Personality Development Unit 1

Unit 1 Personality
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Personality – an Explanation
1.3 Categories of Personality
1.4 Self Image
1.5 Improving the level of self-acceptance
1.6 Factors affecting Personality Development
1.7 Defence Mechanism
1.8 Personality characteristics in Organisation
1.9 Factors that determine our Attitude
1.10 Summary
1.11 Terminal Questions
1.12 Answers

1.1 Introduction
Our own experience is enough to tell us two things about human beings.
First, they are all unique. Each possesses a set of traits and characters
which cannot be completely duplicated by any other person. Second, these
traits remain stable over time. For comfortable interactions with each other,
it is better to first understand the meaning of personality and its types. Then
we can inculcate those traits in ourselves which paves our way to be a
successful individual in the society.

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Objectives:
After studying this unit, the students should be able to:
 understand the term personality
 explain the determinants of Personality
 discuss the various theories of personality.
 defence Mechanism

1.1 Personality – An Explanation

When we talk of personality, we don't mean a person who has charm, a
positive attitude towards life, a smiling face, or who has won a beauty
contest. When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic
concept describing the growth and development of a person's whole
psychological system. The word 'personality' has interesting etymological
origins. It can be traced to the Latin word "personare" which translates as "to
speak through". Personality traditionally refers to how people influence
others through their external appearances and actions. But for
psychologists, personality includes:

 External appearances and behaviour

 The inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force, and

 The particular organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer.

Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a person's

behaviour. Personality is defined as a relatively stable set of characteristics
that influence an individual's behaviour. For our purposes, you should think
of personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others.

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1.2 Categories of Personality

A personality trait may be defined as an enduring attribute of a person that
appears constantly in a variety of situations. Describing an individual’s
behaviour in terms of personality has proved to be a tough job. However,
attempts are made to identify the basic personality types.

Carl Jung proposed two-part theory of personality. According to it, he type

casts all profile into two compartments.

1. Extroversion and Introversion

Extraversion (also "extroversion") is marked by pronounced engagement
with the external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of
energy, and often experience positive emotions. They tend to be
enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's
go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert
themselves, and draw attention to themselves.

Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts.

They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less dependent on the social
world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness
or depression; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extravert
and more time alone to re-charge their batteries.

Sample Extraversion Items

 I am the life of the party.
 I don't mind being the centre of attention.
 I feel comfortable around people.
 I start conversations.
 I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
 I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)
 I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)
 I don't talk a lot. (reversed)
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 I have little to say. (reversed)

 I keep in the background. (reversed)

Jung explains that at the base, the personality has four dimensions –
thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition.
a) Thinking: It includes logical, reasoning, rational and analytical.
b) Feeling: Refers to the interpretations of a thing or event on a subjective
scale (emotional effect)
c) Sensation: It deals with perception of a thing in general sense (factual
and concrete)
d) Intuition: It is based on unconscious inner perception of the
potentialities or events or things.

2. Type A / B Personalities
Meyer Friedman, an American cardiologist, noticed in the 1940's that the
chairs in his waiting room got worn out from the edges. They hypothesized
that his patients were driven, impatient people, who sat on the edge of their
seats when waiting. They labelled these people "Type A" personalities. Type
A personalities are workaholics, always busy, driven, somewhat impatient,
and so on.

Type B personalities, on the other hand are laid back and easy going. "Type
A personality" has found its way into general communication.

Type A Personality: Type A behaviour pattern is a complex of personality

and behavioural characteristics, including competitiveness, time urgency,
social status, insecurity, aggression, hostility and a quest for achievements.
Type A personality individual is "aggressively involved in a chronic,
incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if
required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other
persons".

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Type A Personalities:
i. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly:
ii. Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;
iii. Strive to think or do two or more things simultaneously;
iv. Cannot cope with leisure time; and
v. Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how
much of everything they acquire.

The alternative to the Type A behaviour pattern is the Type B behaviour

pattern. People with Type B personalities are relatively free of the Type A
behaviours and characteristics. Type B personalities are "rarely harried by
the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an
endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of time".

Type B Personality:
i. Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying
impatience;
ii. Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or
accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation;
iii. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at
any cost; and
iv. Can relax without guilt.

Organizations can also be characterized as Type A or Type B organizations.

Type A individuals in Type B organizations and Type B individuals in Type A
organizations experience stress related to a misfit between their personality
type and the predominant type of the organization.

3. Agreeableness – Disagreeableness
Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation
and social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others.
They are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to

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compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an

optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest,
decent, and trustworthy.

Disagreeable individuals place ‘self-interest’ above getting along with others.

They are generally unconcerned with others well-being, and therefore are
unlikely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their scepticism
about others motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and
uncooperative.

Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for attaining and maintaining

popularity. Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. On
the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough
or absolute objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent
scientists, critics, or soldiers.

