AGE OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

INTRODUCTION :
Industrialization ka naam sunte hi humaare dimaag mei aate hain factories , machines,
robots ! Par inn sab ki shuruaat kaha se hui thi? Development kaise aur kab hua ? inn
sawaalo ke jawab hume yeh chapter dega !

Dawn of the century :

• This picture was published by .E.T. PAULL. in

1900
• We can see a goddess like figure and she is
the angel of progress she has a flag of
progress.
• Behind her - sign of progress which are
railway, camera, machines, printing press
and factory.

Two magicians :

• The picture had appeared on trade

magazine a hundred years ago and shows
two magicians!
• At the top it is Aladdin from the orient (The
countries to the east of the Mediterranean,
usually referring to Asia.) he built a
beautiful place with the help of magic
lamp-->> shows east and the past .
• The modern mechanic : with the help of
tools builds bridges , ships , towers
etc -->> shows west and modernity.

BEFORE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION :

Industrialization ka naam sunte hi hume fatories yaad aate hain ! But this is a wrong
conception , factories start hone se pehle hi industrialization start ho chuka tha !

 Large scale production before coming up of the factories for international market .
 This phase was called as proto - industrialization ( proto- indicating the first or early
form of something)
 In the 17th and 18th century -->> the merchants moved to country side -->>supplied
money to peasants and gave them advances-->> which made the peasants to produce for
international market and then the merchants sold it !
BUT WHY DID THEY MOVE TO COUNTRY SIDE ??
The merchants couldn’t expand their trade in towns because of the trade
guilds and urban crafts !
 TRADE GUILDS: association which maintained monopoly over trade.
 Control over production
 Trained craftsmen
 Regulated prices and competition
 Restricted new people into trade
 And these rights were given to them by the rulers

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WHAT HAPPENED TO THE PEASENTS AND ARTISANS ?

 They began working for merchants -->>as it was the time for enclosure movement
( class 9th ka chapter jisme open fields were disappearing and all commons were enclosed)
Peasants and cottagers depended on-->>common lands for survival
(firewood , berries etc.) but now they dint have any option but to look for alternative source
of income also the people who owned tiny plots of land couldn’t earn well from that!
 Hence they eagerly agrees to the merchants!
 They could remain in the countryside and continue cultivating in their small plots as
well
 Income from proto industrialization + shrinking income from cultivation= fuller use of
family labor resources !

 Close relationship between towns and country side :

Merchants were based in towns but most of the work was done in
country side !
e.g. a merchant clothier in England :
-->> purchased wool from wool stapler(person who sorts wool
according to its fiber)
-->>carried to spinners
-->>then to weavers When you decide to learn
-->>fullers( a person who gathers the cloth by pleating ) history finally !
-->> to dyers
 Finishing was done in London ,before the merchant sold it in the
international market! Because of which London came to be known
as the finishing center.

COMING UP OF THE FACTORY:

 Earliest factories came up in 1730s ! But the number of factories multiplied in the
18th century.
 First symbol of new era : cotton !
 Production boomed in the late 19 century .
 In 1760: Britain was importing 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton
 By 1787: 22 million pounds of cotton was imported , this was because of series of
invention that took place !
What did the series of inventions do?

Increased efficacy of carding , twisting ,

Increased the output per worker spinning and rolling (trick: CTSR) each step

Stronger threads and yarns

Richard Arkwright created the first cotton mill
-->>all the processes were bought under one roof
Production from country side to -->>allowed careful supervision over production
towns as mills were set up process, quality
everywhere ! -->> regulation of labor.

Early 19th century , factories increased in number+ became important part of

English landscape -->> but under the dazzling impact of the new mills , people
forgot about the bylanes ( small workshops where production still continued , aur
iska impact kya tha who hum aage dekhenge !)

