UNIT – V

Approach to repairs
Building cracks are the most common problem found in any type of building.
Through the cracks in concrete cannot be prevented entirely but they can be
controlled by using adequate material and technique of construction and specific
design criteria. On timely identification of such cracks and adopting preventive
measure are essential. Active cracks cause serious problems and they need special
attention as they are structurally hazardous. So, it is important to understand the
types of cracks, crack patterns and their causes and the preventive measures to be
taken to control the cracks.

INTRODUCTION

Cracks in the building are a universal problem faced throughout the world. Building
components develop cracks whenever stress in the components exceeds its
strength. Stress in the building components could be caused by externally applied
forces such as dead, live, wind, seismic loads or foundation settlement or could it be
induced internally due to temperature variations, moisture changes and chemical
actions. Cracks affect the safety of structure and even reduces the durability of
structure.

PRINCIPLES OF INVESTIGATION OF CRACKS

Step 1: Visit the Site

When you visit the site, always carry proposed building drawings. Check whether the
building is constructed as per the plan.

Check its present use of the structure or any change in the usage of the building.

Photograph the cracks and number them.

Mark the width of the crack.

Check for any tilting of walls or tilting of any structural members, deflections,
staining, water leakage, spalling, and corrosion.

Collect the samples from the site.

Step 2: Understand the Cracks and Its Causes

Find the type of crack -Is it alive or dead crack.

Find the causes of cracks : Is it permeability of concrete, corrosion of reinforcement,

moisture variation, temperature variation, poor construction practices, poor structural
design and specifications, elastic deformation, creep, chemical reaction, foundation
movement & settlement of soil ,growth of vegetation, additional alternation of
structures.

Step 3: Monitoring and Measuring the Movements of Cracks

Using tell-tale.

Crack width gauge.

Precision callipers.

Step 4: Finding the Suitable Techniques to Repair Crack

Epoxy Injection.

Grouting And Sealing.

Stitching.

Drilling And Plugging.

Gravity Filling.

Drying Packing.

Polymer Impregnation And Underpinning.

UNDERSTANDING THE CRACKS

Generally cracks can be divided into two types:

Structural cracks and

Non-structural cracks.

STRUCTURAL CRACKS: Structural cracks may rise due to various reasons such
as incorrect design, overloading of the structural components. Structural cracks
endanger the stability of the building and may be difficult to be rectified.

Table No.1 Structural Cracks Formed On Beam, Column and Slab

BEAMS COLUMNS SLABS

Flexural Cracks Horizontal Cracks Flexural Cracks

Shear Cracks Diagonal Cracks Shrinkage Cracks

Torsional cracks Corrosion cracks Corrosion cracks

Corrosion cracks

Combination of above cracks

Fig1: Cracks On Beam

NON-STRUCTURAL CRACKS (HAIR CRACKS)

Non-structural cracks are generally due to internal forces developed in the building.

Materials due to moisture variation, temperature changes and suitable remedial

measures can be taken to control it. Cracks may appreciably vary in width from very
thin hair crack barely visible to naked eye to gaping crack. Depending upon the crack
width, the cracks are classified as:

Thin Crack -less than 1 mm in width

Medium Crack -1 to 2 mm in width.

Wide Crack -more than 2 mm in width.

Crazing -Occurrence of closely spaced fine cracks at the surface of a material is

called crazing. Crazing is the development of a network of fine random cracks on the
surface of concrete or mortar caused by shrinkage of the surface layer.
Fig2: ThinCracks

Fig3: Medium Cracks

DIFFERENT CASES OF CRACKS IN BUILDINGS

Cracks on walls

Fig5: Different Types of Cracks on walls

Step cracks, stair step cracks or stepping cracks all refer to cracks that follow the
mortar joints in a block wall. The cracks step up or down along the mortar. In many
cases, this type of crack is caused by minor movement of the footing, shrinkage or
wall movement, and by itself is not a major cause for concern; however, wide cracks
or step cracks combined with other cracks and movement indicate a problem.

