, a speech is meant to convey one’s thoughts or opinions,
share information with or spread awareness among a large number of people. A good speech has
clarity of thought and expression, accuracy of facts and an unbiased view of issues.
This notice manual focuses on structuring the speech and utilizing proper writing techniques.
Each speech should be comprised of three major parts: introduction, body, and conclusion.
However, before writing the speech, you are advised to outline the major points. An outline
provides a framework that arranges the major points and supporting materials. Rearrange the
major ideas in the speech until you believe the layout will have the greatest impact on your
listeners.

Basic considerations in writing

When writing anything, three major aspects should be mostly taken into account:
 Knowing your reader - before one begins writing even the first draft, one needs to think
about who will receive the message. Who are they? Why will they read the message?
What do they already know about my subject matter? What are their attitudes towards my
message? Answers to these questions and any other relevant ones will guide the writers to
know their readers. Better messages are those appealing to the reader’s needs.

 Know your Purpose – What changes do you aim your message to institute to your
readers? Is it just for informing, requesting, confirming, persuading, inquiring,
complaining or demonstrating? However, some messages do combine two or more of
these purposes. This will guide you towards an appropriate diction and focus.

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  Know your subject – for the clarity of a message, you will need to promptly know your
subject well. This knowledge may emanate from the job experience you have had been
doing or through doing further research of the topic you want to talk about.

 Developing a writing style – this is the modality through which your message will be
organized. Is it in a letter, memo or report format?

Writing a Speech
After you have analyzed your audience, selected the topic, collected supporting materials, and
written an outline, it is time to write the speech.

The Introduction
The introduction usually states the purpose of the speech. A good introduction serves as an
attention getter, previews the topic and main ideas, and establishes your credibility as a speaker
(O’Hair, Rubenstein, & Stewart, 2007). Some good ways to grab attention include using a
quotation, telling a story, posing questions, using humor, using startling facts or statistics,
providing an illustration or anecdote, or referencing historical or recent events. A preview
statement identifies the main points of the speech, helping the audience focus on the key points
of the remainder of the presentation. The audience determines your credibility based on the
introduction—they want to know why they should believe
what you have to say. Therefore, establishing yourself as a credible speaker in the introduction is
imperative, especially for a persuasive speech, so that the audience will want to be persuaded by
you. You should include some experience or knowledge that shows why you are credible on the
topic.

The Body
The body is the largest part of the speech, where you provide the audience with the major
supporting materials. The main points of the speech are contained in this section. Main points
should flow from the speech’s goal and thesis statement. It is advisable to limit your content to
include between two and five main points, with a maximum of seven main points. Speeches with
three main points are common. If you have too many main points, your audience will forget
them. Focusing on a few points and providing effective supporting points for each makes your
speech more memorable. Supporting points are the supporting materials you have collected to
justify your main points. These help to substantiate your thesis.

The Conclusion
The conclusion wraps up the presentation by providing a summary of what the audience was
supposed to have learned or have been persuaded to do during the presentation.You can signal
that the conclusion is approaching byusing key phrases, such as “finally,” “let me close by
saying,”“I’d like to stress these three points,” and “in conclusion.”Because the conclusion is the
last opportunity to motivateyour listeners, it should end strongly. For a persuasivespeech, a
strong ending would be a call to action, where youtell the audience members they should do
something withthe information they have learned.Many times, you can use a mirrored conclusion
example that ties back to or “mirrors” the information you provide in the introduction. For

71
example, if you use statistics as your attention-getting method in the introduction to a speech
about recycling on campus, your speech’s beginningand ending might sound something like this:

Introduction: “According to the University of Florida’s Office of Sustainability, the campus used
more than 4 million trash bags in 2006 alone, weighing 163 tons without the trash. Altogether,
UF generates over 14,000 tons of trash per year.” Mirrored Conclusion: “Each time you are
about to throw a
bottle, can, or newspaper in the trash, decide to recycle it instead and help reduce the 14,000 tons
of waste we create each year at UF.”

Conversational Speech
You should write the speech like you talk. Follow these writing tips to make your speech as
conversational as possible:
• Use short sentences of 20 words or less. You usually do not use long sentences in a
conversation. Short sentences— even sentence fragments—are fine for a speech.
• Avoid complicated sentence structures. Simple sentences that have a subject, verb, and object
are perfect for public speaking.
• Use contractions. “Do not” and “cannot” are usually too formal for most speeches. “Don’t” and
“can’t” are fine. Be careful of contractions ending in “-ve” (e.g., “would’ve,” “could’ve”)
because they sound like “would of ” and “could of.”
• Avoid jargon or technical language. Use words that your audience knows.
• Round large numbers. Detailed numbers• Use repetition. The same word or phrase used
repeatedly emphasizes a major point.
• Write with visual imagery. Make your listeners “see” what you are saying. Help them visualize
the situation you are describing.

Types of Speeches
Speeches can be divided into the following categories: the informative speech, the persuasive
speech, and speeches for special occasions.

Informative Speech
If the speech’s purpose is to define, explain, describe, or demonstrate, it is an informative speech.
The goal of an informative speech is to provide information completely and clearly so that the
audience understands the message. Examples of informative speeches include describing the
life cycle stages of an egg to a chicken, explaining how to operate a camera, or demonstrating
how to cook a side dish for a meal. The organization of the speech depends on your specific
purpose and varies depending on whether you are defining, explaining, describing, or
demonstrating. Informative demonstration speeches lend themselves well to the use of visual
aids to show the step-by-step processes with real objects.

Persuasive Speech
Persuasive speeches are given to reinforce people’s beliefs about a topic, to change their beliefs
about a topic, or to move them to act. When speaking persuasively, directly state what is good or
bad and why you think so near the beginning of the speech. This is your thesis statement that you
want to make early on. Since your purpose is topersuade using logic and reasoning, this

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communicates to listeners that you want to convince them of your point of view. One way to
structure a persuasive speech is to use the
five-part argument:

 The introduction attracts the attention of the audience, sets the tone, and describes what
the persuasive speech is about. The introduction usually includes the thesis statement—
the specific sentence that explains the main point of the argument.
 The background provides the context and details needed for a listener to understand the
situation being described, as well as the problem or opportunity being addressed.
 Lines of argument make up the body of the speech. Here is where you include all the
claims, reasons, and supporting evidence you have that help you make your points
effectively.
 Refuting objections means disproving, ruling out, and countering any potential objections
before the listeners can think of reasons not to be persuaded.
 The conclusion is where you present your closing arguments. To be effective, the
conclusion should restate your thesis statement and summarize the main points of your
argument. If you are advocating a particular solution to a problem or a decision to be
made, you should close by asking your listeners to adopt your point of view.

