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Original Research Paper PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS AND HEAVY

METALS CONTENT OF SURFACE WATER IN DOWNSTREAM KADUNA RIVER,
ZUNGERU, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

Article · January 2015

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 APPLIED SCIENCE RESEARCH JOURNAL 2015 Vol 3(2): 46 -57
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H
OL
ARLY J O App.Sci.Res. J Original Research Paper

U
2015 Vol 3 (2)
PO N SC

RN
A LS
ISSN: 2354-256X

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS AND HEAVY METALS CONTENT OF

SURFACE WATER IN DOWNSTREAM KADUNA RIVER, ZUNGERU, NIGER
STATE, NIGERIA
U. N. Keke*, F. O. Arimoro, A. V. Ayanwale and S. M. Aliyu

Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State,

Nigeria
*Corresponding Author’s Email: uniquekkn@gmail.com

Abstract

Background and Aim: The quality of a given water body is controlled by its physical,
chemical and biological factors. Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy Metals of Surface
water in downstream Kaduna River, Zungeru, Niger State, Nigeria were evaluated to develop a
baseline data on the pollution status of the water.
Method: Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy Metals of the water were determined monthly
for a period of five months (April – August, 2015) using standard methods Three study sites
were selected along the river course designated as Sites A, B, and C.
Results: The concentrations of the parameters ranged as follows: pH (5.90 – 6.80), air and water
temperatures (25.00 – 31.00 ºC), electrical conductivity (32.00 – 72.00 µS cm-1), dissolved
oxygen (3.5 – 8.2 mg L-1), biological oxygen demand (1.00 – 5.00 mg L-1), phosphate (0.06 –
1.13 mg L-1), nitrates (0.44 – 1.44 mg L-1), alkalinity (8.00 – 16.00 mg L-1), transparency (36.00
– 40. 00 m), manganese (0.03 - 0.70 mg L-1), Iron (2.00 – 3.80 mg L-1), zinc (0.04 – 0.35 mg L-
1
), and copper (0.01 - -0.07 mg L-1). There was no record of lead detected throughout the time of
the study. Anaysis of Variance (ANOVA) calculated for the parameters showed that there was
no significant difference (P > 0.05) in all the physicochemical parameters sampled among the
sampling Sites, except for the air surface temperature. Linear correlation among temperature,
conductivity, DO, and phosphates revealed that the water quality deteriorated increasingly as the
water traveled from the upper reaches (Site A) down to the lower reaches (Site C). Most of the
physicochemical parameters – pH, surface water temperatures, conductivity, BOD, phosphates,
and nitrates were within the recommended limits for survival of aquatic organisms. However, the
values of DO and transparency fell outside these limits. Data obtained for heavy metals showed
that Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe) were above the maximum contaminant levels
Conclusion: Based on the extremely high values of Mn and Fe, the waters of Kaduna River is
therefore, declared unfit for human consumption as this may lead to Fe and Mn related illnesses,
therefore posing potential risk of bio-magnification for inhabitants that depend on the river. We
therefore advocate proper surveillance as a tool for monitoring anthropogenic (human) activities
in order to ensure minimized effects on these parameters of Kaduna River.

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Keywords: Anthropogenic activities, Bio-magnification, Aquatic productivity, River