FOUNDATION MOVEMENT AND SETTLEMENT OF SOIL

Shear cracks in buildings occur when there is large differential settlement of

foundation and it may be either due to the following reasons:

Unequal bearing pressure under different parts of the structure.

Bearing pressure on soil being in excess of safe bearing strength of the soil.

Low factor of safety in the design of foundation.

Local variation in the nature of supporting soil.

PREVENTATIVE MEASURE

The design of foundation should be based on sound engineering principles and good
practice.

Fig6: Cracks Due to Weak Foundation

Cracks On Beams And Columns

This type of failure occurs when a material strains under stress. When two materials
(having different elastic properties) built together under the effect of load then
different shear stresses in these materials create cracks at the junction. Dead and
live loads are the main cause of elastic deformation in any structural components of
a building.

Preventive Measures: Create slip joints under the support of concrete slab on walls.
Provide horizontal movement joints between the top of brick panel and reinforced
cement concrete beam/slab.

Fig7: Cracks on Beams and Columns

CAUSES AND ITS PREVENTIVE MEASURES

Thermal Movement

Most materials expand when they are heated, and contract when they are cooled.
The

Expansion and contraction with changes in temperature occur regardless of the

structure’s cross-sectional area. It is one of the most potent causes of cracking in
buildings which need attention.

Preventive Measures: Joints should be constructed like construction joints,

expansion joints, control joints and slip joints. The joints should be planned at the
time of design and be constructed carefully.

Chemical Reaction

Chemical reactions may occur due to the materials used to make the concrete or
materials

That comes into contact with the concrete after it has hardened. Concrete may crack
with time as the result of slowly developing expansive reactions between aggregate
containing active silica and alkalis derived from cement hydration, admixtures or
external sources.
Preventive Measures: If sulphate content in soil exceeds 0.2 percent or in ground
water exceed 300 ppm, use very dense concrete and either increase richness of mix
to 1:1/5:3 and to prevent cracking due to corrosion in reinforcement it is desirable to
specify concrete of

Richer mix for thin sections in exposed locations.

Shrinkage

Most of the building materials expand when they absorb moisture from the
atmosphere and shrink when they are dry. Shrinkage can be of plastic or dry. The
factors causing shrinkage in cement concrete and cement mortar and their
preventions are as follows.

Excessive Water: The quantity of water used in the mortar mix can cause
shrinkage. Vibrated concrete has less quantity of water and less shrinkage than
manually compacted concrete.

Preventive Measures: Use minimum quantity of water required for mixing cement
concrete or cement mortar according to water cement ratio. Cement concrete is
never allowed to work without mechanical mix and vibrator.

Quantity of Cement

As a general rule, the richer the mix is, the greater the shrinkage/drying will be.

Preventive Measures: Do not use excessive cement in the mortar mix.

Earthquake

Cracks may occur due to sudden shifts in the lower layer of the earth. The voids in
the earth might have suddenly collapsed and be filled with soil from the above. Many
geological events can trigger earth movements but are continuous movement.

Preventive Measures: Construct the foundation of buildings on firm ground while

doing construction. Tie up the building with connecting beams at foundation level,
door level and roof level.

Vegetation

Fast growing trees in the area around the walls can sometimes cause cracks in walls
due to expansive action of roots growing under the foundation. The cracks occur in
clay soil due to moisture contained by roots.
Fig 8: Cracking Due To Tree Growing Near House

Preventive Measure: Do not grow trees too close to the building. Remove any
saplings of trees as soon as possible if they start growing in or near of walls.

Poor Construction practices

There is a general lack of good construction practices either due to ignorance,

carelessness, greed or negligence. For a healthy building it is absolutely necessary
for the construction agency and the owner to ensure good quality materials selection
and good construction practices.

Preventive Measure: Proper monitoring and use of good quality of materials is

required at the time of construction.