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THE PACE OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE :
1. Most dynamic industries were cotton and steel industries ! In the first phase of
industrialization cotton was leading sector but, then iron and steel industry took over
because of : Expansion of railways
2. The new industries could not easily displace the traditional industries: in the end of 19th
century less than 20 % of the workforce was employed in advanced industrial sectors.
Rest were employed in traditional industries like textile industry in domestic units !
3. The growth of traditional industries was not stagnant they developed too : small
innovations were the basis of growth in many non-mechanized sectors such as food
processing , building, pottery, glass works etc.
4. Technological changes spread slowly : why?
• New technology was expensive.
• Machines broke down and repair was costly.
• Not effective as owners and manufacturers claimed.
• Steam engine : originally produced by Newcomen --> improved and patented by James
Watt in 1781-->new model was manufactured by his friend Mathew Boulton -->for years he
had no buyers ! This is an example to show case that new technology was excepted
slowly !

HAND LABOUR AND STEAM POWER:

What was the importance of hand labour?

1. In Britain there was no shortage of hand labour
• Poor peasants moved to the cities in large When you try understanding what is
numbers in search of jobs ! And they were ready to written in the textbook but it's way
work at low wages also too complicated you be like :

Amount of wage ∝ 1
Number of workers

• Machines required large capital investments which is why they did not want to introduce
machines !
2. Demand for labor was seasonal: in seasonal industries hand labors were prefer
red , where the workers were employed for a season !
• Cold months : gas works and breweries were busy hence needed more workers !
• Christmas months book binders , printers , catering needed extra hands before
December
• Winters : ship used to be repaired and spruced up ! Hence needed labors for that too.

3. Some products could any be produced using hand ! Like the goods with intricate
(specific and precise ) designs and specific shapes .
• E.g. In Britain 500 varieties of hammers were produced and 45 kinds of axes. These
required human skill, not mechanical technology .
• Machines were only used to produce uniforms and standardized goods for mass
market .

4. The upper class- aristocrats and the bourgeoisie preferred things produced by hand !
Because of which products made by hand came to symbolize class and standard .as
they were :
• Carefully designed Case of America: labor shortage was there ,
• Produced individually hence to minimize need of labor they used
• Better finished mechanized labor

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LIFE OF WORKERS:
• As the news of jobs spread -->> hundreds of workers moved from country side to towns
in search of jobs
 Getting jobs depended actually on friendship and kin relations (agar aapka koi dost kisi
factory mei kaam krta hai toh aapko job jaldi mil jaayegi )
 But everyone did not have social connections.
 As a result they had to wait for weeks .
 They used to spend nights under bridges or in some night shelters, some others stayed
in night refugees .
 There was seasonality of work: after busy season workers were again on the streets!
Some people also returned back to country side and continued to small/ odd jobs which
was difficult to find as well.
 Wages somewhat increased in the early 19th century but this had very little effect on the
workers.
 Napoleonic war : prices of goods and products rose sharply
• Same wages could buy fewer things now (value of wages fell)
• The number of days of work determined the average income of the workers.
• Till mid-19th century- about 10 % of the population were extremely poor, but during the
1830s about 35- 75 % population was unemployed
.
FEAR OF TECHNOLOGY :
 New technology introduced
• e.g. Spinning Jenny was introduced in woolen industry
• Made the women workers hostile , they began attacking the machines ( unhe laga
ki machines would take their jobs away from them )

1840s : building activities intensified

Opened greater opportunities of employment

Roads widened, tunnels dug , railway lines were extended etc.

The number of workers employed in transport industry doubled in 1840s

INDUSTRIALZATION IN THE COLONIES :

THE AGE OF INDIAN TEXTILES:

Before the machine industries came into the picture-->> silk and
cotton goods from Indian market dominated the international
market ! Why? And how?
Afghanistan
• Finer varieties came from India (better quality)
• Armenian and Persian merchants took the good from Punjab Eastern Persia
to
• Textiles were carried on the backs of camels through Central Asia
mountains and deserts !

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PRE-COLONIAL PORTS :

 Surat (Gujarat coast) -connected to -the gulf and red sea

ports.
 Masulipatam (coromandel coast)- connected to -
southeast Asian ports.
 Hooghly (Bengal)- connected to - southeast Asian ports.

Who were involved in the port trade When you actually remember the
dates during exam!
• Indian merchants and bankers were involved in export trade .
• Supply merchants - linked the port to inland towns , gave advances to weavers and
collected woven cloth and carried supply to the port.
• Big shippers and export merchants had brokers who negotiated the price and bought
goods from supply merchants

1750s this network of Indian merchants began to break why

► European companies gradually gained power and came into play !