pollution, Water quality.
source for aquatic productivity, including fish
INTRODUCTION productivity. It is against this backdrop that
The physical and chemical properties the present study was designed to evaluate the
of water immensely influences its uses, the level of heavy metals and water quality
distribution and richness of the biota parameters of lower River Kaduna, forming
(Courtney and Clement, 1998; Unanam and determinants of the pollution status of the
Akpan, 2006). Several of these water. Heavy metals pollution represents a
physicochemical parameters have been studied serious problem for human health and for life
on large man-made lakes in Northern Nigeria in general. The disposal of heavy metals is a
by Kolo and Oladimeji, 2004) and Ibrahim et consequence of several activities like chemical
al. (2009). manufacturing, painting and coating, mining,
extractive metallurgy, nuclear and other
The distribution processes of the industries. Those metals exert a deleterious
metals entering natural waters are controlled effect on fauna and flora of lakes and stream
by a dynamic set of physicochemical (Sanayei et al., 2009; Sayari et al., 2005).
interactions and their solubility are principally Human activities such as industrial and
controlled by hydrogen ion concentration municipal effluents, as well as atmospheric
(pH), concentration, type of metal species, the deposition and non-point source run-off have
oxidation state of mineral components and the are the main sources of metals in rivers. They
redox environment of the aquatic system are one the most environmental pollutant
(Koffi et al., 2014; Lalah et al., 2008). After which accumulates in living organisms. Its
being introduced into the aquatic environment cumulative poisoning effects are serious
via various sources and paths, metals are hematological and brain damage, anemia and
adsorbed onto inorganic and organic kidney malfunctioning (Sanayei et al., 2009;
particulates and are incorporated into sediment Zheng et al., 2008).
resulting in elevated levels of heavy metals in
bottom sediment (Ochieng et al., 2007; Liu et Materials and Methods
al., 2009). Physicochemical parameters play
an important role to determine the water Description of the study area
quality. The accumulation of metals from the
Zungeru is a town in Niger state, Nigeria. It
overlying water to the sediment is dependent
was the capital of British protectorate of
on a number of external environmental factors
northern Nigeria from 1902 until 1916. Lower
such as pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical
River Kaduna is a lotic water body passing
conductivity and the available surface area for
through Zungeru which originates from
adsorption caused by the variation in grain
Kaduna, a tributary of the Niger River. It
size distribution (Davies et al., 2006).
flows for 550 kilometers through Nigeria. The
However, metals cannot always be fixed by
climate in Zungeru is tropical with annual
sediments permanently. Some of the sediment-
temperature and relative humidity and rainfall
bound metals may remobilize and be released
of 30.20C, 61.2 % and 344 mm, respectively.
back to waters via the variation of
The climate represents two distinct seasons, a
environmental conditions such as
rainy season between April and October, with
acidification, redox potential conditions, and
the highest mean monthly rainfall in
impose adverse effects on living organisms
September and a dry season from November
(Liu et al., 2009). River Kaduna is an
to March completely devoid of rainfall.
importance source of portable water for the
riparian communities and also serves as a rich
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The vegetation reflects that of savannah zone, meters from site A and site C is another 3
dominated by grass but with scattered trees. meters away from site B (Fig 1.1 &1.2).
For the purpose of this study, the river was
divided into 3 study sites. Site A is located at
the upstream of the sampling site, site B at 3

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Sampling techniques Data Analysis

Water samples for physicochemical The range, mean and standard deviation for
parameters were collected monthly between each parameter and Site were calculated.
the period of March and September, within Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to
8.00am and 12pm of the day from the three compare the means of the physico-chemical
sites using 500 ml capacity specimen parameters and heavy metals obtained from
bottles. The water was fixed immediately the three sites. Prior to ANOVA, the
using standard procedure of (APHA 2005), assumptions of normality and homogeneity
before getting to the laboratory for further of variance were tested using the Shapiro–
analysis. Wilk and Levene’s tests, respectively. When
it was found that these assumptions were
Physiochemical parameters determination violated, data were log (x+1) transformed,
except for pH. Fixed effect ANOVAs were
Hydrogen ion concentration (pH),
performed using dates as replicates.
temperature, and conductivity were
Significant differences between Sites
determined in situ using Jenway (model
indicated by ANOVA (p<0.05) were
type HANNAH 1910) multi-purpose tester.
followed by Tukey’s post hoc HSD test.
Total Alkalinity was determined using the
titrimetric methods as clearly described by
APHA (2005). Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and
Results
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) were
done using the titrimetric method (Wrinkler)
Physicochemical parameters of Kaduna
as clearly described by Dubey and
River
Maheshwari, (2004). Transparency, Nitrate,
The summary of physicochemical
and Phosphates were determined as
parameters obtained for the three Sites of
described by FAO (1997).
Kaduna River is shown in Table 1. These
Processing and analyses of Sediments, values are placed alongside WHO (2004),
and determination of Heavy metals USEPA (2010) and NESREA (2011)
standard values for guideline. ANOVA
Heavy metals analyzed included, zinc, calculated for the parameters showed that
manganese, lead, copper, and iron. Analyses there was no significant difference (P >
for heavy metals were conducted in 0.05) in all the parameters sampled among
accordance with standard procedures the sampling sites, except for the air surface
(APHA 2005). This involved the drying of temperature.
sediments to constant weight in an oven at
650C, grinding of dry sediments to very fine pH ranged from 5.9 to 6.80. The highest
particles and digesting it using strong value (6.8) was recorded in Site A in August
hydrochloric acid. Absorbance of the and the lowest value was recorded in Site C
specific metals in clear supernatants from in July of the study of the period. The results
digested materials was measured using an obtained for air surface temperature showed
atomic absorption spectrophotometer a generally high temperature in all the Sites
(ALPHA Model). Concentration of the within the period of the study. There was
specific metals in sediments was calculated significant difference between the three sites
using regression equations of the standard. throughout the period of study with June
having the highest value 31 0C recorded in
Site C. The air and water temperatures