There is some criticism on the use of the terms altruism-egoism in this

context. Evolutionary Biology has extensively researched the mechanisms
of altruism and concluded that agreeableness differs fundamentally from
altruism.

Sample Agreeableness Items

 I am interested in people.
 I feel others emotions.
 I have a soft heart.
 I make people feel at ease.
 I sympathize with others feelings.
 I take time out for others.
 I am not interested in other people’s problems. (reversed)
 I am not really interested in others. (reversed)
 I feel little concern for others. (reversed)
 I insult people. (reversed)
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4. Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and
direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time
constraints require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be
an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting
spontaneously and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be
seen by others as colourful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. Conscientiousness
includes the factor known as Need for Achievement (NAch).

The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious

individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through
purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively regarded by
others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be
compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely
conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy and boring.
Unconscientious people may be criticized for their unreliability, lack of
ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience many
short-lived pleasures and they will never be called stuffy (i.e. dull, boring,
unimaginative).

Sample Conscientiousness Items

 I am always prepared.
 I am exacting in my work.
 I follow a schedule.
 I get chores done right away.
 I like order.
 I pay attention to details.
 I leave my belongings around. (reversed)
 I make a mess of things. (reversed)
 I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed)
 I shirk my duties. (reversed)

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5. Neuroticism
Neuroticism, also known inversely as Emotional Stability, refers to the
tendency to experience negative emotions. Those who score high on
Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as
anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience several of these
emotions. People high in Neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They
respond emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their
reactions tend to be more intense than normal. They are more likely to
interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as
hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for
unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood.
These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to
think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.

At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in Neuroticism are
less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm,
emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from
negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive
feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion
domain.

Sample Neuroticism Items

 I am easily disturbed.
 I change my mood a lot.
 I get irritated easily.
 I get stressed out easily.
 I get upset easily.
 I have frequent mood swings.
 I often feel blue.
 I worry about things.

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 I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)

 I seldom feel blue. (reversed)

6. Openness to Experience
Openness to Experience describes a dimension of personality that
distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional
people. Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and
sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more
aware of their feelings. They therefore tend to hold unconventional and
individualistic beliefs, although their actions may be conforming
(see agreeableness). People with low scores on openness to experience
tend to have narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain,
straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle.
They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these
endeavours as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer
familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and resistant to change.

1.4 Self Image

The ‘self-image’ is derived from Carl Roger’s ‘Self-Theory.’ According to
him, the ‘self’ consists of all the perceptions, ideas, values and features that
characterize ‘I’ or ‘Me’. It includes ‘what I am’ and ‘What I can do.’ Roger
defines the self concept as “an organised, consistent, conceptual gestalt
composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the I or Me and the
perceptions of the relationships of I or Me to these perceptions.” An
individual with a strong, positive self-concept is quite likely to view the world
differently from the one whose self-concept doesn’t necessarily mean or
reflect reality: an individual may be highly successful or respected, yet views
himself a failure.

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Self-image is:
 How you regard yourself.
 The mental picture of how you believe you appear to others.
 How you picture your physical self.
 How you believe others see you physically.
 Your idea (positive or negative, rational or irrational) of how you present
yourself to others and how you are subsequently judged by them.
 A personal assessment of your character, personality, skills, abilities,
and other attributes.
 A powerful internal mechanism influencing how you feel about yourself.
 An accumulation of scripts you have been given (consciously or
otherwise) and have learned well throughout

What is involved in creating a self-image?

Your self-image is developed by how you assess the following factors
in your personhood:
 Physical appearance.
 Shape of your body.
 Accomplishments. in academics.
 Achievement in athletics.
 Social skills.
 Value system.
 Skills, abilities and competencies.
 Relationship with family, relatives, siblings, peer group, and others.
 Behavior in social and professional situations.
 Background and environment from which you came.
 Roles played in life at school, home, work and in the community.
 Jobs and job titles held.
 Goals, ambitions and aspirations for the future.

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How does your self-image affect you?

It is from your self-image that you:
 Develop labels for yourself.
 Develop scripts as to how you believe you should act to fit the image.

If your self-image Then your script says you should:

label is:
Fat overeat and not exercise
drunk drink to excess
intelligent be a good problem solver and decision maker
control your eating and exercise habits, always
thin
look chic
be able to handle life's challenges with
competent
confidence, be successful in your endeavors
friendly be easy to get to know, sociable, outgoing
negative always see the dark, pessimistic side of life
have the looks that appeal to others, trendy
handsome/beautiful fashions and hairstyle, pay close attention to
physical self
compulsive act in a compulsive way
depressed act in a depressed way
loser act like a loser
winner act like a winner

Self Esteem Quiz

Take the self esteem quiz below and learn how to improve your level of
self-acceptance.
Kick the Approval Habit by Thelma Mariano
Years ago I based my feelings of self-worth on performance and how much
I could achieve in school or in business. When I turned to professional
writing, my internal rating system focused on the number of sales. But guess

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what? My need for external approval was a bottomless pit. I could never get
enough.