► Gained concessions from local courts -->> then the monopoly rights to trade
► Resulting in : decline of old ports , exports from these ports fell, local bankers
went bankrupt !

Coming up of colonial ports :

 Old ports decayed new ports grew !

 Surat and Hooghly declined
 Bombay and Calcutta ports grew - this was indicator of growth of colonial power.
 Trade in new ports : controlled by European companies and involved European
ships.
 To survive the existing trade houses had to operate within network set up by
European trading companies ( basically indians ko zinda rehna tha isilye they had to
follow what the European people said them to do and whatever they were doing ).

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE WEAVERS ?

 Even in the 1750s and 1760s the textile trade remained stable in India ( east
India company got powers during the same time but yeh initial stage tha )
 The Indian textiles were of great demand in Europe! So the company wanted
to expand trade textile exports from India .
 Before establishing stronger hold in Bengal and Carnatic in the 1760s and
1770s east India company found it difficult to ensure regular supply of goods
for export .Why ?
 Because the French, Dutch , Portuguese and the local traders competed in
the market . And the weavers had the option of doing the work for the ones
offering more money / best buyer.
 Which is why they kept writing letters to London complaining the officials
about the difficulties of supply and high prices demanded by the weavers

Indian weavers when they had so many people

wanting their woven cloth , and people were
also ready to pay the amount weavers asked
for - Indian weavers be like :

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After the east India company gained political power completely :

Established monopoly right over trade , developed a management system where:

 Elimination of competition
 Controlling of costs
 Ensuring regular supplies of cotton and silk goods , and these was done through
two main steps:

1. Eliminating existing traders and brokers connected with cloth trade : tried to
establish more direct control over the weaver , this was done by appointing paid
servant called GOMASTHA .
• Gomasthas supervised the weavers.
• Collected supplies.
• Examined quality of cloth

2. Preventing company weavers from dealing with other buyers : done with the help
of system of advances
• System of advances: once an order was placed , weavers given loan for
production-->> Cloth produced had to be given to the appointed Gomastha, they
couldn’t take it to any other trader.

How did the weavers respond to the system of advances

• Weavers eagerly took the advances , hoping to earn more
• Many weavers opted full time weaving and left the land that they used to cultivate
in . They gave all their time to weaving ,weaving required labor hence engaging
the whole family in the process .

Problems and clashes between weavers and Gomasthas

► The earlier supply merchants : lived within village

• Had good relations with the weavers and they used to help them , looked after their
needs.
► The new Gomasthas were outsiders :
• No social link between the weavers
• Acted arrogantly and marched into the villages with sepoys and peons , punished
weavers for delays -beating and flogging them.
• Weavers couldn’t bargain for prices and they were given very low prices for the
cloth they produced.
• Weavers shifted to other places for better conditions
• Some places they even revolted against these rules and east India company
• Overtime began refusing loans , closing workshops and they again started to take
up full time agriculture and farming .

MANCHESTER COMES TO INDIA :

Statement from Henry Patullo, a company

official : demand for Indian textiles can never
decline as no other country produces the goods
of the same quality

Then why does India face the decline in textile

industry let us see ! When the teacher cuts marks just because
you dint mention the date , student be like :

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 Cotton industries developed in England.
Abhi England mei cotton industries develop hona start hogyi ! Par India se goods England jaate
the ! so in order to avoid competition from Indian goods ! And sell their products in Britain :
 Industrialists pressurized the government to impose custom duties to discourage
imports , therefore Indian exports to England declined.
 Industrialists also pressurized the east India company to sell British manufactures in
India as well , cheap machine made goods flooded in the Indian market , killing the local
market for weavers . The cotton goods that came from Britain were so cheap that
weavers could not compete with them .

1860s a new problem : the weavers could not get good quality supply of cotton why?

• At this time the American civil war broke out.

• US supplies of raw cotton to Britain - cut off.
• Britain turned to India for raw cotton .
• Prices of raw cotton shot up.
• The local Indian weavers
1. Faced shortage of good quality raw cotton.
2. Even if they got cotton they had to buy it for very high price .