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fluctuated between 25.00 to 31.00 0C. 1

. Alkalinity values were same (14.00 mg L-
1
Electrical conductivity fluctuated between ) for three sites in April and June.
the three months, with the highest value of Generally, values were higher in the
70 µS cm-1 recorded in Site A in April. The beginning of the study, but suddenly became
mean range was from 32.00 to 72.00 µS cm- low towards end. Lowest value was 8 mg L-1
1
. For dissolved oxygen, the result obtained at Site A in the month of August, while
showed that dissolved oxygen of the River highest value was 16 mg L-1 at Site C in the
decreased gradually from the month of April month of May.
to August; hence the fluctuation between
3.50 to 8.2 mg L-1. There was no difference Heavy metals of Kaduna River
between Sites A and B in the months of May
The summary of the values of the heavy
and June. Low values were observed in Site
metals obtained for the three Sites is shown
C in all the months of this study. The lowest
in Table 2. These values are placed
value of Biological oxygen demand (1.00
alongside WHO (2004), USEPA (2010) and
mg L-1) was observed in Site C in August.
NESREA (2011) standard values for
Similar values were recorded in all the Sites
guideline. Data showed that manganese ion
in July (2.00 mg L-1), whereas the highest
was low in all Sites. It fluctuated between
value was recorded in Site A (5.00 mg L-1)
0.03 to 0.7 mg L-1. The lowest value of 0.03
in April.
mg L-1 was observed in Site C in the month
Phosphate values ranged from 0.06 of June, while the highest value of 0.7 mg L-
1
to 1.13 mg L-1. There was steady decrease in was recorded in Site B in the month of
all sites between May and June, followed by August. Concentration of iron showed some
a rapid increase in the month of July. Nitrate variations in all three Sites throughout the
value of 1.44 mg L-1 was the highest period of the study. It ranged from 2.0 to 3.8
recorded at Site C in April. Lowest value mg L-1. Generally, the results of iron were
was (0.44 mg L-1) at Site C in the month of higher than the other metals sampled in all
August. Generally there was a gradual Sites. The result obtained for zinc showed a
decrease in values between the five months. gradual increase in the concentration of zinc
Transparency was high generally during the ions within the Sites having ranged from
study, shortly afterwards, there was a drastic 0.04 to 0.35 mg L-1. Copper was detected in
reduction towards the end. The value ranged the sediments from the three Sites. The
from 36.00 to 40.00 cm. Alkalinity was range was from 0.01 to 0.07 mg L-1. There
observed in the range of 8.00 to 16.00 mg L- was no record of lead detected throughout
the time the study.

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Table 1: Physicochemical parameters of water samples collected from Kaduna River, Zungeru from April to August, 2015.
1
Sampled Sites
2
Parameters Site A Site B Site B P value WHO (2004) NESREA
(2011)

