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Investigating the Quality of Groundwater from Hand-dug Wells in Lapai, Niger

State, North-central Nigeria using Physico-chemical and Bacteriological
Parameters

Article · January 2017

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Minna Journal of Geosciences (MJG) Vol 1 No. 1 (77 – 92)
Investigating the Quality of Groundwater from Hand-dug Wells in Lapai, Niger State
using Physico-chemical and Bacteriological Parameters
1
*Amadi, A.N.,1Olasehinde, P.I., 2Obaje, N. G.,1Unuevho, C.I., 3Yunusa, M.B.,4Keke, U.N.
and 1Ameh, I.M.
1
Department of Geology, Federal University of Technology, Minna
2
Department of Geology and Mining, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai
3
Department of Geography, Federal University of Technology, Minna
4
Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Minna
*Corresponding Author: an.amadi@futminna.edu.ng,geoama76@gmail.com; +234-8037729977

Abstract
Access to potable water is one of the important ingredients for sustainable development of any
community. The quality status of groundwater from shallow hand dug well in Lapai area of
Niger State, North-central Nigeria was investigated in the present study using physico-chemical
and bacteriological indices. A total of 35 groundwater samples were collected from hand-dug
wells and analysed for their chemical and bacteriological parameters. Prior to the analysis, the
physical parameters were determined insitu using standard equipment in accordance with
American Public Health Association Standard for water and waste-water sampling. The
geological mapping of the area revealed granite-gneiss as the dominant rock type. The structural
analysis of the study area revealed the principal joint direction as NE-SW. The result of the
laboratory analyses of the groundwater samples showed that the mean concentrations of the
major cations and anions are below the permissible limit recommended by the Nigerian Standard
for Drinking Water Quality. However, the mean concentration of iron, copper and zinc in
locations along transition zone were found to be slightly higher than their respective
recommended maximum permissible limit. Their presence in the groundwater may be attributed
to rock-water interaction leading to bedrock dissolution, chemical weathering and dilution effect
of the overlapping ferruginous sandstone from the nearby Bida Basin as well as possible leachate
from decomposing metallic objects at dumpsites. The groundwater is extremely poor
bacteriologically owing to the proximity of hand dug well to unlined soakaways and pit-latrine.
The mean concentration of total coliform (150.30 cfu/100ml), E.coli (65.50 cfu/100ml) and
faecal strepp (85.40 cfu/100ml) in the hand dug wells from the area implies faecal
contamination, an indication that the water is in contact with human or animal faeces and it may
be responsible for the occurrence of foodborne and waterborne diseases in the area. Physical
parameters such as turbidity, conductivity and total dissolved solid show wide range and
deviation which is attributable to the presence of the metals and bacteria in the groundwater.
Boiling of water before use for domestic purposes is recommended as most bacteria do not
withstand elevated temperature. Sensitization of the people on the importance of good hygiene
should be carried out in the area.

Keywords: Evaluation, Groundwater Quality, Hand-dug wells, Lapai, Niger State

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 Amadi et al (2017)

Introduction

Access to potable water is one of the important ingredients for sustainable development of any
community. According to the World Health Organization, about 1.1 billion people globally do
not have access to potable water supply while 2.4 billion people do not have access to good
sanitation. Water is an essential resource for life and good health. It is so vital that it improves
many health conditions such as chronic exhaustion, dehydration, toxin removal, poor blood
circulation, waste removal and good kidney function. There is an increasing awareness that water
will be one of the most critical natural resources in future due to the fact that about 2 million
children less than 5 five years die annually in developing countries as a result of diarrhea
diseases (WHO, 2008). According to WaterAid (2016) report, lack of potable water killed more
people in Nigeria (about 73, 000) than Boko Haram (slightly above 4,000). This shocking
revelation places importance on the need to regularly monitor the quality and source of our daily
water supply. Water is an essential requirement of human and industrial development and the
most delicate part of the environment and hence, monitoring of its quality is essential to
guarantee a safe environment and healthy people. Water is a universal solvent and has the ability
to dissolve and interact with organic and inorganic components of the aquifer material through
which it migrates. These materials constitute the amount of total dissolved solids present in the
groundwater which enhances its conductivity. This implies that groundwater chemistry is a
function of the mineral composition and the formation as it moves from recharge to discharge
areas which varies spatially and temporally depending of on the chemical nature of the water,
mineralogy of the geological formations and residence time of the groundwater (Amadi, 2014).