Corrosion Cracks

Under normal conditions, the pH level of concrete is high (above 12.5). The high pH
of concrete allows an inactive layer of ferric oxide to form around the reinforcement,
preventing rust. There are two major causes of corrosion in the reinforcing steel:
chloride penetration and carbonation. Chloride penetration reduces the pH level of
the concrete when oxygen, chlorides, and moisture all penetrate the concrete.
Chlorides can be found in potable water, which should never be used to mix
concrete. Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide and moisture infiltrate the
concrete, reducing the pH level of the concrete. Both causes of corrosion end
similarly. The pH level is the concrete’s last barrier against corrosion, so the
reinforcement begins to rust. Rust expands the steel to 10 times the volume, which
can cause major problems in the structure.
Fig 9: Carbonation and Chloride – Causing Cracks

Preventive measure: . Don’t use salt water in mixing concrete.

MONITORING AND MEASURING THE MOVEMENTS OF CRACKS

At any stage, crack width can be measured, sometimes it is necessary to find out
whether cracks live or dead , whether they increase with respect to time or not.

Glass Tell-Tales: A commonly used method of doing so is to fix tell-tales consisting

of strips of glass about 2 to 3 cm in width an 10 to 12cm in length across a crack with
some quick setting, mortar or adhesive.

If the crack widens, the tell-tale will crack. In case the crack closes instead of
widening out, the glass strip will either get disjointed at one end or will crack by
buckling. When it is thought necessary to observe the rate of widening of a crack and
to measure the extent of widening in relation to time, instead of one glass strip, two
glass strips are used side by side fixing them to the background only on one side at
opposite ends. A line is drawn across the two glass strips after fixing, and as and
when any widening or narrowing of the crack takes place, lines on the two strips
move relatively to each other and distance between them at any time could be which
would indicate the extent of movement up to the time of making the observation.
Fig 10: Crack Monitors: Precision Calliper and Tell Tale

Cracks commonly occur in corners at the junction of walls. Use the type of gauge
that is hinged. Most corners are not built precisely to 90 degrees and this type will fit
snugly into a corner of any angle, even a bay window corner of 45 degrees. If the
gauges are used in pairs and “handed” movement in three dimensions can be
monitored.

CRACKS PLOTTING

The characteristics of each crack are plotted onto a drawing or sketch of the building.
The characteristics to be recorded are width, direction, taper, frequency and location.
If it is possible it will be useful to differentiate between cracks caused by tension,
compression and shear stress. A crack on the opposite side of the wall can be
shown as a broken line. Standing back from the building and plotting the cracks can
help with identifying the overall pattern of movement. The arrows indicate increase in
widths of cracks.

METHODS TO REPAIR CRACK

EPOXY INJECTION

Epoxy injection is an economical method of repairing non-moving cracks in concrete

walls, slabs, columns and piers at site is capable of restoring the concrete to its pre-
cracked strength. The technique generally consists of establishing entry and venting
ports at close intervals along the cracks, sealing the crack on exposed surfaces, and
injecting the epoxy under pressure.
Fig11: Applying Epoxy to the cracks

GRAVITY FILLING

Low viscosity monomers and resins can be used to seal cracks with surface widths
of 0.001 to 0.08 in.by gravity filling. High molecular weight methacrylates, urethanes,
and some low viscosity epoxies have been used successfully.

GROUTING AND SEALING

In this method, the crack is made wider at the surface with a saw or grinder, and
then the groove is filled with a flexible sealant. This is a common technique for crack
treatment and it is relatively simple in comparison to the procedures and the training
required for epoxy injection. Initially clean the surface; the surface should be free
from paint, dirt, oil, efflorescence or any bond inhibiting agents. Then apply epoxy.
To prevent epoxy flowing out insert a foam breaker or rod of suitable diameter and
sealant is applied to it.