pH 6.31 ± 0.15 6.29±0.96 6.15±0.19 0.72 6.5-9.5 6.5-8.5

(5.90-6.80) (6.10-6.60) (5.40-6.40)
Surface Temp (°C) 27.00 ± 0.71 28.00±0.58 30.00±0.45 0.01 27 -
(25.00-29.00) (27.00-30.00) (29.00-31.00)
a
Water Temp (°C) 28.20±0.74 27.80±0.91 29.00±0.80 0.6 35 -
(26.00-30.00) (26.00-30.00) (27.00-31.00)
-1
Conductivity (µS cm ) 48.40±8.40 60.80±4.25 62.00±.84.00 0.2 200
(32.00-70.00) (51.00-72.00) (59.00-67.00)
-1
DO (mg L ) 6.30±0.60 5.50±0.60 4.90±0.50 0.22 6.0 -
(4.50-8.20) (3.50-7.00) (3.50-6.00)
-1
BOD (mg L ) 3.60±0.51 2.80±0.5.00 2.60±0.51 0.4 6 -
(2.00-5.00) (1.00-4.00) (1.00-4.00)
-1
Phosphate (mg L ) 0.30±0.20 0.45±0.23 0.46±0.22 0.84 3.5
(0.06-1.13) (0.06-1.11) (0.06-1.10)
-1
Nitrate (mg L ) 0.98±0.14 0.87±0.14 0.94±0.19 0.87 50 9.1
(0.62-1.31) (0.44-1.09) (0.45-1.44)
Transparency (m) 76±16.13 83.8±21.04 87.6±21.53 0.9 5 -
(40.00-113.00) (36.00-138.00) (39.00-140.00)
-1
Alkalinity (mg L ) 11.60±1.17 13.80±0.49 13.60±0.98 0.22 - -
(8.00-14.00) (12.00-15.00) (10.00-16.00)
1
Data are the means ± SE of triplicate determinations with minimum and maximum values in parenthesis. a indicates
significantly calculated P value detected by ANOVA . 2Temp = Temperature; DO = Dissolved Oxygen; BOD =Biological
Oxygen Demand.

Table 2: Heavy metals of water samples collected from Kaduna River, Zungeru from April to August, 2015.

Sampled Sites
Parameters Site A Site B Site C P value WHO (2004) USEPA
(2010)

0.05
Manganese (mg L-1) 0.15±0.03 0.19±0.50 0.26±0.22 0.88 0.4
(0.11-0.20) (0.03-0.50) (0.04-0.70)
0.3
Iron (mg L-1) 2.25±0.22 3.66±0.08 2.33±0.19 0.001 0.03
(2.0-2.70) (3.54-3.80) (2.10-2.70)
5
Zinc (mg L-1) 0.06±0.015 0.12±0.02 0.29±0.06 0.01 3
(0.04-0.09) (0.10-0.16) (0.18-0.35)
1.3
Copper (mg L-1) 0.02±0.01 0.04±0.01 0.04±0.01 0.43
(0.01-0.03) (0.02-0.06) (0.03-0.07)
0.015
Lead (mg L-1) 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.01
(0.00-0.00) (0.00-0.00) (0.00-0.00)

1 a
Data are the means ± SE of triplicate determinations with minimum and maximum values in parenthesis. indicates
significantly calculated P value detected by ANOVA.

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Discussion the oxidation-reduction state of many of the

chemical compounds such as nitrate and
The quality of a given water body is ammonia, sulphate and sulphite, ferrous and
controlled by its physical, chemical and ferric ions. DO levels of 3.50 to 8.2 mg L-1
biological factors, all of which interact in this study were similar to 1.20 to 9.40
with one another to influence its reported by Edokpayi and Osimen (2001) in
productivity (Akponine and Ugwumba, Ibiekuma River in Ekpoma; Akponine and
2014). Results obtained from Kaduna River Ugwumba (2014) in Ibuya River in Old
showed that the physicochemical parameters national park, Sepeteri. The results showed
of the water body are only stressed that, the dissolved oxygen recorded were
minimally. The pH range of 5.9-6.8 obtained within the permissible limits of the standard
from this study conferred slight acidity drinking water for WHO (2004) and
levels on River Kaduna. However, this range NESREA (2011). The amount of dissolved
was within the range reported for rivers oxygen in water has been reported not
flowing through areas with thick vegetation constant but fluctuates, depending on
(Uwadiae et al., 2009; Akponine and temperature, depth, wind and amount of
Ugwumba, 2014). biological activities such as degradation
(Ibrahim et al., 2009). The decrease in DO
Thus, the pH range obtained in this study is
value observed at some points may be due to
within the acceptable level of 6.0 to 8.5 for
discharge of organic wastes at such periods,
culturing tropical fish species and, for the
which led to biological respiration and
recommended levels for drinking water
decomposition processes, which in turn
(WHO, 2004; USEPA, 2010). Federal
reduced the concentration of DO in water
Environmental protection Agency (FEPA)
bodies. This agreed with the findings of
recommended pH 6.5- 8.0 for drinking and
Michael (2006), who reported that water
6.0-9.0 for aquatic life. High pH levels of
with high organic or inorganic pollution may
water forces the dissolved ammonia to its
have very little oxygen in them.
toxic and unionized form which gravely
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a
affects aquatic organisms (USEPA, 2008).
measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen
The water surface temperature is the most
removed from water by aerobic bacteria for
significant parameter which controls in-born
their metabolic requirements during the
physical qualities of water. The temperature
breakdown of organic matter (Chapman,
of Kaduna River varied from 25 0C to 31 0C.
1996).
The highest temperature was in August at
Site C while the lowest was recorded in According to Stevens Institute of
April at Sites A and B. This is because of Technology (SIT), (2008), BOD
the shallowness of the sites and the volume -1
classification of 1-2 mg L as very good,
of water in contact with air. The mean air with less organic matter present; 3-5 mg L-1
and surface water temperatures obtained are as moderately clean; 6-9 mg L-1 as poor,
typical of African tropical rivers (Masese et somewhat polluted (indicates organic matter
al., 2009). Both air and water temperatures is present and bacteria are decomposing this
range were observed to be within the waste); etc, the water samples were
recommended range for aquaculture as moderately clean and safe for drinking. The
reported by Zheng et al. (2008), who level of BOD recorded in this study revealed
observed that fish grow best at 25 to and 32 that River Kaduna was moderately clean.
0
C. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in water affects The higher value of BOD in Site A may be