For instance, research carried out by Etu-Efeotor (1998) on the hydrochemical analysis of
surface and groundwater at Gwagwalada area of central Nigeria revealed that the surface has
high concentration of nitrates, phosphates and sulphates in surface water are believed to have
resulted from the human and agricultural activities in the area. Adakole et al. (2010) studied the
quality characteristics of water in Samaru area showed that all the physical parameters considered
conformed with the (WHO, 2008) standards, while some of the chemical parameters like total
hardness, nitrate, chloride and sulphate of the samples do not conform to the standard. Aremu et
al. (2011) evaluated the physiochemical properties of groundwater from hand-dug wells,
boreholes and stream water in Bwari and its environs. The result showed that the water are
slightly acidic, soft, fresh, have low to moderate chemical ions values and are classified as Ca-
Na-HCO3, Ca-K-HCO3, Mg-Ca-HCO3, and Na-K- HCO3 water types.

Muhammed (2012) reported that over 90% of the water samples analysed from parts of Kaduna
Metropolis is in conformity with the Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ,
2007) standard in term of physico-chemical quality. However, over 65% of the samples were
contaminated by coliform. This confirms anthropogenic contamination of some of the
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Minna Journal of Geosciences (MJG) Vol 1 No. 1 (77 – 92)
groundwater in the study area. It also indicated that the borehole water is more potable than the
shallow hand dug wells. Nur and Ayuni (2004) investigated on the water quality characteristics
of groundwater in Jalingo metropolisshowed that some of the water samples do not conform to
WHO (2006) permissible standard in terms of pH, iron, magnesium and coliform count. It
further stated that the water samples have generally low concentration of anions and cations and
classified the dominant water type in the area as Na+K-Cl-SO4 water type.

Adesida and Omosuyi (2005) analysed groundwater chemistry of weathered zone aquifers of an
area underlain by basement complex rocks, Akure, Nigeria. The results show that there is a
human activity imprint on the groundwater chemistry, which overshadows the normal expected
influence of' weathering and bedrock geology. Ako (1996) carried out the chemical quality of
shallow groundwater from a metamorphic terrain of part of Southwest Nigeria. The study
concluded that the pattern of nutrient concentration between surface and groundwater
investigated show that the chemistry of the groundwater is dependent to a large extent on the
host bedrock. Adekunle et al. (2007) evaluated the physico-chemical and biological quality of
water sources in Southwestern Nigeria. They attributed the contamination/pollution of some of
the water analysed to both geogenic and anthropogenic factors.

Ofodile (2002) determined the impact of human activities on groundwater quality of shallow
aquifers in Jimeta-Yola. The study revealed elevated concentration for contamination/pollution
tracers (NO3-, Cl-, SO42-) and electrical conductivity. They suggested that the contamination/
pollution is due to human activities. Olobaniyi and Owoyemi (2004) determined the groundwater
quality in the deltaic plain sand aquifer of Warri area. They reported saltwater contamination in
some of the samples based on high chloride content, low Ca/Mg and Na/Cl ratio. They stated that
the water is suitable for domestic and industrial purposes in terms of its physico-chemical
attributes. However, the presence of heterotrophic and coliform bacteria compromises this
quality. Edet and Okereke (1997) assessed the contamination risk of coastal plain aquifers in
Calabar by some potentially toxic elements. They concluded that the small scale mining
activities, low concentration of elements, immobility of mineral species under the prevailing Eh-
pH conditions, dilution and precipitation of mineral phases make contamination risk of the
coastal plain sand very low.

Furthermore, the quality of surface and groundwater in Agaie, Bida, Minna, Suleja, Rafi and
Zungeru areas of Niger State has been studied by many workers (Olasehinde and Amadi, 2009;
Yisa and Jimoh, 2013; Olasehinde et al., 2015; Amadi et al., 2016). Such studies have not been
carried out in Lapai Local Government Area of Niger State, North-central Nigeria. The need to
ascertain the quality status of groundwater from shallow aquifers in the area was necessitated by
the incidence of waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid and diarrhea among children in the
area.

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 Amadi et al (2017)

Materials and Methods

Study Area

Lapai is one of the local government areas of Niger State (Figures 1 and 2) and hosts the
prestigious IBB University Lapai. It is accessible through Paiko-Lapai road and Bida-Agaie-
Lambata road. The study area is characterised by two seasons: wet and dry seasons. The area
records its highest temperature of about 350C during the dry season (November to March) while
during the rainy season (April to October), the temperature drops to about 24 (Annor et al.,
1990). The vegetation type is Guinea Savannah and the area is mostly dominated by shrubs and
grasses sandwiched by tall trees (Dada, 2008).