STITCHING

This method is done to provide a permanent structural repairs solution for masonry
repairs and cracked wall reinforcement. It is done by drilling holes on both sides of
the crack, cleaning the holes and anchoring the legs of the staples in the holes with a
non-shrink grout.

DRY PACKING

It is the hand placement of a low water content mortar followed by tamping or

ramming of the mortar into place and also helps in producing intimate contact
between the mortar and the existing concrete.
POLYMER IMPREGNATION

Monomer systems can be used for effective repair of some cracks. A monomer
system is a liquid consisting of monomers which will polymerize into a solid. The
most common monomer used for this purpose is methyl methacrylate.

UNDERPINNING

This is the best solution whereby the footings of the building are underpinned with
either concrete, masonry or piles to carry the load of the building down to a more
stable stratum (e.g. rock or soils below the reactive zone).This solution is usually the
most costly, particularly if there are access difficulties or if internal walls require
underpinning, which may require lifting internal floors

https://www.constrofacilitator.com/the-investigation-of-cracks-and-repair-methods-in-
buildings/

Subsidence is the top cause of arch and lintel failure. Subsidence causes the ground
underneath to sink downwards or shift laterally. This places immense force on
foundation.

The force travels throughout the foundations up into walls, ceiling and roof, causing
unevenness and instability everywhere. When uneven forces find themselves around
the arches and lintels above windows and doors, they’re going to squeeze them
inwards or pull away from them.

Steel arch bars or steel lintels corrode over lengthy periods of time due to exposure
to moisture and salts. These arch bars and lintels are designed to divert heavy wall
loads to the supports on either side of your windows and doors. However, when steel
corrodes it expands, weakens and no longer diverts force properly down the sides of
windows and doors. Downward pressure causes cracks to appear, bricks to slip and
even fall down from above.

If an arch is poorly constructed or if a lintel is poorly installed, the pressure

surrounding the arch or lintel is going to be uneven. Uneven loads will eventually
cause them to break and fail.
Over time, the mortar used to hold brick or stone together can fail due to natural
elements such as time and weather. Lime mortar, which is used in a lot of older
buildings, is particularly susceptible to corrosion.

When the mortar used to fasten the bricks in arches together becomes weak, the
bricks become loose. When mortar surrounding a lintel fails, it’s usually an indicator
the mortar around the window and doorway will fail too.
Lintel failure is a common type of issue faced in building structures, irrespective of
the type of lintel constructed. All the openings in a building say, windows and door
opening will have a lintel over it.

Among masonry, steel, or concrete lintel, brick or masonry lintels are easy to repair
using helical bars. Helical bars can be used for an affected brick or masonry lintel as
an alternative for replacing the lintel. Helical bars help to improve the strength of
lintel without having too much disruption or disturbance to other structural elements.

Brick Lintel Failure

The problems in brick lintels are observed as diagonal cracks or step cracking in the
masonry above the doors and the windows. Abrupt action can help to avoid future
costs and disruption.

The brick lintel constructed can either be in the form of a curved arch or in the form
of a straight flat arch as shown in figure-1 below. In both cases, the masonry lintel
uses its compressive strength to transfer the vertical loads coming over it horizontally
to the brick abutments on either side of the opening. These lintel units are often
supported by a frame either made of wood or steel.

When this below frame is no more effective, the lintel starts to sag and brickwork
starts to crack. Simple repair cannot solve this issue. Instead, we need to introduce
reinforcement into the masonry above the opening so that it takes the role of a load-
carrying beam. Here the repair of a masonry lintel using helical bars are explained in
step by step procedure.
How to Repair Masonry Lintel Using Helical Bars

Helical bars must be inserted in two levels.

STEP 1: Cutting Slots

Cut a slot in horizontal mortar bed above the first course of the brick that is lying
above the lintel.

In the case of a arched masonry lintel, the slot must be cut above the crown of the
arch as shown in figure below.

The cut must be provided just over 500 mm on either side of the opening and above
the window or door. The depth of the cut is dependent on the wall thickness. The
below chart can help.