Since then I worked on my personal development and have gradually gone

from being self-critical to self-accepting.

Many of us look outside ourselves to gain a sense of our own value,

through:

– what others think of us

– our performance through education, work or sports
– how we look (e.g. thin, , well-dressed)
– how wealthy we appear (including status symbols)
– how we compare to others

Unfortunately, we can lose favour with the people we are trying to impress,
our performance may suffer or our looks fade. And even sizeable assets can
take a beating on the stock market.

The only true source of approval is found within. The more we accept
ourselves, the more easily we will believe praise when it comes from
external sources.

Self-acceptance means acknowledging our positive qualities as well as our

little “quirks,” paying attention to our feelings and allowing ourselves to be
different. When we truly know and appreciate ourselves, we trust our own
judgment and create a life that is meaningful to us.

The questionnaire below will help you determine your OWN level of self-
acceptance.

How Self-Accepting are you ?

1. I allow myself to make mistakes, realizing that we all learn from
failure.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often

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2. My value as a person depends greatly on what others think of me.

a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
3. Whether I’m celebrating a success or getting through a rough period, I
“reward” myself in self-defeating ways, e.g. overeating, drinking too
much, or going on a spending spree when I am already in debt.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
4. I have trouble asking others for favours and tend to apologize a lot.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
5. I’d rather keep an unsatisfactory item than return it to the store. In a
restaurant I’ll eat a meal, even if it isn’t what I ordered, rather than
return it to the waiter.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
6. I berate myself for saying or doing the wrong thing, calling myself
“stupid.”
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
7. I would do something against my better judgment rather than risk
another person’s disapproval.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
8. When I look at myself in the mirror, I see only my flaws.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
9. I think of how my life would improve if only I were smarter or better
looking.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
10. I graciously accept compliments and praise instead of tossing them
aside.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
11. I do things which nurture, strengthen and relax my body.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often

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12. I am able to accept my vulnerable feelings like sadness, fear or

anxiety.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
13. When I need comfort, I am able to turn to friends or family and let
them know how I feel.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
14. I am comfortable expressing my angry feelings.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
15. I am able to assert my needs and wants with family members,
colleagues or my partner.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
16. I recognize and value my need for solitude or “quiet time.”
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
17. I actively pursue and maintain friendships with people I truly like.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often
18. I balance my life with pleasure and fun, recognizing that I work harder
when I am well rested.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often

Scoring
Now add up all your points as shown below.
question 1: a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4
questions 2 through 9: a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1
questions 10 through 18: a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4

Results
1 – 18 Poor
You rely heavily on other people’s opinions and find it hard to assert yourself
in your professional or personal life. You are so anxious to please others
that you often ignore your own needs and wants. You are also prone to

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rewarding yourself in self-destructive ways (e.g. overeating). It is important

for you to do things that will nurture you – such as reading a book,
swimming, walking in nature or just listening to music.

19 – 36 Fair
Although you make sure that you honour your commitments to others, you
are often self-critical and overly demanding of yourself. You are quick to
blame yourself when things go wrong. Learn to be more tolerant of your own
mistakes and pay less attention to what others may think. You do manage to
find time for what’s important in your life, which gives you a feeling of
satisfaction.

37 – 54 Good
You know who you are and what you need to be happy and usually are
willing to take the time to do something that will fulfill you. You are always
trying to improve yourself and surround yourself with supportive friends or
family. You see your strengths but may need to learn to work with your
weaknesses. For example, you may have a short attention span and work
best in spurts. By recognizing this and giving yourself frequent breaks, you
will be more productive.

55 – 72 Excellent
Congratulations! You have a deeply developed sense of self and are self-
nurturing. You respect your own feelings as well as those of others and
have no qualms about turning to friends or family when you are in need of
comfort. You are patient with yourself. If you feel a resistance to doing
something, you get to the root of your feelings instead of forcing yourself to
go ahead. You lead a healthy, well-balanced life.

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1.5 Improving the Level of Self-acceptance

There are a number of ways to do this. Several are listed below:

 Journal
So often we act according to logic or what we feel we “should” do and ignore
our feelings. Journaling will help you get in touch with your emotion and give
you a safe place to let things out. By regularly listening to yourself in this
way, you will feel freer to be yourself and more self-accepting.

 Acknowledge and Follow your Life Values

Determine your most cherished values and define how you can achieve
them in your current life (e.g. autonomy, creativity, fitness, communication,
learning, personal growth, love and affection). By taking even the smallest
step towards your inner values and goals, you grow in self-acceptance.