Geologically, Lapai lies within a transition (contact) zone. The Pan African basement complex
rocks of Minna overlap with the Cretaceous sediments from the Bida Basin (Ajibade, 1976;
Obaje, 2009). The structural element displayed in the basement rocks (schist, granite and gneiss)
as obtained through geological mapping indicates a NE-SW trend, which also correspond to the
regional fracture pattern (Figure 3).

Figure 1: Map of Niger State showing Lapai Local Government Area.

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Minna Journal of Geosciences (MJG) Vol 1 No. 1 (77 – 92)

Figure 2: Map of Lapai Local Government Area showing the Study Area.

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 Amadi et al (2017)

Figure 3: Rosset diagram for the study area.

Water Sampling and Analyses

A total of 35 groundwater samples were collected from hand-dug wells in Lapai in the month of
June, 2016. The water sampling and analyses were carried out in line with known standards
(AOAC, 1990; APHA, 2008) guidelines for sampling and analysis of water and waste water.
Prior to the collection of water samples, the water pH, temperature and conductivity were
determined in situ using standard equipment. Calcium and magnesium were determined
titrimetrically using standard EDTA, chloride by standard AgNO3 titration, bicarbonate by
titration with HCl, sodium and potassium by flame photometry. The pH, temperature, turbidity,
electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids were determined in the field using pHTestr 2,
mercury thermometer, turbidiometer, ECTestr+ by Eutech Instruments and DIST-3 by Hanna
instruments respectively. The sulphate and phosphate were determined by Spectrophotometer CL
22D.

Results and Discussion

The statistical summary of the physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis of water samples is
shown in Table 1.The pH values ranged between 6.52 and 7.37 while water temperature varied
from 27.10oC to 29.30oC (Table 1). The pH measures the degree of acidity or basicity of a
substance while temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a material.
They are important water quality indicator and plays important role in the dissolution of
substances in water. The pH falls within the acceptable range of 6.50-8.50 recommended by

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Minna Journal of Geosciences (MJG) Vol 1 No. 1 (77 – 92)
Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ, 2007). Many biochemical processes in
water are influenced by changes in pH and temperature. Chemical substances dissolve more
readily in water under low pH and high temperature conditions (Amadi et al., 2013).

Table 1: Statistical summary of results of Physico-chemical and Bacteriological Analyses of

Groundwater Samples from Hand-dug Wells in Lapai Area of Niger State

Parameters (mg/L) Minimum Maximum Mean NSDWQ

Conductivity (µs/cm) 176.00 1193.00 464.12 1000.0
o
Temperature ( C) 27.10 29.30 28.48 Ambient
pH 6.52 7.37 7.02 6.5-8.5
Turbidity (NTU) 0.00 52.00 13.25 5.0
Total Dissolved Solid 118.00 800.00 311.25 500.0
Dissolved Oxygen 4.40 7.36 6.08 8.0
Chloride 12.10 95.60 14.06 200.0
Hardness 66.00 261.00 167.00 150.0
Alkalinity 19.00 74.00 42.00 -
Nitrate 0.47 30.50 22.01 50.0
Calcium 18.30 59.40 29.20 200.0
Magnesium 2.44 32.60 18.71 20.0
Phosphate 0.11 1.41 0.66 -
Sulphate 18.00 88.00 40.50 100.0
Copper 0.12 1.48 0.77 1.0
Iron 0.07 0.65 0.19 0.3
Sodium 13.00 58.00 28.63 250.0
Potassium 3.00 13.00 7.375 -
Fluoride 0.00 1.28 0.541 1.5
Bicarbonate 0.00 5.00 0.85 100.0
Zinc 0.77 3.47 1.17 3.0
T.Coliforms (cfu/100ml) 10.00 445.00 150.30 10.0
E-coli (cfc/100ml) 5.00 225.00 65.50 0.0
Feacal Strepp (cfc/100ml) 8.00 305.00 85.40 0.0

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 Amadi et al (2017)