Speeches for Special Occasions

Speeches for special occasions are prepared for a specific occasion and for a specific purpose
dictated by that occasion (O’Hair et al., 2007). Speeches for special occasions can be
informative, persuasive, or both, depending on the occasion. Two of the more common types of
speeches for special occasions are the speech of introduction and the speech of welcome. The
speech of introduction is a brief speech that provides the main speaker’s qualifications. This
speech prepares the audience for the main speaker by establishing the speaker’s credibility and
helps make the speaker feel welcome. To write the speech of introduction, gather biographical
information about the speaker. Try to find out one or two pieces of information about the
speaker’s background or credentials that would establish a relationship with the
audience. The speech of introduction is usually one to no more than three minutes in length. The
speech of welcome acknowledges and greets a person or group of people. The speech of
welcome expressespleasure for the presence of the person or group. The purpose is to make the
person or group feel welcome and to provide information about the organization you represent.
Find out something about the person or group beforehand that you can include in the speech of
welcome. The speech of welcome typically lasts between three and five minutes.

Speech format:
• Beginning: A pre-speech note
Salutation
Occasion of speech and an announcement of topic:
• Development of topic:
Reference to newspapers statistics, effects and results, arguments, etc
• Winding up: Summing up of all points
• Conclusion : Conclude with a hope or an appeal or a warning
End with a ‘Thank You’
N.B;

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Points to remember:
• It is very important to hold the attention of the audience. Therefore, keep the speech to the
point and appealing.
• Start the speech with an interesting bit of information, a question or a quotation.
• Convey your opinions and views in an organised and coherent manner.
• Develop each point properly and then move on to the next one.
• Provide examples, statistics and facts that are properly researched and authentic.
• Interact with the audience by posing questions and including some humour, if it is appropriate.
• End with an emphasis on your point of view and personal inferences so that the audience thinks
about what you have expressed.
• Always thank the audience for listening to you before leaving the stage.

Sample speeches:
1. You have lately read the account of many cases of violent behaviour by school children.
Some instances have been quite injurious and harmful to the victims. You are shocked by
these accounts and decide to share your views with your schoolmates. Prepare a speech
for the morning assembly on the topic ‘Growing violence in children: Causes and cures’.

Honourable principal, respected teachers and my dear friends,

I would like to share my views on the growing violence among children these days, which is
proving to be rather detrimental to the children’s progress. Lack of an appropriate environment
and good parental care, and pressure of peers are some of the factors that are responsible for
giving rise to negative emotions in children. Feelings of neglect and immense pressure cause
anger and dissatisfaction in these youngsters. The growing exposure to crime films and thrillers
too raises the levels of aggression in them.

Moreover, the rush of consumerism has aroused a child’s desire to possess whatever he sees in
the advertisements on the television. And in case of non-fulfillment of these desires and wants,
there is cause for resentment and frustration. Television shows like WWF and violent scenes in
movies etc lead the innocent children to imitate them. The negative characters in movies become
their role models whom they want to ape in order to appear ‘cool’. Parents, teachers and social
reformers should inculcate the right values in children through persuasion and instruction. Being
the torch-beaness of the future, children need to be guided well and shown the correct path in
life. Let us hope for a better future with the children of today becoming sensible and sensitive
citizens of tomorrow.

Thank you.

2. Write a speech in about 150–200 words on ‘Environmental Pollution’, which you have
to deliver during the morning assembly in your school.

Respected principal and teachers and my dear friends,

Today I am going to speak on the topic ‘Environmental Pollution’, which is a serious problem
that the whole world is facing today. The tremendous increase in population is the root cause of
all kinds of pollution. More people on this earth means more waste material being created.

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 Another factor is the advancement in science and technology. It has made our lives very
comfortable but has also given rise to a variety of problems that are harming the environment.
Pollution comes in various forms. Air pollution is caused by the smoke from factories, the
exhaust fumes from vehicles and the burning of garbage containing
chemical materials. Water pollution is caused when toxic waste materials are disposed off into
seas and rivers. Soil pollution is again the result of incorrect methods of waste disposal.
Radioactive waves from electronic objects and non biodegradable material like plastics also
contaminate the air and the soil. With modernisation, we have reached a stage where the
enormous noise caused by industrial and transport activities has become a health hazard.
Even though it may not be possible for mankind to eliminate environmental pollution totally, the
hazards can be minimised by adopting alternate methods and following certain rules. We must
remember that by protecting the environment, we are protecting ourselves.

Thank you.

WORKSHEETS
1. You have to deliver a speech in the morning assembly on the relevance of Mahatma
Gandhi in the 21st century, in India. We gave him the title of ‘the Father of the Nation’,
yet we appear to remember Gandhiji’s life-work and his sacrifice for his motherland only
on two days of the year—30 January and 2 October. Politicians give speeches at public
gatherings, the film ‘Gandhi’ is telecast on a couple of TV channels, but in our daily lives
we think it unnecessary to follow his example. Write the speech in about 150–200 words,
describing Gandhiji’s contribution to our country.

3. Wheelchair Warriors, Sanjana, Vipul and Atul, have been suffering from a debilitating
disease—muscular dystrophy—for almost three decades. The symptoms started
appearing when they were in their early teens. But disability has not dampened their
spirit. It has only made them more determined. You are deeply moved by the above
report. You realise that physically challenged people can also play a constructive role in
society. We should neither underestimate nor ignore them; and we should definitely not
pity them. We must give them the opportunity to prove themselves. Give a speech during
the morning assembly urging your schoolmates to understand people like Sanjana, Vipul
and Atul.

4. The student council of your school has to select its president. Many students have
forwarded their names for the voting process. You, as a nominee, have to motivate the
students to vote for you. Write a speech stating the reasons why you should be selected,
your positive points, etc.

5. The Government of Tanzania has declared 14 October 2014 as ‘Nyerere Day’ and
has distributed posters in schools around Dodoma stating;
Grow More Trees! For
• More oxygen in the environment, Comforts they give to mankind
• Trees are man’s best friends against Weak roots, Cutting down of trees
• Soil erosion

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 Using ideas from the above poster write a speech on ‘Need for Preservation of
Plants and Trees’.

6. On the ocassion of the World Health Day, Kamayani has been asked to give a speech on
‘Need for Health Care Centres’. Taking ideas from the notes below, write the speech in
about 150 words, to be delivered in the morning assembly. Government launched health
care schemes—pulse polio campaign—re-emergence of infections like dengue, cholera,
etc—HIV infection multiplied—urgent need of health centres—can prevent diseases—
early diagnosis—effective cure—will ensure a disease-free nation.

7. Stop! Stop! Stop! Female foeticide disallowed Girls – gift to humanity

Girls deserve equal opportunities Opposing nature Foeticide-creating imbalance is girl-
boy ratio .
Using your ideas after observing the poster above, write a speech for the morning
assembly on ‘Female foeticide a bane’. Do not exceed 150 words.