 Search for the Gold

We all seem to know our weaknesses or flaws but rarely consider our
strengths. Find ten things you admire about yourself, relating to your
personality or abilities – e.g. resourceful, articulate, good with children, can
make people laugh, sensitive to others’ feelings. Write these down and
consult the list whenever you feel “down” on yourself.

In our image-conscious society, many of us are obsessed with appearance.

An exercise that can help you to accept your physical self: when you look at
yourself in the mirror, instead of focusing on what’s wrong (large nose, frizzy
hair), find three positive things to say about your appearance. For example
you have good skin, white teeth or nicely developed calves. If you have a
poor self-image, you will at first find this a challenge. Put your observations
on paper and watch the list grow!

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Remember that someone meeting you for the first time sees the WHOLE
person and he or she is unlikely to be focused on your flaws. Also you
cannot realize the effect of your dazzling smile or the warmth in your eyes.

 Change your Self-talk

Pay close attention to your thoughts – observe whenever you are being
harsh or critical of yourself. In particular avoid generalizations, e.g. after
making a mistake you say to yourself, “I can never get anything right.”
Replace self-criticism with kindness: ask yourself if you’re tired or stressed
and what you can do to feel better.

 Allow yourself to Fail

It’s OK to rate your performance in various activities but NOT to base your
feelings of self-worth on how well or badly you do. You are an imperfect but
lovable human being who needs encouragement, not self-condemnation, to
keep going. Give yourself points for effort! Then determine what went wrong
and how you can do better next time.

 Surround yourself with Supportive Friends or Mentors

Beware of those who do not respect you or your values and discourage you
from doing what makes you happy. If family members fall into this category,
you need to cultivate friends who accept you as you are and give the
support you need.

Valuing and honouring your true self will increase your self-confidence.
When you are confident in who you are and what you can do, you are more
likely to take the steps you need to achieve a fulfilling life.

1.6 Factors Affecting Personality Development

What determines personality? Of all the complexities and unanswered
questions in the study of human behaviour, this question may be the most
difficult. People are enormously complex; their abilities and interests and
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attitudes are diverse. An early argument in personality research was

whether an individual's personality was the result of heredity or
environment. Was the personality predetermined at birth, or was it the result
of the individual's interaction with his or her environment? Personality
appears to be a result of both influences. Additionally, today we recognize
another factor - the situation. The problem lies in the fact that cognitive and
psychological processes, plus many other variables, all contribute to
personality. the determinants of personality can perhaps best be grouped in
five broad categories: biological, cultural, family, social and situational.

1. Biological Factors: The study of the biological contributions to

personality may be studied under three heads:
a) Heredity: Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at
conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex,
temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and
biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be
inherent from one's parents. The heredity approach argues that the
ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular
structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.

Research on animals has showed that both physical and

psychological characteristics can be transmitted through heredity.
But research on human beings is inadequate to support this
viewpoint. However, psychologists and geneticists have accepted
the fact that heredity plays an important role in one's personality.

b. Brain: The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role

that the brain plays in personality. Though researchers have made
some promising inroads, psychologists are unable to prove
empirically the contribution of the human brain in influencing
personality. The most recent and exciting possibilities come from the

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work done with electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) and split-
brain psychology. Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation
of the brain (ESB) research indicate that a better understanding of
human personality and behaviour might come from a closer study of
the brain. Work with ESB on human subjects is just beginning. There
seem to be definite areas in the human brain that are associated
with pain and pleasure. This being true, it may be possible physically
to manipulate personality through ESB.

c. Biofeedback: Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that

certain biological functions such as brainwave patterns, gastric and
hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin
temperature were beyond conscious control. Now some scientists
believe that these involuntary functions can be consciously
controlled through biofeedback techniques. In BFT, the individual
learns the internal rhythms of a particular body process through
electronic signals that are feedback from equipment that is wired to
the body. From this biofeedback, the person can learn to control the
body process in question. More research is needed on biofeedback
before any definitive conclusions can be drawn, but its potential
impact could be extremely interesting for the future.

d. Physical features: A vital ingredient of the personality, an

individual's external appearance, is biologically determined. The fact
that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will
influence the person's effect on others and this in turn, will affect the
self-concept. Practically all would agree that physical characteristics
have at least some influence on the personality. According to Paul H
Mussen, "a child's physical characteristics may be related to his
approach to the social environment, to the expectancies of others,

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and to their reactions to him. These, in turn, may have impacts on

personality development."

If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity,

they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter
them. But personality characteristics are not completely dictated by
heredity. There are other factors also which influence personality.

2. Cultural Factors: Among the factors that influence personality formation

is the culture in which we are raised, early conditioning, norms prevailing
within the family, friends and social groups and other miscellaneous
experiences that impact us. Traditionally, cultural factors are usually
considered to make a more significant contribution to personality than
biological factors. The culture largely determines attitudes towards
independence, aggression, competition, cooperation and a host of other
human responses. According to Paul H Mussen, "each culture expects,
and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the
group. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the range
of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values
and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence
learned." Culture requires both conformity and acceptance from its
members. There are several ways of ensuring that members comply
with the dictates of the culture. The personality of an individual to a
marked extent is determined by the culture in which he or she is brought
up. It follows that a person reared in a western culture has a different
personality from a person reared in Indian culture.