 By the end of 19th century, the weavers faced another problem : factories in
India began production , machine made goods flooded in the Indian market !

FACTORIES COME UP:

 Kuch facts yaad rakhne honge !

 First cotton mill- 1854

 First jute mill set up in Bengal by East India
Company and officials - 1855
 Elgin mill in Kanpur - 1860s
 First cotton mill in Ahmedabad- 1861
 Four mills were at work with 94,000 When your social teacher asks you
when will you start studying history ?
spindles and 2,150 looms- 1862
 First spinning and weaving mill in madras
came up by - 1874

THE EARLY ENTREPRENEURS : triangular trade between India China and England gave
rise to many early entrepreneurs.
India
Opium Textiles

China England
Tea

Indians became junior players in this :

Provided finance .
Procured supplies.
Shipping consignments.
These people earned so much from this trade that they had visions of developing industrial
enterprises in India.

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DWARAKNATH TAGORE :

 Made his fortune in china trade .

 Set up 6 joint stock companies in 1830s and 1840s.
 He was from Bengal.
 His enterprises sank along with other traders in the business crisis
of 1840s.

DINSHAW PETIT AND JAMSETJEE NUSSERWANJEE TATA (JN TATA) :

 Parsis of Bombay
 Built huge industrial empires in India
 Initial wealth accumulated by trade to China and partly from
cotton shipments to England

SETH HUKUMCHAND :

 Marwari business man

 Set up first jute mill in Calcutta in 1917 also traded with
china

Sirf triangular trade se hi nahi balki , paise toh dusre trade

networks se bhi kamaye gaye the !

 Some merchants traded with Burma , middle east and

east Africa .
 Some other commercial groups were not directly
involved in international trade but operated from India
only by :
1. Carrying goods .
2. Banking money .
Merchants after earning money not
3. Transferring funds between cities. just from triangular trade but also
4. Financing traders etc. from other country trade be like :

What happened when the colonial control tightened

The colonial control increased :

 The space within which Indian merchants could trade became
limited.
 They were barred ( prohibited/not allowed) from trading with
Europe in manufactured goods, they were only allowed to
export raw materials and food grains like raw cotton, opium
wheat and indigo.
 They were also prohibited from doing shipping business
gradually
EUROPEAN MANAGING AGENCIES (EMA) :

Controlled large sector of Indian industries till first world war.

Three biggest ones were :
1. Bird Heiglers and Co.
2. Andrew Yule
3. Jardine Skinner and Co.
• Set up joint stock companies and managed them . Basically Indian financers used
provide capital, but all the decisions and investments were made by European
agencies.

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• Also they had their own chamber of commerce in which the Indian business men
were not allowed to join (Indians ko use karke they just grew more powerful and took
over the Indian market )

Hume 3 questions ke answers chahiye the

Who were the entrepreneurs ?
From where did they get the money / capital for investments
Where did the workers come from ! ( the next topic)

WHERE DID THE WORKERS COME FROM ?

Factories needed workers : in 1901 - 584,000 workers in Indian factories and in

1946- over 2,436,000 workers ( clear indication that workers had increased ! But
workers kaha se aaye the ?)

► In industrial regions workers came from : nearby districts

► Peasants and artisans who couldn’t find work in village went to industrial regions
to find work.
► Bombay - 50 % of workers came from Ratnagiri district
► Kanpur - villages within Kanpur
► Mill workers - moved between village and city ( went to home during festivals and
harvests)

Getting job was always difficult , even though mills increased and demands for
workers increased. Number of workers always more than jobs available .
Jobbers :

 Industrialists employed jobbers to get new recruits.

 Jobbers were old and trusted workers.
 Jobbers work- got people from their own village, ensured them
jobs, helped them settle in the city and provided money in times of
crisis.
 Jobbers became person with power and authority.
 Began demanding gifts for the favor.

THE PECULIARITIES OF INDUSTRIAL GROWTH :

Peculiar means strange , so here we are going to see what was strange and different about
industrial growth in India !
 European managing agencies (EMA):

. • Interested in certain kinds of products.

• Established tea, coffee plantations -->> securing land at cheap rates from colonial
government.
• Invested in mining , indigo and jute.
• These products were for exports and not for sale in India .