8. You have to give a speech on the topic, ‘Introduction of the new grading system in
form IV National Examinations results. You have read a few newspapers and made
the notes below, Write your speech using these notes in not more than 150 words.

• Will decrease pressure on the students

• Cumulative assessment
• No rat race for the students
• Fewer cases of stress-related suicides

4.2.6 Writing Messages on Greeting Cards

“What is so often missing from our lives today is the richness of shared humanity, those
moments when we feel really connected to other human beings. The act of writing personal notes
not only feeds our own soul, but also lets us share ourselves with others offering hopes, affirming
life, connecting.” By Sandra E. Lamb

Examples of the typical occasions and events for which you may want to send a greeting card
with your written message are: birth days, weddings, birth and adoptions, welcome, new years,
employee leaving, retirement, promotion, holidays, sympathy, get well (sickness, injured) etc.

Principles and Guidelines when thinking about the content to present

 Write as soon as you hear and confirm the news.

 Always add your own message to that of a greeting card, even when the printed
verse on the card seems perfect. One’s own words make the message really

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 personal, add the sender’s voice, and help to make the connection the sender
wants when sending a message for a joyful occasion, or a sad one.
 First and foremost, think about offering encouragement.
 Rely on the prevailing relationship with the recipient to dictate your message.
 If possible, learn something about how the recipient views his or her situation
before writing. Focus on the recipient and don’t misdirect your message towards
your own feelings.
 Express simply that you were sorry of hear about the accident/ illness if that is the
case.
 Make a statement about your concern.
 Try to relieve any possible anxiety about things other than the recipient’s
recovery.
 Keep the message sunny and upbeat.
 Be short and concise.
 Consider the religious preferences, ethnic mores, family wishes, and
organizational customs of the recipient when writing your message, and don’t
include any conflicting ideologies you may embrace.
 Make a specific offer of help, indicating when and how you will take the next step
to carry out your offer.
 Combine your message with a small gift of a book or an activity the recipient can
enjoy while recuperating.
 For the recovering child, build anticipation of an upcoming event at a time when
he or she will be fully recovered, and include some kind of related activity for
now.
 If you send flowers or another gift, include a personal note.
 Close on a warm and positive note.

Avoiding wrong messages:

 Don’t moralise or include empty statements which meant to be sympathetic such as,
“it could have been much worse or at least you didn’t die…”
 Be sure to omit any hint or pity.
 Do not offer unsolicited advice, think only of offering comfort.
 Avoid insincere or empty offers of help.
 Avoid dramatic or tragic words or phrases in referring to either the patient or your
own feelings. Words like tragic accident, the worst case are not comforting.
 Do not dwell in comparative stories, like peter’s brother had the same operation…”

The addition of Sender’s own message becomes easier if he/she:

 Focuses on the sender’s and recipient’s relationship.
 Focuses on the occasion about which one is writing, and its effects on the recipient
or how she or he feels about it. These two steps create a circle of light in which one
will be able to effectively write one’s message.
 Puts herself/ himself how one feels about the recipient, the event, and the person’s
reaction to it into this circle. Reflect all these lights when writing your message.

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Consider special situations: e.g. The injury or illness will have severe financial repercussions
for the recipient. Inquire to learn how best to offer help, but don’t let your offer take on the
character of charity.

4.2.7 Curicullum Vitae Writing

The term resume is used by Americans while CV by the British but both convey the same
information.
• Some scholars claim that a resume is shorter (max 2 pages) than a CV.
• A good CV can kick start your carrier as it advertises you.
What is a CV? A CV is a document which gives a brief account of one’s personal data,
educational qualifications, work experience and other additional information deemed important
for the job one is seeking.

A CV FORMAT/INGREDIENTS
• PERSONAL DATA
Name, sex, date of birth, nationality, age, marital status, contact address, phone no.
• EDUCATION BACKGROUND
Year Institution Qualification
2011-2013 Udsm M.A (PSPA)
2006- 2010 Udom BA (ACC)
 WORK EXPERIENCE
2010 to date - marketing manager smith comp.
2007- 2010 - accountantMwene Sec. school.
……………………………………………………………………….
 OTHER WORKING SKILLS
Computer , language etc
 WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCES ATTENDED
• HOBIES AND INTERESTS
• REFERENCES / REFEREES
Here is a section where you will list people (usually three) who know you professionally. These
could be:
- Your superior in your organization, your instructors etc.
- You should give their full names and contacts

• DECLARATION, SIGNATURE AND DATE

- Declaration is the statement given to certify that the information you have given is true.

- Signature abides you to the CV i.e. showing that the document is yours.

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- The date shows how recent your CV is.

.2.8 Essay Writing

What is it?
Essay writing is one of writing we normally do in academic life. Essay writing is important in
academic life because it is one way of communicating ideas in various subjects of
specializations.Thus an essay is a piece of writing on a particular subject or topic. It can be
fictional or non fictional.
Characteristics of a good essay
Unity: Sentences should focus on one theme or topic with a definite purpose (homogenous entity
rather than a separate entity”
Order: Logical organization of ideas or arguments (systematicity)
Brevity: Essay should not be too long. At least 300 words.
Style: Formal style: No slang, colloquial terms or contractions. Language should be simple,
direct and natural.
Coherence: All sentences in should be related to one another logically. Coherence helps the
reader to follow the flow of writer’s ideas. Coherence in essays is attained by using transitional
markers (transitional words) which include: such as, and, also, furthermore, likewise, for
instance, on the other hand, aforementioned, he, she, in contrast, conversely, similarly, again,
additionally, consequently, as follows, etc.
Cohesion: This is a grammatical and /or lexical relationship between different elements of a text.
Relationship between sentences is achieved by using cohesion or transition markers such as:
moreover, besides, in addition, this, the former, finally, etc.
Completeness: This means that the subject of the essay should be adequately developed by
providing details, explanations, definitions, evidence, etc. This will make the reader get satisfied
and not left with vague expressions or unanswered questions.
Personal touch: An essay should reveal personal feelings or opinions of the writer. One has to
express his own views in an essay rather than just quoting other people’s ideas. People have to
know your stand.
Use of citations and references: Proper citations and referencing

Approaches towards Writing Good Essays

1. Build a Rhetorical Power
Rhetorical power is a power to persuade and to communicate. It is the power to express what you
feel, what you believe, what you know and what you have discovered about yourself and about
the world around you.
A rhetorical power is built from reading. Reading generates writing. From reading you can be
able to do the following:
- learn on a particular topic you want to write on
- you can learn the feelings of those you want to persuade or inform
- And you can learn good writing styles
2. Decide on the Purpose of your Essay
To write anything including essays one must decide on the purpose of writing. This process
entails, being clear on reasons of writing, one asks these questions himself/herself:
 Do you want to report on something?