3. Family Factors: While the culture generally prescribes and limits what a
person can be taught, it is the family, and later the social group, which
selects, interprets and dispenses the culture. Thus, the family probably
has the most significant impact on early personality development. A

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substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home

environment created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence,
is critical to personality development. For example, children reared in
cold, un-stimulating homes are much more likely to be socially and
emotionally maladjusted than children raised by parents in a warm,
loving and stimulating environment.

The parents play an especially important part in the identification

process, which is important to the person's early development.
According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three different
perspectives.
i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including
feelings and attitudes between child and model.
ii. Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to be
like the model.
iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually
takes on the attributes of the model.

From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to

the understanding of personality development. The home environment
also influences the personality of an individual. Siblings (brothers and
sisters) also contribute to personality.

4. Social Factors: There is increasing recognition given to the role of other

relevant persons, groups and especially organizations, which greatly
influence an individual's personality. This is commonly called the
socialization process. Socialization involves the process by which a
person acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioural
potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are ultimately
synthesized and absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial contact
between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of

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the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or

friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the
work group - play influential roles.

Socialization process is especially relevant to organizational behaviour

because the process is not confined to early childhood, taking place
rather throughout one's life. In particular, evidence is accumulating that
socialization may be one of the best explanations for why employees
behave the way they do in today's organizations.

5. Situational Factors: Human personality is also influenced by situational

factors. The effect of environment is quite strong. Knowledge, skill and
language are obviously acquired and represent important modifications
of behaviour. An individual's personality, while generally stable and
consistent, does change in different situations. The varying demands of
different situations call forth different aspects of one's personality.
According to Milgram, "Situation exerts an important pressure on the
individual. It exercises constraints and may provide push. In certain
circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind
of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions". We should
therefore not look at personality patterns in isolation.

Self Assessment Questions

1. _______ refers to those factors that were determined at conception.
2. _________ starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new
infant.

1.7 Defence Mechanisms

A defence mechanism is a technique used to defend against anxiety and to
maintain self-esteem, but it involves self-deception and the distortion of
reality. We use defence mechanisms to protect ourselves from failure and

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from guilt arousing desires or actions. All of us use defence mechanisms to

some degree; it is only their overuse that is considered abnormal.

1. Repression: According to Freud, repression is the most important and

frequently used defence mechanism. Repression operates in two ways:
a. It can remove painful or threatening memories, thoughts, ideas or
perceptions from consciousness and keep them in the unconscious.
b. It can prevent unconscious but disturbing sexual and aggressive
impulses from breaking into consciousness.

2. Projection: We use projection when we attribute our own undesirable

impulses, thoughts, personality traits or behaviour to others, or when we
minimize the undesirable in ourselves and exaggerate it in others.
Projection allows us to avoid acknowledging our unacceptable traits and
thereby to maintain our self-esteem, but it seriously distorts our
perception of the external world. For example, (1) A sexually
promiscuous wife may accuse her husband of being unfaithful.
(2) A dishonest man may think everyone is out to cheat him.

3. Denial: is a refusal to acknowledge consciously or to believe that a

danger or a threatening condition exists. For example, (1) Smokers use
denial when they refuse to admit that cigarettes are a danger to their
health. (2) Many people who abuse alcohol and drugs deny that they
have a problem. Yet denial is sometimes useful as a temporary means
of getting through a crisis until a more permanent adjustment can be
made, such as when people initially deny the existence of a terminal
illness.

4. Rationalization: Occurs when we unconsciously supply a logical,

rational, or socially or personally acceptable reason rather than accept
the real reason for an action or event. Rationalization can be used to
justify past, present, or future behaviours or to soften the disappointment

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connected with not attaining a desired goal. When we rationalize, we

make excuses for – or justify – our failures and mistakes.

5. Regression: Sometimes, when frustrated or anxious, we may use

regression and revert to behaviour that might have reduced anxiety at
an earlier stage of development. For example, an adult may have a
temper tantrum, rant and rave or throw things.
6. Reaction Formation: is at work when people express exaggerated
ideas and emotions that are the opposite of their disturbing, unconscious
impulses and desires. In reaction formation, the conscious thought or
feeling masks the unconscious one. For example, a former chain smoker
becomes irate and complains loudly at the faintest whiff of cigarette
smoke.
7. Displacement: Occurs when we substitute a less threatening object or
person for the original object of a sexual or aggressive impulse. For
example, if your boss makes you angry, you may take out your hostility
on your wife.
8. Sublimation: With sublimation, we re-channel sexual or aggressive
energy into pursuits or accomplishments that society consider
acceptable or even praiseworthy. For example, an aggressive person
may re-channel the aggression and become a football player. A boxer
with a 'bad guy' image, like 'Iron' Mike Tyson, might talk of becoming an
evangelist. Freud viewed sublimation as the only completely healthy ego
defence mechanism.