Total dissolved solids (TDS) indicate the amount of substances dissolved in water. Its
concentration ranged between 118.00 mg/L to 800.00 mg/L and a mean concentration of 311.25
mg/L while the concentration of electrical conductivity (EC) varied from 176.00 mg/L to
1193.00 mg/L with an average value of 464.12 mg/L (Table 1) as against their respective
maximum permissible limit of 500.00 mg/L for TDS and 1000.00 mg/L for conductivity
(NSDWQ, 2007). The EC and TDS are pollution tracers and important water quality indicators.It
is an indication that certain materials or ionsare partially or completely dissolved in water. The
water sample locations with elevated values correspond to hand-dug wells characterized by poor
on-site-sanitation. The wide range observed in EC and TDS are proofs that the water in the area
has deteriorated either anthropogenically or geogenically (Amadi, 2014). The turbidity value
ranged from 0.00-52.00 NTU with a mean value of 13.25 NTU as against the allowable limit of
5.0 NTU. It was observed that the hand-dug wells with high turbidity value were not covered and
possibility of unwanted material entering into these wells especially during rainfall cannot be
overemphasised. The presence of suspended materials in water makes it turbid and this affect the
colour and transparency of the water. Runoff also enhances the turbidity of these uncovered
wells without build-up base. The total hardness ranged between 66.0-261.0 mg/L with a mean
value of 167.00 mg/L while alkalinity content varied between 19.0-74.0 mg/L with an average
value of 42.0 mg/L. The presence of calcium and magnesium ions is believe to be responsible for
the hardness of water.

The dissolved oxygen (DO) is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic
matter by bacterial action, it gives an idea of the oxidizable matter actually present in a water
sample and allows pollution load evaluation to be established. The concentration of DO ranged
between 4.40 mg/L to 7.36 mg/L with a mean value of 6.08 mg/L while (Table 1). These values
are within the recommended limit of water for domestic use (WHO, 2008). The concentrations of
the major anions (chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate, nitrate, phosphate) were observed to be far
lower than their respective maximum acceptable limit (NSDWQ, 2007; Table 1) thereby
indicating no pollution. High concentration of these anions (chloride, sulphate, nitrate and
phosphate) in water especially in non-coastal areas may be attributed to urban/semi-urban
pollution due to poor sanitation, leachate from dumpsites, industrial effluent and fertilizer
application or geogenically induced via chemical weathering and bedrock dissolution (Dan-
Hassan et al., 2012; Amadi and Nwankwoala, 2013; Unuevho et al., 2016; Akpah and Ezeigbo,
2010; Isiaku and Ezeigbo, 2010; Nwankwor and Etche, 1990).

Similarly, the concentration of the major cations (sodium, calcium, magnesium and potassium)
was below their respective recommended permissible limit (NSDWQ, 2007; Table 1). The
concentration of fluoride ranged from 0.00-1.28 mg/L and a mean value of 0.54 mg/L and these

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Minna Journal of Geosciences (MJG) Vol 1 No. 1 (77 – 92)
values are below the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L (NSDWQ, 2007). High fluoride content in
water causes dental and skeletal fluorosis in animals (Aminu and Amadi, 2014; Maspalma et al.,
2016; Okunlola et al., 2016). The concentration of iron in the water ranged from 0.07 to 0.65
mg/L with a mean value of 0.19 mg/L while the concentration of zinc varied between 0.77 mg/L
and 3.47 mg/L with an average value of 1.17 mg/L (Table 1) as against the maximum
recommended value of 0.30 mg/l and 3.0 mg/l respectively (NSDWQ, 2007). Iron is an essential
nutrient that is vital to the processes by which cells generate energy. High iron content in water
does not constitute any health problem; rather it affects the colour and taste of the water. The
high iron content in the groundwater from the shallow aquifer may be attributed to rock-water
interaction especially at the contact zone where the basement rocks overlap the iron-rich
(ferruginous) sandstone from the Bida Basin. The concentration of copper ranged between 0.12
to 1.48 mg/L with an average concentration of 0.77 mg/L and these values are slightly above the
maximum permissible limit recommended value of 1.00 mg/l in few locations and may be
attributed to decomposition and subsequent leachate of abandoned metallic objects, chemical
weathering of rock and urban surface run-off (Ranjana, 2009; Amadi et al., 2014; Olasehinde et
al., 2015).