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  Do you want to describe something?
 Do you want to discuss about something?
 Do you want to compare and contrast on certain issues?
 Do you want to outline on something?
 Are you intending to comment on something, etc
3. Decide on What Type of Essay you Want to Write
Is it narrative; expository; descriptive; argumentative; imaginative etc
Narrative essay: Consists of stories or narrations of events. Some of the events may be
historical, personal or fictional.
Expository essay: It is also called explanatory essay. It explains some subject, terms or ideas;
compares things; or explains how to do something (gives instructions). Examples: Cause and
effect essays, compare and contrast essays, those which define certain concepts and those which
expose problems and provide solutions. Expository essays are the essays that most of college and
university students write during their tests and examinations.
Descriptive essay: Describes about places, things like animals or buildings, actions, phenomena
or events that happened in the past, manufactured articles such as cars etc.
Argumentative or persuasive essay: Essay with the aim of convincing or persuading,
motivating, or persuading readers to accept changes or take actions and sometimes it can be
written for the purpose of discouraging some bad behaviour among intended readers.
 It involves inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning proceeds from specific
aspects or details to the general aspects or idea. Deductive reasoning proceeds from
logically general facts to specific details or aspects.
Imaginative essay: Essay which expresses ones feelings about certain situation or experience. A
writer places himself or herself in someone’s position and starts writing about what he feels
about that position or certain experience.
4. Think of your Audience
 Who are you writing to (audience), are they lay people, technical, or non technical
people? Or is it simply your lecturer(s)
 Consideration of your audience is necessary because it will affect the choice of
vocabulary, structure and approach (how you have to say it), what you have to write
(content) and style of writing and presentation. This consideration again is necessary
because by doing so you will be putting the reader in first priority for the essay is aimed
at him/her.
5. The Essay Question
 Any writing and in particular essay writing starts with an essay question. For timed
essays there is usually a question set for you by your examiners/lecturers. For free written
essay, long report or term paper it should start by a question of your own making. That is,
make your own essay question.
6. Understand the Requirements of the Essay Question
 After you have been presented with an essay question or after you have made your own
question, then the next step is to understand the requirements of the essay question.

 Understanding the demands of the question correctly is an important skill towards the
best approach to follow and producing an effective answer to the question.
 There have been many cases where students produce stereo type answers particularly
copying from lecture notes as if all questions had the same demands.

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  It should be understood that instructions to essay questions enormously. Each essay
question has its own specific requirements. With the timed essays tutors and examiners
normally spell out these requirements in the essay questions themselves.
Thus try to develop the ability to recognise exactly what is required by the essay question.
 There are three important things that you need to do in order to be able to understand the
requirements of the essay question and interpret it effectively:
I. Subject or Theme
 Identify the subject or theme of the question. Actually this is the key word of the essay.
The key word is a broad area; it may be land surveying, economics, urban poverty,
education, trading systems, population etc.
 This will help you remember things you know about the topic or subject.

II. Key Instructional Words

 Identify the key instructional words of the question. These show exactly what to do in the
essay.
 These words are the words that instruct/direct the candidate what the question demands.
 It is generalized that, in most cases the instructional words demand either FACTS or
OPINIONS, o r BOTH. Let us look at some of these words and what they demand:
KEY INSTRUCTIONAL WORD D E M A N

F A C T S O P I N I

D i s c u s s √ √

D e f i n e √

What is understood by…. √

C o m m e n t o n √

D e s c r i b e √

E x p l a i n √

E x a m i n e √ √

Compare and contrast √ √ ( s o m e t i m e

O u t l i n e √

I d e n t i f y √

R e v i e w √ √

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 E v a l u a t e √ √

A n a l y s e √ √

The above generalization suggests that when a student is asked to “discuss” for example, he/she
should put what he/she knows about a given topic (facts) and give his/her own experience
(opinion).In other words a discussion is a series of arguments and evidences presented by the
writer on paper.

III. Special Conditions

 In addition to the key instructional words, you are also supposed to note any special
conditions for answering the question.

 Special conditions are phrases or clauses which are in the question to limit the scope of
the essay by setting boundaries in terms of time, place, and amount of words/ pages,
extent etc. They give restrictions in order to get a topic which can be completely
developed in a single paper.
Examples:
(i) Explain in your own words the practical problem of aircraft technology in the third world
countries.
 Theme/subject: aircraft technology
 Key instructional word: explain
 Special conditions: in your own words, and in the third world countries
(ii) With vivid examples compare and contrast formal and informal reports on their format and
use.
 Theme/subject: formal and informal reports
 Key instructional words: compare and contrast
 Special conditions: with vivid examples; format and use

7. Deciding on the Structure of your Essay

Planning an essay question involves an effort to try to organize the material and decide on the
most effective order of presentation.Deciding on organization or structure of presentation of the
required information is dependent on correct and careful planning.Planning helps to shape the
development of your essay, the content to enter and how much time to spend on each part of the
essay and the entire writing process. Thus make a plan.A plan is therefore, essentially a sketch,
an outline, a frame work or a skeleton of your essay.

Steps in Planning
1. List the points you want to cover. List only those points which meet the needs of the question,
your reader and of your plan.
2. Select those items/points which you think are most relevant to the topic
3. Break the material into logical decisions thus creating a sense of unity. This can be done by
classifying and analyzing the points and deciding the order of presenting. For example:
 General items to specific ones;

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  Important items come first, before less important items while larger items come before
smaller ones.
8. The Order of the Essay
A systematic and good order of any essay is to present the information into three parts which are
logically connected to each other namely:
 The Introduction
 The Body/Discussion
 The Conclusion
Writing Introductions:
After a plan what follows is the introduction.This is an important area of the essay. The
introduction should supply an overall framework so that the reader can grasp the details that later
explain and develop the essay. In the introduction:
 Orient the reader(s) by defining/ explaining key the terms or concepts and provide
necessary background information. Tell what causes you to write the essay. Explain
clearly the purpose of writing the essay; give the organization of the essay as well. Define
terms: include definitions or explanations of key terms and concepts, especially if you are
describing a process.
 Provide the necessary background information. Although you know what you are
writing/speaking about, the reader/listeners often does.
 State the purpose of writing the essay: orient the reader to your topic; mention the reason
for your writing. The reasons may be to educate; to describe; to explain; to inform etc.
 State the organization/ scope of the essay: this refers to what the essay will accomplish
for the reader. In this area you should show the audience what the essay will do and how
it will do it step by step. For example:
This essay intends to highlight the use of teaching and learning strategies and the effect
on students learning in Tanzanian higher learning institutions.
 The introduction is generally short, usually a paragraph or two.