1.8 Personality Characteristics in Organizations

Managers should learn as much as possible about personality in order to
understand their employees. Hundreds of personality characteristics have
been identified. We have selected eight characteristics because of their
particular influences on individual behaviour in organizations. They are:

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1. Locus of Control
2. Machiavellianism
3. Self-esteem
4. Self-efficacy
5. Self-monitoring
6. Positive / Negative Affect
7. Risk Taking

1. Locus of Control
Some people believe they are masters of their own fate. Other people see
themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their
lives is due to luck or chance. An individual's generalized belief about
internal (self) versus external (situation or others) control is called locus of
control.

a. Internals: Those who believe they control their destinies have been
labelled internals. Internals (those with an internal locus of control) have
been found to have higher job satisfaction, to be more likely to assume
managerial positions, and to prefer participative management styles. In
addition, internals have been shown to display higher work motivation, hold
stronger beliefs that effort leads to performance, receive higher salaries and
display less anxiety than externals (those with an external locus of control).

b. Externals: Externals are those individuals who believe that what

happens to them are controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.
Externals prefer a more structured work setting and they may be more
reluctant to participate in decision-making. They are more compliant and
willing to follow directions.

Research on locus of control has strong implications for organizations. A

large amount of research comparing internals with externals has
consistently shown that individuals who rate high in externality are less

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satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated
from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs than internals. Why
are externals more dissatisfied? The answer is probably because they
perceive themselves as having little control over those organizational
outcomes that are important to them. Knowing about locus of control can
prove valuable insights to managers. Because internals believe that they
control what happens to them, they will want to exercise control in their work
environment. Allowing internals considerable voice in how work is performed
is important. Internals will not react well to being closely supervised.
Externals, in contrast, may prefer a more structured work setting, and they
may be more reluctant to participate in decision-making.

Therefore, internals do well on sophisticated tasks - which includes most

managerial and professional jobs – that require complex information
processing and learning. Additionally, internals are more suited to jobs that
require initiative and independence of action. In contrast, externals should
do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and where success
depends heavily on complying with the directions of others.

2. Machiavellianism
Niccolo Machiavelli was a sixteenth century Italian statesman. He wrote
"The Prince", a guide for acquiring and using power. The primary method for
achieving power that he suggested was manipulation of others.
Machiavellianism then is a personality characteristic indicating one's
willingness to do whatever it takes to get one's way. An individual high in
Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes
that ends can justify means. "If it works, use it", is consistent with a high-
Mach perspective.

High-Machs believe that any means justify the desired ends. They believe
that manipulations of others are fine if it helps achieve a goal. Thus, high-

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Machs are likely to justify their manipulative behaviour as ethical. They are
emotionally detached from other people and are oriented towards objective
aspects of situations.

R Christie and F.L Geis, have found that high-Machs flourish

a. When they interact face-to-face with others rather than indirectly.
b. When the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus
allowing latitude for improvisation, and
c. When emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts
low-Machs.

A high-Mach individual behaves in accordance with Machiavelli's ideas,

which include the notion that it is better to be feared than loved. High-Machs
tend to use deceit in relationships, have a cynical view of human nature and
have little concern for conventional notions of right and wrong. They are
skilled manipulators of other people, relying on their persuasive abilities.
High-Machs are suitable in jobs that require bargaining skills or where there
are substantial rewards for winning (example: commissioned sales).

3. Self-esteem
Self-esteem is an individual's general feeling of self-worth. Individuals with
high self-esteem have positive feelings about themselves, perceive
themselves to have strength as well as weaknesses, and believe their
strengths are more important than their weaknesses. Individuals with low
self-esteem view themselves negatively. They are more strongly affected by
what other people think of them, and they compliment individuals who give
them positive feedback while cutting down people who give them negative
feedback.

Research on self-esteem (SE) offers some interesting insights into

organizational behaviour.
i. High-SEs: People with High SEs

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 Believe they possess more of the ability they need in order to

succeed at work.
 Individuals with high SE will take more risks in job selection and are
more likely to choose unconventional jobs.
 They are more satisfied with their jobs,

ii. Low-SEs: People with low SEs

 Are more susceptible to external influence.
 They depend on the receipt of positive evaluations from others.
 They tend to be concerned with pleasing others and therefore, are
less likely to take unpopular stands.
 They are less satisfied with their jobs.

Self-esteem may be strongly affected by situations. Success tends to raise

self-esteem, whereas failure tends to lower it. Given that high self-esteem is
generally a positive characteristic; managers should encourage employees
to raise their self-esteem by giving them appropriate challenges and
opportunities for success.