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due to higher rate of decomposition of Nitrate and phosphates can reach both
organic matter at higher temperatures. This surface water and groundwater as a
also corroborated with Umeham (1992), consequence of agricultural activities
who observed that organic matter from (including excess application of inorganic
increased weed decomposition within lake nitrogenous fertilizers and manures),
water and domestic sewage increased the wastewater disposal and from oxidation of
biological oxygen demand. The present nitrogenous waste products in human and
values were within acceptable limits animal excreta, including septic tanks
prescribed by the World Health (Where latrines and septic tanks are poorly
Organization, (WHO, 2004). sited, these can lead to contamination of
drinking-water sources with nitrate)
Electrical conductivity is the normalized (Umeham and Elekwa, 2005). The
measure of the water’s ability to conduct concentrations of nitrates recorded in this
electric current. This is mostly influenced by study were very low for primary
dissolved salts such as sodium chloride and productivity, since the concentrations did
potassium chloride (SIT, 2008). The sources not fall within the range recommended by
of conductivity may be an abundance of Beadle (1981), who observed that nitrate-
dissolved salts due to poor irrigation, nitrogen range of 9.8- 49 mg L-1 is required
minerals from rain water run-offs, or other for more production in lakes of Africa. This
discharges. Generally, the conductivity low nitrate level of River Kaduna might be
levels measured in this study were far below linked to dearth of significant farming
the maximum contamination levels (MCL) activities around the sites. This corroborated
of WHO (2004). The generally low the study of Yakubu et al. (2014) on the
conductivity levels indicated low dissolved assessment of the water quality parameters
salts in the study Sites. Higher mean of Agaie/Lapai dam in Niger State, Nigeria.
conductivity values of 60.00 and 62.00 µS The low nitrates level might as well be
cm-1 were observed for Sites A and B, attributed to high photosynthetic activities
respectively. This could be as a result of by aquatic plants since the vegetation of the
dissolved solutes from decaying organic study sites vegetation reflected that of
materials deposited at these sites form savannah zone, dominated by grass but with
surface run-offs. Conductivity levels below scattered trees. This is similar to the findings
50 µS cm-1 are regarded as low; those of Akponine and Ugwumba (2014) on the
between 50 µS cm-1 to 600 µS cm-1 are physico-chemical parameters and heavy
medium, while those above 600 µS cm-1 are metal contents of Ibuya River in old
high conductivity levels (Umeham and National Park, Sepeteri, Oyo State, Nigeria.
Elekwa, 2005). The mean conductivity level The overall mean values of phosphates
of 57.07 µS cm-1 for the three sites might recorded (0.40 mg L-1) were generally low
have placed this River Kaduna as portable when compared to the standard of 3.2 to 630
water. The mean conductivity level of 57.07 mg L-1 recommended by Beadle (1981), and
µS cm-1 also fell within the range of inland this could also be attributed to same dearth
waters. Transparency values recorded during of significant farming activities around the
the research were within the range reported study sites. It could also be due to dilution
by Kemdirim (1990) who stated that the and movement of water which could not
recommended range for transparency is allow aquatic sedimentation and decay of
between 11.0cm-108.5cm for productive organic matter. The studies of Yakubu et al.
waters. (2014) and Ojutiku and Kolo (2011) in