Development of the Main body:

 The main body is the section where the writer provides all the required arguments,
details, reasons, and examples.The arguments are organized in paragraphs. The
paragraphs should have unity, coherence, clear, and complete.
 Each paragraph should have a topic sentence. Topic sentence refers to a sentence that
carries the main idea of a paragraph.The development of the main body’s paragraphs can
follow either of the following patterns; inductive or deductive pattern:Inductive
paragraph is the paragraph which is organized in such a way that specific details come
first ending with the general /main idea.Deductive paragraph is the one in which the
general/main idea comes first followed with the specific details.Usually each paragraph
carries one main point. And principles of paragraphing such as unity, coherence, and
order have to be considered. Also principles of sentence structure, grammar, punctuations
and the like have to be taken care of.
Writing a Concluding Paragraph:
 Conclusion, just like introduction is the difficult part to most students. This is the last and
emphatic part of the essay.The conclusion should be convincing. It involves the following
activities: restating the essay/thesis statement, summarizing main ideas, providing

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 concluding remarks and then giving the final statement. It is in the conclusion one can
show his/her own stand. This indicates the personal touch of the essay.
Post Writing Stage:
 Proof read the essay to identify areas of weaknesses.
 Edit the essay in order to have the correct version.
 Add more information if some sentences are not complete.
 Ensure that the bibliography/references are written in a correct format, showing names of
authors, years of publication, titles, edition numbers, places of publication, names of
publishers and/or volume numbers, issue numbers and pages where articles are located in
newspapers or journals.
 Make sure that necessary details like your name, programme of study and other
specifications are provided.
 Submit the essay on time.

4.3.0 PUNCTUATION MARKS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Period/ Full stop ( . )

 To indicate the end of a declarative sentence. Example: Here is the place.
 To indicate that letters are used as abbreviations. Example: Dr. Carle D. Reynolds
 To indicate decimal fractions.Example: 16.34

Three Periods--Ellipses (…)

 To indicate that a portion of quoted matter is omitted. Example: “To receive, obey, and
pass on…”

Comma ( , )
 To separate independent clauses joined by a conjuction. Example: This is the street, but I
don’t know the number of the house.
Note: no comma is used unless each statement is independent. Example: You will police
the area and maintain a fire watch.
 To separate parts of a series. Example: Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday
 To separate coordinate or “equal” adjectives in a series.Example: a loud, sharp blast
Note: Unless the adjectives modify the same noun in the same way, they are not in series
and no comma is used. To test, check if the adjectives can be reversed. If not, no comma.
Example: heavy woolen clothing
 To separate introductory statements beginning with such words as when, while, since, if,
because, until, although, and whenever (or other subordinate conjunctions) Example:
When the rain was falling, there was very little wind.
 To set off introductory prepositional phrases (starting with on, in, at, to, by, for, of,
through, etc.) Example: By the time she crawled into bed, she was too exhausted to sleep.
Note: Short prepositional phrases (3 words or less) are not always followed by commas.
Example: In Japan he served as platoon commander.
 To separate non-essential elements from the rest of the sentence. A non-essential element
is a word or group of words that gives additional identifying information about someone
or something already identified; it’s non-essential because the sentence is still clear

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 without it. Examples: The President, who is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed
forces, rates a salute.I visited Albany, the capital of the state of New York.
Note: Commas are NOT placed around essential elements—those that limit meaning or give

 identifying information about someone or something not already identified.

Example: The procedure that you are required to follow is explained in TM 5-250.
 To set off introductory phrases beginning with verb participles ending in –ing, -ed, -en, etc.
Example: Having turned off the lathe, I stopped the motor.
 To set off such expressions as you, no, well, on the other hand, you might say, and of
course,(such expressions are called interrupters)Example: He was, of course, the first person
I saw.
 To set off such expressions as he said from direct quotations.Example: “That decision,” he
explained, “must be your own.”
Note: No comma is used to separate such expressions from the rest of the sentence if the
sentence is an indirect quotation (often introduced with the word that).Example: He
explained that the decision must be my own.

 To separate contrasting elements. Example: The wall is gray, not blue.

 To prevent misreading. Example: Undressing, the child ran into the bathroom.
 To set off the name of a person addressed. Example: Frank, may I borrow your skill saw?

Semicolon ( ; )
 To separate independent statements that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction (and,
but,or, nor, for, yet, so). Example: Black is a mixture of all colors; white is the complete
opposite.Note: If the independent statements are short, a comma may be used.
Example: Horses sweat, men perspire.
 To separate independent statements when the second statement begins with such
conjunctiveadverbs or phrases like therefore, however, thus, otherwise, on the other hand,
for example, infact, that is, etc.Example: I submitted a request six months in advance; still, I
did not receive a permit intime for the departure.

 To separate independent statements joined by conjunctions if such statements are long or

theycontain internal punctuation. Example: Classic science fiction sagas include Star Trek,
with Mr. Spock and his largepointed ears; BattlestarGalactica, with its Cylon Raiders; and
Star Wars, with Han Solo,Luke Skywalker, and Darth Vader.
Apostrophe ( ’ )
 To show possession (if the word does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s.).Example:
The doctor’s advice, the housewife’s choice, man’s clothing, Martin’s house
Note: If the word is singular and ends in s or an s sound, use apostrophe and an s
Example: Mr. Schultz’s carunless pronunciation is awkward:
Example: Miss Simmons’ coat
 To indicate the omission of letters in contractions. Examples: can’t, won’t, doesn’t, haven’t,
it’s.

 To form the plural of letters, words, and symbols that do not have logical plurals

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 Example: three 2’s, too many &’s, and seven c’s

Dash ( — )
 To indicate a sudden, abrupt break of an unfinished word or sentence
Example: “She will take charge of this post and – Wait a minute. Who are you?”

 To set off a summary of a preceding series.Example: Food, clothing, shelter, and a sense of
humor – those are the things a manneeds to survive.

Hyphen ( - )
 To join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun
 Example: a one-way street, chocolate-covered peanuts
 Use a hyphen with compound numbers
 Example: forty-six, sixty-three
 Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.
 To avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters
 Example: re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
 semi-independent (but semiconscious)
 shell-like (but childlike)
 Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect;
between a
 prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters
 Example: ex-husband, self-assured
 To divide words at the end of a line if necessary, or show a break between syllables
 Example: pre-fer-ence, sell-ing

 Quotation Marks (“__” and ‘__’)

 To set off quoted matter (including punctuation marks, usually. See a handbook for details.)
 Example: “I saw it,” he replied.
 Note: Indirect quotes are not set off by quotations.
 Example: He said that the decision must be my own.
 To indicate a quotation within a quotation (single quotation marks)
 Example: I replied, “When I asked him if he had ever heard of the American Revolution,
 he said, ‘I saw it.’”
 To enclose titles of short stories, poems, magazine articles, portions of books, and
individual
 television show episodes
 Example: Good diagrams can be found in the chapter entitled “Engine Constructions”
 in Dean Austin’s book Automotive Mechanics.