 Indian businessman and industries in the late 19th century :

• To avoid competition from Manchester goods , Indian mills started to produce

coarse cotton yarn( thread) instead of fabric .

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• This yarn dint face competition from the imported yarn as that one was of finer
quality and this was coarse. ( coarse yarn aur fine yarn ka purpose hi alag alag hota
hai )
• Coarse yarn was used by the weavers in India or exported to China .

Series of changes that affected the pattern of industrialization :

1. Swadeshi moment began :

 Nationalists mobilized people to boycott foreign cloth .

 Industrial groups pressurized government to increase tariff protection and grant
concessions .
 Yarn exports to china declined as Japanese mills flooded in Chinese market.
 So, industrialists shifted from yarn to cloth production again !

2. The first world war :

 British mills got busy producing goods and necessities for the war .
 Manchester imports to India declined.
 Indian mills got a vast home market for supply.
 As the war continued , the Indian factories were called to supply needs for the
war : jute bags, cloth for army uniforms , tents and leather boots etc.
 New factories set up and old ones ran multiple shifts.
 New workers were employed + increased work hours
 Because of the war : the industrial production boomed !

• Manchester never regained its old position in Indian market .

• After the war it couldn't compete with the US, Germany and Japan and its economy
crumbled .
• Local industrialists finally consolidated ( act of making something strong /solid ) their
position , capturing the home market !

SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES PREDOMINATE :

 Large scale industries formed only small segment of the economy .
 Most of them were located in Bombay and Bengal.
 Small portion of the industrial labor worked in a registered factories , the rest
worked in small workshops and household units .
 In the 20th century the handicrafts production actually expanded! Even after
facing many problems the weavers survived but how?
1. Partly because of technological changes :
 Fly shuttle ->> weavers started to use handlooms with fly shuttle
 Increased productivity per worker
 Improved production without pushing up the costs.
 Speeded up the production .
 Reduced labor demand.

Flying shuttle : moved by means of ropes and

pullies, used for weaving . Made it possible for the
weavers to operate large loop and weave wide
piece of cloth

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2. Groups of weavers :

Weavers who weaved coarse cloth Weavers who weaved fine variety cloth
Bought by poor and demand fluctuated Bought by the well-to-do community and
(changed) violently demand was more stable
Affected when bad harvests or famines The rich could buy cloth even when the
used to happen as the poor couldn’t afford poor starved ,famines dint affect the sale
buying cloth of banarasi or baluchari saris
Cheaper Costlier

3. Mills could not imitate the specialized weaves:

Saris with borders, famous lungis and handkerchiefs of madras could not be easily
displaced by mills. ( iska matlab bas yahi hai ki - handmade products could not be
prepared by machines ! Because handmade products are always intricate and special !
Whereas the machine made goods are just for the exports and mass production)

 Weavers and other craftspeople did not necessarily prosper but they continued
to work for long hours, often the whole family including the women and children
had to work in various stages of process.( small scale industries were not a part
of our history they are alive today as well ! They were an integral / important part
of industrialization )

MARKET FOR GOODS :

When new products were produced how were the consumers attracted

1. Advertisements :
• Makes the products appear desirable and necessary.
• They try to shape minds of people and create new needs .
• Appear in magazines, newspapers, street walls , hoardings and TV screens.

2. Use of labels as a mark of standard and quality:

• e.g. " MADE IN MANCHESTER " was used as a label in the cloth produced by
British. It was written in bold , and the people felt confident in buying the cloth.

3. Use of images and illustrations :

• Images of Indian Gods and Goddesses ( Krishna and Saraswati )were used in the
labels, to exhibit the divine approval of the product.

4. Printing of calendars to advertise :

• Calendars were used by the people who could not read. They were hung in tea
shops and poor people's homes . And they could see the advertisements again
and again also there were images of gods to sell the products in the calendars.

5. Images of royal figures :

• images of Nawabs and emperors , adorned in the advertisements and calendars.
• The message was often - " if you respect the royal figure , then respect the
product" .
• When the product was used by royalty the quality couldn’t be questioned.