The slots made must be cleaned out of debris and washed using water. Do not leave
water in the slot.

STEP 2: Grouting

Prepare a anchor grout and pump the specialist grout into the incision and fill
between one-half and two-thirds full.

STEP 3: Insert the Helical Bar

Push the first bar firmly into the ground to around 2/3rd of the depth of the slot. Once
inserted, make sure that the helical bars extends 500mm either side of the window or
door.

Now insert the second bead of anchor grout into the slot. Make sure that the first bar
is completely covered. Excess grout must be troweled away before inserting the
second helical bar.

The second bar is placed around half the depth of the slot and must keep a spacing
of 10 mm from the first bar.

Always make sure that the bars and the grout are packed firmly.

The second level is repeated in the same way. The second level is performed by
making a slot four courses above the first, employing the same method.

STEP 4: Finishing

Finish by making good the slot and filling the vertical crack with an appropriate filler
to match. By using the right filler to repoint, you should leave no evidence of the
repair work.

https://www.prodyogi.com/2021/07/how-to-repair-masonry-lintels-using.html
Hairline cracking within concrete block walls, often referred to as stair-step cracking
or mortar joint cracking, is an example of an imperfection or distress but does not
typically compromise structural integrity. Hairline cracking within concrete block walls
is the result of internal stresses resulting from shrinkage, creep, and thermal
expansion and contraction; all of which are anticipated, can be predicted, and need
to be accounted for in design and construction.

What is Concrete Masonry Shrinkage

Concrete masonry is composed of two primary components: concrete blocks and

cement mortar placed between the blocks. Both are composed of hydraulic cement,
mineral aggregates, and water. Within any concrete mixture, the hydraulic cement
combines with the water to create the paste that binds the mineral aggregates
together. Once combined, the hydraulic cement chemically breaks apart the water
molecules using a hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom to form the crystalline
structure that gives concrete its strength. This process is called hydration.

Concrete masonry shrinkage occurs due to the reduction in volume of both the block
and mortar. Given that the block makes up a majority of the wall area, block
shrinkage is the primary mechanism driving concrete masonry shrinkage. Therefore,
drying shrinkage depends on several factors including method of curing, initial
moisture content, cement content, and the aggregates used in the block. While
shrinkage in concrete masonry varies, it is typical for 100 lineal feet of masonry wall
to experience a reduction in length of a half inch or more.

Geometric Restraints

In order for concrete masonry to structurally perform as intended, to transfer vertical

loads and to resist lateral loads, the walls must be restrained. This restraint is
accomplished by structurally connecting the wall to the foundation as well as other
components such as pilasters and bond beams. In addition to connecting the walls
with the foundation and bond beams, walls are typically constructed integrally at
corners and at changes in geometry. All of these locations, although necessary for
the proper structural performance of the wall, result in restraints within the wall which
induce stresses as the wall experiences shrinkage. As with plain concrete, concrete
masonry is strong in compression but weak in tension. Therefore, restrained tensile
forces often lead to cracking as the wall acts to relieve the stress.

Block Wall Cracking

When concrete masonry shrinks the cracking that results will form different patterns
depending on where the wall acts to relieve the stress. Typically, shrinkage cracks
manifest themselves at changes in material, changes in geometry (such as openings
for windows or doors), and adjacent to corners. Their patterns can be either in a
stair-step, horizontal, or vertical configuration. Cracking can also occur along the
interface of different components within the wall such as the foundation-to-wall
interface or the wall-to-bond-beam interface. Cracks at these locations are typically
horizontal in nature.

LEADS: A common location for a stair-step crack to occur is at the corners of wall
sections, where there is a transition from the block wall’s lead sections to the infill
sections Specifically, when constructing a concrete masonry wall, a mason will
commence with the construction of the leads or corners first and will typically use
quicker setting, higher strength mortar. Once the leads have setup, the remainder of
the wall is constructed using mortar that does not have the strength of the mortar
within the leads. As a result, the corners of the walls are essentially more rigid than
the remainder of the wall; therefore, as the masonry within the wall shrinks, a stair-
step crack will develop along this change in stiffness, inherently behaving like a cold
joint within the wall.