 Italics ____________________
 To indicate the titles of books, plays, magazines, long musical compositions, works of art,
movies, and television show series. Example: I highly recommend The Technique of Clear
Writing, by Robert Gunning.

 To indicate use of foreign words. Example: And there I was,en dishabille.

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 To indicate that the writer is referring to a word rather than to the sense that it conveys
Examples: He mistook was for saw.Can you spell precede?
(Note: Letters, figures, and symbols, when used as such, are also italicized.)
 Examples: The m looks like aw.
 Type &rather than and.

 Parentheses ( )
 To set off digressions or elements which provide extra information
 Example: The progress report (Form #78) is submitted each week.
 I told him (Travers) exactly what to do.
 To enclose numbers and letters enumerating parts
 Example: The principal parts are (1) the present tense, (2) the past tense, and (3) the past
 participle.

 Brackets [ ]
 To set off material inserted in a direct quotation
 Example: Audubon reports that “if there are not enough young to balance deaths, the end
 of the species [California condor] is inevitable.”

 Colon ( : )
 Used after an independent clause (complete sentence) to direct attention to a list, an
appositive,
 or a quotation
 Example: He laid down three rules: no smoking, no idle talk, and no sleeping.
 Example: A rainbow consists of the following colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
 and violet.
 Example: The speaker quoted a popular saying: “We grow too soon old and too late
 smart.”
 To separate two independent clauses (complete sentences) when the second one summarizes
or
 explains the first
 Example: Faith is like love: it cannot be forced.

 Slash ( / )
 To indicate the end of a line of poetry
 Example: Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the Bough, / A Flash of wine, a Book of
 verse – and Thou
 To set off phonemic transcriptions
 Example: In French the /e/ is pronounced as /A/.
 To separate paired terms (use sparingly)
 Example: pass/fail
 producer/director

4.4.0 Spelling Rules

Preliminary

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A prefix is a group of letters placed at the beginning of a word, a suffix is a group of letters
placed at the end of a word.
Rules:
1. A word ending with a silent e loses the e if a suffix beginning with a vowel is added:
Hate - hating ; continue - continuation
Like - liking
If the suffix begins with a consonant, the e is not dropped e.g. extremely, encouragement
2. The suffix –ful has only one l:
Delightful Playful beautiful hopeful
3. Finalie is changed to y when –ing is added:
Lie - lying ; die dying
4. Q is always followed by u, e.g. quantity, quality, equation etc.
5. A final –y preceded by a consonant is changed to –ies in the plural:
Cry - cries ; country - countries
If the y is preceded by a vowel, it remains y in the plural e.g. donkey – donkeys;
monkey - monkeys
6. When a suffix is added to a word of more than one syllable ending in – y, the y changes
toi: happy - happiness ; study - studious
-y is retained before a suffix beginning withi e.g. study + ing = studying
7. If we add a suffix beginning with a vowel to a single consonant, we double the final
consonant providing the preceding syllable is stressed and contains a single vowel.
Begin - beginning ; prefer - preferred ; omit – omitted ; forbid – forbidden
It is obvious that if the word has only one syllable, contains a single vowel and ends with
a single consonant this rule must apply. Sit - sitting ; big – bigger
8. When –ly is added to an adjective ending in –l to form an adverb, the result is a double l,
e.g. delightfully, successfully, orally etc.
9. When a prefix ends with the same letter as the first letter of the word it is placed before,
the result is doubling:
Mis- misspelt ; un- unnoticed ; il- illegal ; im- immeasurable
10. When the suffix –ness is added to a word ending in –n, the result is a double n,
Keen – keenness ; mean – meanness
11. A certain group of verbs contain s while their corresponding nouns contain c:
Verbs Nouns
Advise Advice
Prophesy prophecy
12. There are only three verbs ending in –ceed. These are succeed, exceed and proceed.

13. Irregular plurals do take different forms as follows:

- Words ending in –o. some form their plurals by simply adding –s as in:
Piano – pianos ; solo – solos; dynamo – dynamos ; radio – radios etc.
- Others take the plural ending –oes: as in cargo – cargoes ; echo – echoes ; hero – heroes
Potato – potatoes; volcano – volcanoes ; motto - mottoes

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 MODULE : 5 INTERNET USE

Grencoe (2000: 562) points out that the internet is a computer-based, worldwide information
network. He further argues that the internet uses telephone lines and cable lines and satellites to
link personal computers worldwide. On the other hand, the Federal Networking Council (FNC)
defines the term Internet as the global information system that is logically linked together by a
globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions.

A Basic Internet Vocabulary List

Internet – a network that links networks worldwide by satellite and telephone

Web – a collection of electronic files linked together; anatomy similar to a spider’s web
Search engine – a computer program that searches for specific words or phrases on the web
Website – a collection of one or more web pages
Intranet - an internal network of data and information that is used in many companies; typically
password protected, accessible only from within the company’s confines, and housed on a separate
server. Contains the same features as the internet
Google - a popular search engine; slang term meaning to look up information on the internet
Home page – the first page of a website; usually contains an index of the entire website
Server - systems that store information shown on the web; stores web pages and other information
used both on the internet and intranet
Internet Explorer (IE) – a type of browser
Address field – the place on the screen in which you type the URL or web address
Online – being connected to the Internet
Firefox – a type of browser
Status bar – a symbol at the bottom of a web page that indicates the percentage of the page that has
loaded
Browser – software used for searching the web
Internet service provider (ISP) - a company that provides customers access to the internet
http:// - Hypertext Transfer Protocol; the protocol or standard that defines how all information is sent
over the internet; usually precedes a URL
URL – Uniform Resource Locator; a unique address that sends a request to the server which houses
the information you are looking for
Window – a screen that displays a web page

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Domain – an identification string located at the end of a web address; examples - .net, .org, .com
www– world wide web; the extension which begins many URLs
Hyperlinks – text and images within a website that reference other web pages or sites; usually
appear in a different color and are underlined. Cursor will change to a hand icon when touched
Tab – a feature that allows you to open multiple web pages or windows at once
html – Hypertext Markup Language; the code in which most internet content is written

Using Internet Search Engines

Search engines are a type of software that uses the user’s key word to compile lists of related
Web sites. Examples of search engines are, goggle, yahoo, g mail etc. these can be accessed by
typing www. Google.com; www.yahoo.com

Evaluating Internet Sources

Keep in mind that the quality and reliability of information you find on the internet may vary
widely. Anyone with a bit of computer know-how can create a website and post information
there. Such a person can be an expert, a high school student or a lay man. Be careful, then, to
look closely at your electronic source in the following ways:
a) Internet address- who is sponsoring the website. Look the part that follows the
“dot.” The following table may guide you:
Extension meaning reliability
.com commercial/business organization varies
.edu educational institution usually reliable
.gov government reliable
.net commercial varies
.org non profit organization usually reliable

b) author - what credentials does the author have? Has the author published other
material on the topic?
c) Internal evidence - does the author seem to present materials objectively?
Present all sides fairly before giving his/her own opinions? Does the author
produce solid, adequate support for his or her views?
d) Date – is the information up to date or archaic? Check at the top or bottom of the
document for copyright, publication, or revision dates.