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6. nationalist message in the advertisement :

The message was clear and loud " if you care for the nation then
buy the products that Indians produce" . Ads became a vehicle of
the nationalist messages of swadeshi.

CONCLUSION:

Age of industries means : growth of technology and machines but we cannot forgot how
small scale production and hand technology played a great and significant role in the
industrial landscape.

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Exercise :
1. Explain the following:
a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.
b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and
artisans within the villages.
c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century.
d) The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in

Ans :
a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny because it speeded up the spinning
process, and consequently, reduced labour demand.

b)The trade and commerce guild controlled the market, raw materials, employees, and also
production of goods in the towns.

c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century on account of the growing
power of European companies in trade with India.

d) The East India Company appointed a paid servant called the gomastha, whose job was to
supervise weavers, collect supplies and perform quality checks on cloth.

Q.2. Write True or False against each statement:

(a) At the end of the 19th century, 80 per cent of the total workforce in Europe was
employed in the technologically advanced industrial sector.
(b) The international market for textiles was dominated by India till the eighteenth
century.
(c) The American Civil War resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from India.
(d) The introduction of the fly shuttle enabled the handloom workers to improve their
productivity.

Ans:
(a) False
(b) True
(c) False
(d) True

Q.3. Explain what is meant by proto industrialisation.

Ans: Even before setting up the factories, there was large-scale industrial production for an
international market. This was not based on factories. It is known as proto-industrialization. It
was a part of a network of commercial exchanges. Merchants were based in towns but the
work was done mostly in the countryside.

Q.4. Why did some industrialists in the nineteenth century Europe prefer hand labour over
machines? [CBSE Sept. 2010, 2011]

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Ans. (i) Expensive new technology: New technologies and machines were expensive, so the
producers and the industrialists were cautious about using them.

(ii) Costlier repair: The machines often broke down and the repair was costly

(iii) Less effective: They were not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.

(iv) Availability of cheap workers: Poor peasants and migrants moved to cities in large
numbers in search of jobs. So the supply of workers was more than the demand. Therefore,
workers were available at low wages.

(v) Uniform machine-made goods: A range of products could be produced only with hand
labour. Machines were oriented to producing uniforms, standardized goods for a mass market.
But the demand in the market was often for goods with intricate designs and specific shapes.

In the mid-nineteenth century. Britain, for instance. 500 varieties of hammers were produced,
and 15 kinds of axes. This required human skill, not mechanical technology.

Q.5. How did the East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from
the Indian weavers ?

Ans. (i) Monopoly right : Once the East India Company established political power, it asserted
a monopoly right to trade

(iii) Appointing Gomasthas : The Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers
connected with the cloth trade, and establish a more direct control over the weavers. It
appointed a paid servent called the Gomostha to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and
examine the quality of cloth.

(iv) System of advances : To have a direct control over the weavers, the company- started
the system of advances. Once an order was placed, the weavers were given loans to
purchase the raw material for their production. Those, who took loans had to hand over the
doth they produced to the Gomastha. They could not take it to any other trader.

(v) Use of power : The places where the weaver refused to cooperate the Company used its
police. At many places weaver were often beaten and flogged for delays in supply.

Q.6. Why did the industrial production in India increase during the First World War ? [CBSE
Sept. 2011]
Ans : (i) Decline of Manchester imports : With British mills busy with war production to
meet the needs of the army. Manchester imports into India declined.

(ii) Increase in demand : With the decline of imports suddenly. Indian mills had a vast home
market to supply.

(iii) Demand from army : As the War prolonged. Indian factories were called upon to supply
war need i.e. jute bags, cloth for the army uniforms, tents and leather boots, horse and
mule saddles, and a host of other items.

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(iv) New factories : New factories were set up. And old ones ran multiple shifts. Many new
workers were employed, and everyone was made to work for longer hours. Over the war
years, industrial production boomed.

(v) Downfall of British industry and boon for home industry : After the war Manchester could
never recapture its old position in the Indian market. Unable to modernize and compete with
the US. Germany and Japan, the economy of Britain crumbled after the war. Cotton production
collapsed and exports of cotton cloth from Britain fell dramatically. Within the colonies, local
industrialists gradually consolidated their position, substituting foreign manufactures and
capturing the home market.

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