4. Self Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you
have in your ability to succeed in a task. So, in difficult situations, we find
that people with low self-efficacy are more likely to slacken their effort or
give up altogether, whereas those with high self- efficacy will try harder to
master the challenge. In addition, individuals high in self-efficacy seem to
respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation; those
low in self-efficacy are likely to reduce their effort when given negative
feedback.

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Individuals with high self-efficacy believe that they have the ability to get
things done, that they are capable of putting forth the effort to accomplish
the task, and that they can overcome any obstacles to their success. There
are four sources of self-efficacy:
 Prior experiences.
 Behaviour models - witnessing the success of others.
 Persuasion from other people and
 Assessment of current physical and emotional capabilities.

Believing in one's own capability to get something done is an important

facilitator of success. There is strong evidence that self-efficacy leads to
high performance on a wide variety of physical and mental tasks. Managers
can help employees develop their self-efficacy. This can be done by
providing avenues for showing performance, and rewarding an employee's
achievements.

5. Self-monitoring
A characteristic with great potential for affecting behaviour in organizations
is self-monitoring. Self-monitoring refers to an individual's ability to adjust his
or her behaviour to external situational factors.

High self-monitors pay attention to what is appropriate in particular

situations and to the behaviour of other people, and they behave
accordingly. Low self-monitors, in contrast are not as vigilant to situational
cues, and act from internal states rather than paying attention to the
situation. As a result, the behaviour of low self-monitors is consistent across
situations. High self-monitors, appears to be more unpredictable and less
consistent because their behaviour varies with the situation. High self-
monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their
public persona and their private self. Low self-monitors can't disguise
themselves this way.

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6. Positive/Negative Affect: Individuals who focus on the positive aspects

of themselves, other people, and the world in general are said to have
positive affect. In contrast, those who accentuate the negative in
themselves, others, and the world are said to possess negative affect.
Employees with positive affect are absent from work less often. Individuals
with negative affect report more work stress. Negative individual affect
produces negative group affect and this leads to less cooperative behaviour
in the work group. Managers can do several things to promote positive
affect, including allowing participative decision making and providing
pleasant working conditions.

7. Risk-taking: People differ in their willingness to take chances. This

propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on
how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information
they require before making their choice. High-risk-taking managers make
more rapid decisions and use less information in making their choices than
low-risk-taking managers.

While, it is generally correct to conclude that managers in organizations are

risk aversive, there are still individual differences on this dimension. As a
result, it makes sense to recognize these differences and even to consider
aligning risk-taking propensity with specific job demands. For example, a
high-risk-taking propensity may lead to more effective performance for a
stockbroker but these personality characteristics might prove a major
obstacle for an auditor.

Self Assessment Questions

3. An individual’s generalized belief about internal versus external control
is called ___________.
4. ______________ is a personality characteristic indicating one’s
willingness to do whatever it takes to get one’s way.

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5. ___________ is an individual’s general feeling of self-worth.

6. What are the four sources of self-efficacy?

1.9 Factors that Determine our Attitude

Are we born with attitudes or do we develop them as we mature? What are
the factors that form our attitudes?

If you have a negative outlook on life because of your environment, can you
change your attitude? Most of our attitude is shaped during our formative
years.

There are primarily three factors that determine our attitude.

 Environment
 Experience
 Education

Let’s evaluate each of the factors individually.

RMA – It's the Only Way

I believe that if you have the RMA (Right Mental Attitude) your dreams can
become true. Therefore, I have taken the eight letters in the word attitude
and created eight, "I Can" principles (ideas) that can help you achieve your
goals in life. (Remember a goal is a dream not yet realized).

A – Always Believe in Yourself

No one can make you feel inferior unless you let them. So like yourself and
others will like you. You are a wonderful, unique individual, and you can do
whatever you want to do. If you believe in your ability, others will too.
Believing in yourself is a very important factor in succeeding at whatever
you do. When you believe and have confidence in yourself, you CAN do
anything.

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T – Think Positively in Any Situation

Positive thinking is a form of thought, which always looks for the best results
from the worst conditions. It is possible to look for something to build on; it is
possible to expect the best for yourself even though things look bad, and the
remarkable fact is that when you look for the good, you are likely to find it.

T – Try Again if Things Go Wrong

Many things will go wrong during the course of your life. It's important to
know and understand this so you can allow for them.

Thomas Edison's teachers called him "too stupid to learn." He made 3,000
mistakes on his way to inventing the light bulb. During his life, he held 1,093
patents.

"I think success has no rule, but you can learn a great deal from failures."
(Jean Kerr)

You won't win if you don't begin! You must think… RMA and try again if
things go wrong.

I – Initiate a Positive Self-image

Self-image is defined as one's concept of oneself or one's role. If you have
the RMA, you'll see yourself in a positive light, which helps you to keep the
right perspective (outlook) on you and your personality.