Applications of the Internet

On the internet you can read the news, shop, pay bills, send emails, watch television
programmes, transfer files etc.

 Traditional core applications:

Email, News Remote Login File Transfer

 New applications:
Videoconferencing, Telephony, Internet Broadcast etc

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Better Searching of Materials on the internet
 Use key words not full sentences or questions. E.g. instead of typing “ I need tips for
growing tomatoes” simply type “growing tomatoes”.
 If you can not find what you want, try to use different words or a different way of
expressing it.
 Practice putting key words into the search box and pressing the search button.
 A list of search results will appear, with the most popular websites near the top of the list.
 To view a website, simply click on the link.

MODULE 6 : DICTIONARY USE AND REFERENCING

What is a dictionary?
A dictionary is a reference book with a list of words which are usually in alphabetical order
together with a guide to their meanings, pronunciation, spelling or their equivalents in other
languages.

Dictionary Typology
There is no single approach used to tell the number of dictionaries produced in all human life
history. The following are the approaches used to classify dictionary:
1. The number of languages used to compile the dictionary. From it, there are three types of
dictionaries as follows:
a) Monolingual dictionary- Made up of one language
b) Bilingual dictionary- Made up of two languages
c) Multilingual dictionary- Made up of more than two languages
2. The age of the users approach gives us two types of dictionaries
a) Children’s dictionaries-This type of dictionary has the following characteristics like
big font size, attractive colour and few citation forms with pictures
b) School dictionaries - Dictionaries of different subjects used by school going age
children.
3. The size- based approach
a) Unabridged dictionary
It is a big dictionary and consists of all words in that language at that particular time.
It cannot be carried easily, usually are put on the table.
b) Desk dictionary
It is relatively big but not as unabridged .Consists of about 60000 words to 100,000
words
c) Concise dictionary
It is a little bit big with less than 60000 words
d) Compact dictionary
It is relatively small but bigger than pocket dictionary
e) Pocket dictionary
It is small and portable dictionary

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 f) Vest dictionary
A very small and portable dictionary
g) Mini dictionary
It is the smallest one, normally with words of specialized fields

Information in a Dictionary
Any good dictionary will provide you with the following information:
1. Lexical Entry
This is a headword appearing in its appropriate alphabetical place in a dictionary. It is always in
black ink and is the word with minimal affixation
2. Spellings
A good dictionary shows the conventional spellings of the words as well as the spellings of
irregular verb forms and plurals in both varieties of English (AmE and BrE).e.g.
Colour- color
Programme- program
Center - centre
3. Pronunciation
Any good dictionary has a special way showing how words are pronounced and stressed,
including differences in pronunciation between AmE and BrE. For example in the words like
bird, park the sound / r/ is pronounced AmE while in BrE the sound /r/ is pronounced.
4. Word class
A good dictionary will show whether the word is commonly used as a noun, pronoun, verb,
adjective, adverb, conjunction or preposition, although this is largely determined by actual use in
a sentence.
5. Meaning
Since almost every word has more than one meaning, a good dictionary will provide a full range
of meanings that a word has in use. To show this meanings are always numbered. In cases
where the word changes word class, say from verb to adjective to assume a new meaning, such
changes are also indicated
6. Usage
A good dictionary shows how word is put to use whether the word is used as a dialect,
colloquial, a slang, taboo or euphemism
7. Idioms
Are fixed phrases usually made up of a verb followed by a noun phrase. An idiom has its own
special meaning and it is often impossible to guess meaning of the word phrase by looking at the
separate words that it is formed from. Or these are phrases where by the meaning of it does not
associate or correlate with the words that form it. For example, kick the bucket- to die, Rub
shoulders with- be friendly with, Hit a snag- be faced with a problem
8. Phrasal verbs

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These are groups of words usually made up of a verb followed by an adverb and or a preposition.
These groups of words act like verbs and have special meanings which are different from the
meanings of individual words which make up the phrases. For example look down upon- despise,
look up to – respect, put up with- tolerate without complaining
Phrasal verbs like idioms have separate entries listed in alphabetical order in the dictionary.
9. Inflections
This is a change made in the form of a word in relation to its use. For example, the pronoun ‘he’
changes to ‘ him’ in the object position, ‘crisis’ changes to ‘crises’ when it is in plural form and
the word ‘swim’ changes to ‘swam’ it is past tense. A good dictionary will usually show
inflections of words whose written forms or pronunciation is irregular or when there is a
likelihood of confusion.
10. Abbreviations and Acronyms
Abbreviations are shortened forms such as
NB- for note well
PhD – Doctor of Philosophy
cf – for compare
Acronyms on the other hand, are a group of letters of the name of something. New acronyms are
freely produced especially by scientist and administrators and particular for names of
organisation
UDOM- University of Dodoma
COD- Cash on Delivery
UNICEF- United Nations International Children’s Fund
RADAR- Radio Detecting and Ranging

REFERENCING

References: List of specific works that you used in your work. References usually come at the
end of a text (essay or research report) and should contain only those works cited within the text.
So, use the term ‘References’ to cover works cited.

Bibliography: Lists of works for background or for further reading, these may be books
which you read as part of your research, but which were not actually cited in your work.
OR
A Bibliography is any list of references at the end of a text, whether cited or not. It includes
texts you made use of, not only texts you referred to in your paper, but your own additional
background reading, and any other articles you think the reader might need as background
reading.

 Both References. & Bibliography must be in alphabetical order; and each entry must be
laid out in a strictly ordered sequence
 Bibliography refers to a list of all works or sources of information; books, articles,
newspapers etc cited or not cited in your work which can be an essay, seminar paper,
research report and a book.

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There are many styles or formats of writing bibliography. But it is not very important which
format you adopt. However, one has to be consistent with the format he/she has chosen. Two
formats are common; APA (American Psychological Association) and MLA (Modern
language Association).For the purpose of this course, the APA style is discussed.