OPENINGS AND LINTELS: Stair-step cracks will also develop at the corners of
door and window openings. This occurs because larger openings create geometry
changes within the wall assembly that serve to concentrate shrinkage stresses. This
same phenomenon exists with other materials, like steel and wood. In these
materials, the size and location of holes are restricted so as to minimize stress
concentration or localized stress increase. In concrete masonry, as the wall
undergoes its anticipated shrinkage, the stress developed at the corners of the door
and window openings will often result in either a stair-step, diagonal, vertical, or
horizontal crack depending on the configuration of the wall.

Horizontal cracks typically develop along the interface between precast concrete
lintels and those portions of the wall supporting them. This occurs when a window
opening creates a perforation within the wall section, similar to a control joint in a
floor slab. As the wall sections on either side of the opening shrink and attempt to
pull away from the opening, stress builds up along the precast lintel that is bridging
the two wall sections. This condition results in horizontal friction or shearing of the
mortar between the wall and the precast lintel.

REINFORCED CELLS: Vertical cracks typically occur within the field of a wall or
alongside reinforced openings. This occurs when internal stresses associated with
shrinkage causes cracking between the internally reinforced grout filled cells and the
adjacent unreinforced sections. Varying material properties relate directly to varying
material strengths. In the case of concrete masonry assemblies, a typical concrete
block has a compressive strength of roughly 2000 psi as do most common mortars.
Grout, however, can range in compressive strength from 3000 psi to more than 5000
psi. These varying strengths result in varying behavior and performance. It is this
fluctuation and resulting change in volume that creates internal stresses. As the
volume of the wall changes and shrinkage stresses build, cracking occurs between
the much stronger reinforced grout-filled cell and the adjacent unreinforced sections.

Characteristics of Shrinkage Cracks

When examining cracks within a concrete block wall, it is essential to evaluate not
only the pattern and location of the crack but also the characteristics of the crack.
For example, in a stair-step crack, if the separations along the vertical legs of the
crack are uniform and there is not a measurable separation along the horizontal legs
of the crack then this crack is consistent with shrinkage where the wall is moving
horizontally and shearing along the mortar joint, as opposed to displacing vertically.

This same concept of horizontal shearing of the mortar joint, can also be found along
the block wall to foundation interface as well as the precast lintel to block wall
interface. Similar to the differential shrinkage and stiffness discussed at internally
reinforced grout filled cells, the foundation is typically solid concrete that will shrink at
a different rate than the masonry block wall sitting atop it.

SAGGING BALCONIES

the following signs of structural failure should be inspected as soon as they are
noticed:

 Loose railings or guardrails: Guardrails are required to safely support the

weights that I noted in my last blog post. Railings or guardrails that are not
solid and can be shaken or loose should be inspected and repaired.
 Excessive deflection (sag) of any deck or balcony element.
 Sections of decking becoming noticeably out of level: Any portion of the
deck or balcony that was once level and is no longer level should be
inspected.
 Visible rot: Water infiltration can cause structural issues to balconies and
decks.
 Creaking- One clear sign that your balcony is deteriorating is creaking sounds. If
you hear your balcony creak under your feet as you walk on it, then it’s highly likely
that the structure is compromised
 Visual Damage- In addition to audio cues, you should also pay attention to how your
balcony looks. If you see any part of the structure beginning to show signs of wear or
damage, such as cracks, splintering, loose nails or screws, displacement, or
sagging, you need balcony restoration.
 Structural Decay- Lastly, it’s important to check the structure that holds the balcony
up for signs of decay. In many cases, this structure is hidden from view, which
makes it more likely for damage to progress until the structure is too far gone
Why Concrete Balconies Collapse
There are three main reasons that concrete balconies collapse:

 Failure of the cantilevered slab: A cantilevered slab is a slab of concrete

reinforced by steel on the inside, which is supported by only one end. Failure
of the slab can occur for many reasons, including poor design, age and
damage such as from a tree impact or a serious storm. Sometimes, balconies
which were not designed for a very large weight but which are exposed to
them may collapse. This is usually in concert with poor design, but not always.
Large crowds, heavy machinery, and other sources of weight may damage
the railing or even cause collapse.
 Deterioration of the cantilevered surface: Chunks of concrete falling off the
balcony is the kind of deterioration we’re talking about here. When
deterioration is serious enough, it can compromise the structural integrity of
the balcony. Deterioration can be caused by lack of maintenance to the
concrete, exposure to forces that slowly wear on it, or more direct impact or
damage.
 Failure of the railing: Failure of the railing can damage the balcony to the
point of collapse. The method by which the railing is secured to the slab is
especially important in preventing this. Improper stress from the railing at the
edge of the balcony could

Signs of Balcony Issues

What are the signs that your balcony may be at risk of collapse?

 Older buildings: Concrete might seem like a permanent building material, but
it does experience some wear. The older the building, the more likely your
concrete needs repair.
 Missing concrete: If you notice that there is missing concrete, cracks, gaps,
changing texture, or any other things the concrete is worn, this could be a sign
your balcony needs attention.
 Warped, sagging, bent railings: Railings where any part has become warped,
started to sag, or bed horizontally or vertically then the railing has become a
safety concern. It may not end up contributing to a collapse, but it is still
possible for it to break or fail to prevent a fall.
  Rusting: Metal elements of the railing or the balcony should not rust. If you
see rust, the metal may need to be replaced

https://losangelescablerailing.com/can-a-concrete-balcony-collapse/

It is a common phenomenon, especially in repetitive mass construction, the

balconies projected outside are found sagging. The balconies are constructed as
cantilever overhung from the masonry walls 1.2 to 2.0 m. The cantilever slab might
have been designed properly; but in most cases during construction top tensile steel
at the support are displaced reducing the lever arm and, thereby, reducing the
moment of resistance.

Cracks occur on the top at the support and the slab gradually sags and ultimately it
simply hangs. In such cases, the balcony shall have to be demolished with a part of
the slab beyond the masonry support and the whole redone after redesigning and
constructing carefully.

Alternatively, the balcony may be repaired in a mixed way by inserting brackets,

either of m.s. sections or of R.C.C. If the length of the balcony is more and cannot be
supported on two brackets, more brackets may be introduced and, if required, m.s.
or R.C.C. small size beams may be introduced below the balcony slab and over the
brackets.

The work is to be started from the ground floor. The level of the balcony slab shall
have to be corrected by using jack at the tip. When the balcony slab is in horizontal
position, the brackets with the beams as necessary shall have to be placed in
position. After positioning the members and fixing them with the existing masonry
wall, the brackets with the fixings shall have to be cured as usual.

After repairing of the balcony as detailed, the same shall be supported by props from
the ground floor so that it can take the load that would be coming during repairing of
the balcony above.

In the same procedure, the balcony of next floor above shall be done and so on. The
sketch illustrates the method (Fig. 4.11).
When balconies of all the floors have been corrected, the props shall be released
from the top floor and the finishing works shall be completed.
Replacing a balcony

Repairing a balcony
strengthening and reinforcing Structural Concrete Façades, Balcony Concrete
Concrete.

Repairs of jack arch roof

Repairing methods of brick vaults between II-beams

beams (jack arches): a) Repairing of
brick joints, new rendering; b) Shotcrete reinforcement; c) Replacing the vault using
reinforced concrete; d) New reinf
reinforced concrete vault and slab.
Madras terrace roof

lime + achikal brick and teak wood. in Madras terrace roof

https://www.gratitudeheritage.in/Architecture.html