The concentration of Escherichia coli (E.coli) ranged between 5.00-225.00 cfu/100mL with an
average value of 65.50 cfu/100mL while total coliform (TC) varied from 10.00-445.00 cfu/mL
and a mean value of 150.30 cfu/mL (Table 1). The concentration of faecal strepp is in the order
of 8.00 cfu/mL to 305.00 cfu/mL with a mean value of 85.40 cfu/mL. The Escherichia coli and
coliform bacteria cause foodborne and waterborne illness. They are commonly found in the
intestines of animals and humans and their presence in water is a strong indication of recent
sewage or animal/human waste contamination. During rainfalls E.coli from animal and human
wastes especially via open defecation are transported into the open hand-dug wells and get them
contaminated. The practice of open defecation or defecating along stream channels as currently
practiced in the area reveals poor sanitation in the area and these platform favours bacteria
contamination of water. Furthermore, siting of shallow hand dug wells near sewage track,
unlined pit-latrine and soakaway exposes the shallow groundwater system in the area to faecal
contamination and these explains the prevalence of waterborne diseases such as cholera,
typhoidand diarrhea among children in the area. The upsurge in the population of Lapai due to
students and staff of IBB University has exerted pressure on the shallow groundwater system and
the associated impact on the water quality cannot be ignored completely. This is a true scenario
of urbanization colliding with government failure to provide basic amenities thereby resulting in
deterioration of the water regime. A correlation of the highest concentration of total coliform,
Escherichia coli and faecal strepp in the groundwater samples and their corresponding maximum
permissible values (Figure 3) further confirmed the fact that the groundwater from the hand-dug
wells are poor in terms of microbial quality.

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 Amadi et al (2017)

Figure 3: Bar chart of maximum concentration versus the maximum permissible limit of the
analyzed bacteriological paramters.

Piper Diagram

This method was devised by Piper in 1944 to outline certain fundamental principles in a graphic
procedure which appears to be an effective tool in separating analytical data for critical study
with respect to sources of the dissolved constituents in water. Piper diagram consists of three
parts: two trilinear diagrams along the bottom and one diamond-shaped diagram in the middle.
The trilinear diagram illustrates the relative concentration of cations (left diagram) and anions
(right diagram) in each sample. The concentration of 8 major ions (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl ,
CO32-, HCO3- and SO42-) are represented on a trilinear diagram by grouping the K+ with Na+ and
the CO32-with HCO3-, thus reducing the number of parameters for plotting to 6. On the Piper
diagram, the relative concentration of the cations and anions are plotted in the lower triangles,
and the resulting two points are extended into the central field to represent the total ion
concentrations. The degree of mixing between freshwater and saltwater can also be shown on the
Piper diagram. The Piper diagram (Figure 4) can also be used to classify the hydrochemical
facies of the groundwater samples according to their dominant ions. The water type in the area is
Ca-SO4 water type, an indication of fresh shallow water from a basement terrain.

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Minna Journal of Geosciences (MJG) Vol 1 No. 1 (77 – 92)

Figure 4: Piper Diagram

Schoeller-Plots

These semi-logarithmic diagrams were developed to represent major ion analyses in meq/l and to
demonstrate different hydrochemical water types on the same diagram (Figure 5). This type of
graphical representation has the advantage that, unlike the Piper diagram, the actual
concentration of individual parameters are displayed and compared accordingly.

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 Amadi et al (2017)

Figure 5: Schoeller Diagram.

Conclusions

The chemical composition of groundwater in an area is the imprints of the rock-water interaction
and chemical processes such as weathering, dissolution and ionic exchange and human activities.
The geology of the study area comprises of mixed geological terrain (transitional or contact
zone). The principal joint trends in SE-NW direction, conforming with the regional trend. The
results of the laboratory analysis indicate the concentration of the major cations and anions are
within the permissible limit recommended by Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality.
The hydrochemical facies analysis revealed that water type in the area is Ca/Mg-HCO3 water
type, indicating fresh shallow water from Basement terrain. However, the water in the area is
poor bacteriologically due to faecal contamination of the water in the area by human and animal
faeces. These are responsible for water-borne diseases.

Recommendation

Due to the poor bacteriological conditions of the groundwater, boiling of water before drinking is
advocated as most bacteria cannot withstand high temperature. The need to sensitize the people
on the importance of personal hygiene and good sanitation is recommended. Grouting of the base
and proper covering of hand-dug wells in the area to avoid entering of materials into the wells is
suggested.

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Minna Journal of Geosciences (MJG) Vol 1 No. 1 (77 – 92)
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