Guidelines for Bibliography Writing in APA Style

 Arrange all entries in alphabetical order. Use surnames, author’s first name or initials.
 If there are two authors, then provide both names.
 Where there are more than two authors, write the first author, followed by the word et al.
Et al means “and others”.
 Where no name of author exists, use the editor’s name and indicate in brackets with (Ed
or Eds)
 Likewise, the name of the organisation or country can be used in place of the name of the
author, such as Mzumbe, UDSM, Tanzania, URT etc.
 Entries in bibliography are not numbered.
 Titles for books, journals or newspapers are underlined if you are writing using a
typewriter. But if you are using a computer, the titles are italicised.
 Titles for articles and unpublished materials are enclosed in quotation marks
 For books which have been re-edited, use abbreviation (ed), like 4th ed.
 Place of publications come first followed by name of publisher, separated by colon.
Avoid using the names of countries as places of publication. Use towns or other places,
e.g London, Dar es Salaam, Mzumbe, Morogoro, Tokyo, New York, etc. But not
Tanzania, England, the USA etc.
 Where there is no place of publication or publisher, use abbreviation (n.p)
 Use (n.d) to indicate that there is no date of publication.
 To indicate one page, use “p.”; and many pages use “pp.”
 To indicate one section use “s” and for many sections use “ss”

Examples,
1. Books:
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of publication
 Title of the book (underlined or italicised)
 Number of edition
 Place of publication
 Name of publisher.

Martin, J. (2004). Management Accounting (4thed). New York: Prentice Hall.

Lugano, S and Chan, S. (1999). Effective Business Comunication. Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam
Printers.

2. Articles in Journals:
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of Publication
 Title of the article in quotation marks
 Title of journal underlined or italicised

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  Number of volume, and issue
 Page number (s)

Salim, S. (2008).“Sexual Harassment in Higher Learning Institutions”.Uongozi Journal. Vol.7,

No.11. pp. 12-34.

3. Article From Newspapers:

 Author’s name (s)
 Year of Publication
 Title of the article in quotation marks
 Title of newspaper underlined or italicised
 Number of issue
 Page number (s)
e.g.
Ihucha A. (Novermber10, 2008). “ Namanga to receive Power from Kenya”. The Guardian,
No.4359,.p.2.

4. Unpublished Papers:
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of presentation
 Title in quotation marks
 Where it was presented.

Mwambalaswa, J. (2006). “Pedagogy and Andragogy”. Paper presented at the Workshop on

teaching Under new Curricululm at Mzumbe University.

Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis:
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of report writing/submission
 Title in quotation marks
 Where it was submitted/presented
e.g.
Yahaya, O. (2010). “The Use of English Language Teaching and Learning Strategies and the
Effect on Language Learning in Tanzanian Secondary School Classrooms: The Case of
Mbeya Region”. Unpublished M.A.Education Dissertation, University of Dar es salaam.

Msami, T. (2007). “Assessment of PEDP Implementation in Tanzania: A Case Study of

Morogoro Municipality”. Unpublished M.A Dissertation/Thesis Submitted to faculty of
Education.University of Dar es Salaam.

Government Publications:
 Country’s name
 Year of publication
 Title of publication
 Place of publication

95
  Name of publisher
e.g.
United Republic of Tanzania.(2003). Economic Revival Programme. Dar essalaam:
Government Printers.

Electronic Sources:
 Name of author/editor/organisation/institution/country
 Year of publication
 Title
 Location of server, if known
 Publisher/maintainer of site (if known)
 Website.
 Retrieving date and time
e.g.
Sheri, B. and Alison, R. (2007).Active Teaching Strategies. Retrieved on August 12th ,2010.
From http://www.baker.edu/departments/etl/training resources.cfm.
Meaning of Initials:
 http: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
 www: World Wide Web
 html or htm: Hyper Text Markup Language
 URL: Uniform Resource Locator

Sample of Bibliography in APA Style/Format

APA = American Psychological Association

 Note that, in writing a bibliography in APA style, the details of the sources should be as
follows:

 Books: Author’s name, year, title, edition number, place of publication and name of
publisher.
 Articles from journal: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, title of
journal, volume number, issue number and page number (s).
 Articles from a newspaper: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, title
of newspaper, issue number and page number(s).
 Unpublished paper: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, place where
the paper was presented.
 Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis: Author’s name, year, title in quotation marks, place
where it was submitted/presented.
 Government Documents: Author’s name, year, title, place of publication, name of
publisher.

Examples
Abbardel, S. and Priscilla, P. (Eds)(2005). OrganisationalBehaviour. London: Prentice Hall.
Felix, T. (Ed) (2003).Public Policy Formulation. New York: (n.pub)
Kamando, A. (2007). “Self Help Projects in Same District: A Case Study of Hedaru
Development Project”.Unpublished MA Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam.

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Kinunda, J. (2007). English Language, 6th ed. (n.p): NNP Publishers Ltd.
Machemba, J. (2007). “Forces of Globalisation.” Brookville: New York.<http://www.http://
web.lexis-nexis.com/universe>. Retrieved on 12thJanuary.2015
Machine, S. (October 30, 2008). “Children Learn Through Imitation”. The Guardian. No. 4344,
p.9.
Mahimbo, N. (2008). “Constraints to Combating Poverty in Tanzania”.International Quarterly
Review, vol.3, no.6, pp.66-80.
Michael, K. (2002). Communication Skills: Theory and Practice. Dar es Salaam: Ahmadiyya
Printing Press.
Mrosso, T. and Massawe, M. (n.d).Fudamentals of Public Administration. Dodoma: Jupiter
Printers Ltd.
Shoo, K. (1999). “Quality Control in African Universities”. A Paper Presented During the
Quality Assurance Workshop on 3rd, November, 1999 at Mzumbe University.

Shullen (2001) as cited in Majani, E. (2008). Human Resources Management in Tanzania. Dar es
Salaam: Government Printers Ltd.
Shumbusho, G.N. (1997). Basic Academic Writing: A Reference Guide. Mzumbe: Research and
Publication Department.
United Republic of Tanzania (1967).English for Tanzanian Schools. Dar es Salaam: Longman
Tanzania.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Clark, R.W. and Clinton, B.L. (1994). (3rded.) Effective Speech
Communication.Grencoe/McGraw-Hill Companies: Woodland Hills
Kadeghe, M. (2005). (3rd ed.) Communication Skills: Theory and Practice. Dar es
Salaam: Afro plus Industries Ltd
Langan, J. (2005). (6thed.) College Writing Skills.New York: McGraw-Hill Companies
Makay, J.J. (1992). Public Speaking: Theory into Practice. New York: Ted Buchholz
Mohammed, H. (2002). Learn to Communicate Effectively. Morogoro: Mzumbe Book
Project
(2008). Grammar and Mechanics of Writing in Academics.Morogoro:
Morogoro: Mzumbe Book Project
Murphy, J.D. (2008). Contemporary English Grammar: reference and Practice through Real
English.New Delhi-2: Book Palace
Phillips, D. (1997). Effective Business Communication. New York: Litton Education
Publisher
Shumbusho, G.N. (1997). Basic Academic Writing: A Reference Guide. Mzumbe: Research and
Publication Department

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