You have to love yourself before anyone else can love you. Loving yourself
is a step toward being positive about yourself and others around you.

Be your own best friend. Give yourself a pat on your back when you deserve
it, and encourage yourself when you're upset.

Benefits of having a positive self-image are:

 You'll feel better.
 People will respect you more.
 You'll be more confident.

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 You'll be able to accept failure and learn from it.

 You won't have to worry about what others think of you.
 You'll find something good in a negative situation.
 You'll be a role model and others will follow you.

If you have the RMA, and a positive self-image, you'll be able to accomplish
almost anything in life.

T – Trust Others and be Trustworthy

Trust is the single most important element in any relationship whether it is
between friends, family or acquaintances. However, trust is not an easy
word to define.

Trust can defined, though, in its most basic form, as an understanding that
one person has with another person that neither will intentionally hurt the
other. Trusting someone is having confidence in them, to be able to depend
on them. You rely on and believe in that person due to their position,
previous performance or experiences with them. In essence, then, trust is
simply a relationship that is shared with another, a mutual bond between the
two individuals in which all doubt is removed. Trust, in its highest level, is
called trustworthiness.

When I think of trustworthy, I think of an internal characteristic in a person

that invites complete honesty and helps them to build loving relationships
with others. A trustworthy person's characteristics include: being reliable,
listens well and keeps an open mind and heart. Having someone you feel is
a trustworthy person is having the highest level of trust and type of
relationship possible with that person. Without trust and people who are
trustworthy, life would be dull and unlivable. So always trust others and be
trustworthy!

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U – Understand that People Make Mistakes

Mistake means to accept as a fact without positive knowledge and belief.

Mistake… is an error in judgment or opinion.

Let's think back to when you were a child and when you tried to walk for the
first time… you fell down. You quit and said, "Well, that's failure. It's not
going to work!"

Just think, you wouldn't be here now. Suppose that the first time you made
an error in a simple math problem… you just quit. You would never be able
to change money or go shopping or do anything…. right?

It seems that making mistakes is an essential part of growing, and if we

avoid doing things because of the fear of making a mistake, we would
deprive ourselves of all that is good in growth and in life.

Whatever mistakes you have made in the past, they have been a vital part
of your education and simply mean that you should dust yourself off and
begin again, not just quit and give up because you made a mistake and it
didn't work. Every mistake that you ever made in your whole life has led you
to your current state of understanding. Bless your mistakes, give thanks for
them, dust yourself off and go on again. You will probably make more
mistakes during your life, but you learn from every single one and no
mistake is ever fatal unless you make it so.

You are not a lousy person just because you make a mistake.

"He who never made a mistake never made a discovery." (Samuel Smiles)

D – Decide you can do anything through hope, faith and love

Faith is a belief that does not require proof or evidence. Faith is loyalty or
devotion to some person or thing. Faith has to do with the foundation, the
ground on which we stand.

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Love is a deep and tender feeling of affection or attachment or devotion to a

person or persons. Love is being dedicated to your loved ones. Love is just
being there and trusting each other.

Hope is a feeling that what is wanted will happen. Hope can be defined as
faith directed toward the future. Hope is reaching out for something to come.

Happiness is our key to the future. The three major ingredients are hope,
faith and love.

E – Enjoy Life like a Winner

Life is the time a person is alive or exists. Winners are positive thinking
people who intend to be successful in life.

With RMA you'll:

 Always remember the best things in life are free and happiness doesn't
come in bottles, boxes or bags.
 Never keep secrets. Honestly share your fears, hopes and dreams.
 Give, give in, forgive and never keep score.
 Keep faith in yourself and your loved ones. Live happily.

1.10 Summary
Personality of a person describes consistent emotional, thought, and
behavior patterns in a person. This unit identifies different categories of
personality – Extrovert, introvert, Type A and Type B, Agreeableness –
Disagreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to
Experience. The concept of ‘Self-Image’ is explained. The unit also has
helped you to recognise various factors that affect personality development
and their roles that contribute to personality development. You have been
familiarised with the personality characteristics that you find in an
organisation. These aspects of personality will help you to shape up the
desired attitude that you want to inculcate, thereby improvise on your
personality style.

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1.11 Terminal Questions

1. Write the difference between introvert and extrovert personality types.
2. What are the benefits of high conscientiousness?
3. Explain the cultural factors that affect personality development.

1.12 Answers
A. Self Assessment Questions
1. Heredity
2. Socialization process
3. locus of control
4. Machiavellianism
5. self-esteem
6. The four sources of self-efficacy are:
a) prior experiences
b) behaviour models –witnessing the success of others.
c) persuasion from other people
d) assessment of current physical and emotional capabilities

B. Terminal Questions
1. Refer 1.3
2. Refer 1.3
3. Refer 1.5

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