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Nigerian water bodies corroborated this other aquatic organisms either through direct
present study. Meanwhile, phosphates drainage or atmospheric deposition.
concentrations decreased as from the water
moves from Site A through Site C, and this Copper (Cu) is an essential substance to
could be attributed to the impact of human life, but chronic exposure to
anthropogenic activities that were more contaminant drinking water with Cu can
evident and increased from Site A through result in the development of anemia, liver
Site C. and kidney damage (Madsen, et al., 1990;
Bent and Bohm, 1995). On the other hand,
Metal levels in the three sites existed in the lack of copper intake causes anemia, growth
order Fe >Mn>Zn >Cu >Pb. Lead (Pb) was inhibition, and blood circulation problems
not detected at all. Similar result was also (Jennings, et. al., 1996). Zn is present in
observed by Khan, et al. (1998) in Ganga- large amounts in natural water (USEPA,
Brahamputra-Meghna Estuary. The mean 2010). The mean concentrations of 0.03 mg
concentration of Mn in this study was 2.0 L-1 and 0.16 mg L-1 for Cu and Zn,
mg L-1. In all the sampled sites, Mn was respectively, were far below the MCL of
found to be higher than 0.01 mg L-1 WHO (2004) and USEPA (2010). Pb was
recommended limit for Mn in drinking water not detected at all in all the sampled sites.
(USEPA, 2010). The waters of River Exposure to lead is cumulative over time.
Kaduna is therefore, declared unfit for High concentrations of lead in the body can
human consumption as this would lead to cause death or permanent damage to the
Mn related illnesses. Adoption of adequate central nervous system, the brain, and
measures to remove this Mn load is kidneys (Jennings et. al., 1996). This
necessary to avoid further deterioration of damage commonly results in behavior and
the river water quality. River Kaduna is learning problems (such as hyperactivity),
contaminated by Fe. The mean value of 2.73 memory and concentration problems, high
mg L-1 recorded in this study exceeded the blood pressure, hearing problems,
maximum contamination level (MCL) of < headaches, slowed growth, reproductive
0.03 and <0.3 recommended by WHO problems in men and women, digestive
(2004) and USEPA (2010), respectively. problems, muscle and joint pain. Studies on
The high concentrations of Fe in the lead are numerous because of its hazardous
sediment had no identifiable point source effects (Salem et al., 2000). Lead is
discharge rather than lithological or crustal considered the number one health threat to
origin. This may also be linked to the fact children, and the effects of lead poisoning
that River Kaduna and its tributaries is can last a lifetime. Not only does lead
surrounded by high concentration of poisoning stunt a child’s growth, damage the
industries and factories such as nervous system, and cause learning
petrochemical plants, battery factory, disabilities, but also it is now linked to crime
fertilizer and pesticides factory as well as and anti-social behavior in children (Salem
Defense Industrial Corporation (DIC) base et al., 2000).
in Kaduna town. These factories including
household and sewage waste constitute Conclusion and Recommendations
potential sources of Iron (Fe+) and other
There was linear correlation among
heavy metals which might be transported in
temperature, conductivity, DO, and
large volumes that could reach fish and
phosphates, and this correlation revealed
that, due to anthropogenic activities, the
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water quality deteriorated increasingly as the comments that greatly improved the
water traveled from Site A to Site B. The manuscript.
physicochemical parameters – pH, surface
and water temperatures, conductivity, BOD, Author’s Contributions:
phosphates, and nitrates were within the UNK and FOA designed the study,
limits recommended by USEPA (2010) and performed the statistical analysis and wrote
FEPA (1991) for survival of aquatic the draft of the manuscript. SMA did the
organisms, as well as WHO (2004) for sample collection and analysis while AVA
drinking purposes. However, the values of managed the literature searches and heavy
DO and transparency fell outside these metal analysis. All authors read and
limits. Data obtained for heavy metals approved the final manuscript.
showed that Mn and Fe were above the
maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) of References
USEPA (2010) and WHO (2004). The Akponine JA and Ugwumba OA (2014).
waters of River Kaduna is therefore, Physico-chemical parameters and
Heavy metal content of Ibuya RRiver,
declared unfit for human consumption as
Old Oyo National Park, Sepeteri, Oyo
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