6 - Track 1 Diplomacy

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Track-One Diplomacy
The track-one approach is generally understood to involve government-to-government efforts to address

issues of conflict and conflict resolution. Track-one diplomacy is by far the most dominant form of
international relations because states, or state organs, are in most cases the only entities legally authorized
to conduct formal negotiations, enter into agreements, sign treaties, commit economic and/or military
assets, and speak on behalf of a nation.
Legal authority and the monopoly of coercive power form the foundations of the track-one approach. The
traditional instruments of track-one include:
Diplomacy
Military force
Intelligence gathering
Economic and commercial relations
International law
"Public diplomacy"
Diplomacy
The principal objective of diplomacy is to advance the interests of a state. This involves, as a first order of
business, protecting the state's independence, security, and territorial, political and economic integrity.
Diplomacy is considered most effective when it secures maximum national advantage without resort to
military force while preserving positive external relations.
President Bush exercises diplomacy in the international arena.
Diplomacy is a well-established method for managing international relations, chiefly through negotiation. In
the 20th century, diplomatic practice has expanded to include:
Summit meetings and other international conferences;

Public and parliamentary diplomacy; and
Activities of supranational entities.
More recently, there has been an increasing emphasis in bilateral and multilateral negotiations on:
Commercial matters;
Economic and military aid;
Trade and investment
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Arms control and disarmament

Human rights
Terrorism
Organized crime
Cultural and environmental affairs
Health
Modern diplomacy thus reflects the complex array of global concerns that major powers in particular must
address.
Diplomacy does not in all cases strive to preserve peace and may employ threats of taking coercive
measures to advance state interests. The effectiveness of such threats depends in large part on the range of
power-coercive assets a state or group of states have at their disposal. The repertoire of assets increases
with the power of the state. Larger, more affluent states have more tools with which to advance their
interests. Power-coercive diplomacy may take several forms, including sanctions, deterrence, coercive
diplomacy and preventive diplomacy, among others.
Former U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell meeting with NATO

Secretary General Lord Robertson.
Sanctions
Sanctions are viewed as a middle ground between diplomatic protest and military violence. They offer states
and multilateral organizations, such as the United Nations, a means of addressing threats to the peace, with
military force playing a role short of war fighting.
Sanctions are generally imposed to:
Reinforce international norms

Signal disapproval of objectionable behavior
Deter further abuses
Sanctions are most effective when combined with incentives to encourage a negotiated solution and when
applied collectively with other states. Thus, the imposing authority must establish clear and consistent
standards for the lifting of sanctions. Sanctions are generally only one component of a wider diplomatic
strategy. 1
French Prime Minister de Villepin debating sanctions against Iran at

the UN Security Council, 2005.
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Sanctions may take a number of forms, depending on the issue, the target country, the sanction-imposing
entity, and the overall objective of the policy: 2
Diplomacy
Reduction or closure of diplomatic missions, exclusion from international organizations, ban on entry for
officials.
Military
Termination of military cooperation, arms embargo.
Trade
Boycotts, embargos.
Finance
Freezing of foreign assets, ban on financial transfers.
Development cooperation
Termination of financial and technical assistance.
Criminal Justice
International tribunals
Transport
Ban on air and sea traffic, suspension of rail and road transport.
Communications
Suspension of post and telecommunications.
Culture and Sports

Suspension of exchange.
Sanctions in Iran?
Deterrence and Collective Security
According to experts in deterrence theory, the fundamental tenet of classical deterrence is that "credible
and capable threats can prevent the initiation and contain the escalation of conflict." In practice, deterrence
does not necessarily need to rely on threats or the capacity to punish to be effective. It can succeed
through a demonstrated capacity to deny another party a desired gain. When non-military means are used,
deterrence may take a positive form (inducements) as well as a negative one (deprivations), the latter often
associated with sanctions.
The concept of deterrence has gone through various permutations since the advent of nuclear weapons. The
paradox of deterrence in the nuclear age was perhaps best captured by the words of an American political
scientist:
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"As the picture of the horror of a modern thermonuclear war grows, we tend to consider weapons
less and less usable, and we emphasize more and more their role in deterring an enemy rather than
their objective capability to punish or defend. That is, we emphasize the impact of our capabilities on
the enemy's mind rather than on his body." 4
This essentially psychological nature of modern deterrence has lead to much criticism of its utility as an
instrument for conflict prevention and conflict containment.
India and Pakistan - Deterrence at Work? 5
The most prominent institutional expression of collective security is,

of course, the United Nations.
Collective security is based on four precepts:6
1. Rules of behavior among nations should be encouraged.

2. Rules should be enforced.
3. Enforcement actions should be legitimized through broad international agreement.
4. Enforcement actions should generally be undertaken by multinational coalitions.
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Coercive Diplomacy
Coercive diplomacy is the extension of the threat of deterrence. The general objective of coercive diplomacy
is to back a demand to an adversary with the threat of punishment for noncompliance, a threat that the
adversary will consider credible and potent enough to persuade him to comply with the demand. While
threats and incentives play a large roles in coercive diplomacy, communication, signaling, bargaining and
negotiating also have significant functions. The advantage of coercive diplomacy over force is its relatively
low psychological, economic and political costs.
Coercive diplomacy involves four basic variables: 8
1. Demand
2. Means used for creating a sense of urgency
3. Threatened punishment for noncompliance
4. Possible use of incentives
Differences in these variables lead to varying types of coercive diplomacy. States may employ ultimatums,
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time limits, or mild to increasing coercive force, as required, to achieve the desired result.
The Use of Coercive Diplomacy in Bosnia
Preventive Diplomacy
According to the UN: Preventive diplomacy is action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to
prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur.
10
Policymakers and scholars alike have been struggling with the need to develop new knowledge and to find
ways of dealing with disputes before they erupt into large-scale violent conflicts. It is a given that once
large-scale violence erupts, it becomes much more difficult for members of the international community —
the United Nations, regional organizations, major and regional powers, and nongovernmental organizations
— to muster the political will and the resources needed for effective conflict resolution and peacemaking.
The most desirable and efficient employment of diplomacy is to ease tensions before they result in conflict -
or, if conflict breaks out, to act swiftly to contain it and resolve its underlying causes. Preventive diplomacy
requires measures to create confidence; it needs early warning based on information gathering, informal
and formal fact-finding; it may also involve preventive deployment and, in some situations, the
establishment of demilitarized zones.
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Economic Tools of Statecraft
In the modern global system, states increasingly utilize economic instruments, such as trade, aid, and
investment to advance various interests, including conflict prevention and peace building. For a superpower
such as the United States, economic statecraft has become one of the principal means for advancing core
foreign policy objectives.
These objectives were well captured not long ago by the U.S. State Department's Senior Coordinator for
Business Affairs, who noted:
"The U.S. government has recognized that a primary mission of our foreign policy must be to use
our leverage and diplomacy to promote continued economic liberalization, market-oriented growth,
and freer international trade. It is here that the objectives of American foreign policy and the
interests of American business have truly converged. Not only will our economic diplomacy create
valuable new overseas opportunities for American firms, but it will also enhance our pursuit of our
more traditional foreign policy objectives. Freer markets and increased prosperity provide the
foundations for lasting peace and continued progress toward democracy around the world." 11
This approach is taken in the hopes of furthering stability and preventing potential conflict within and
between states. Economic growth in developing countries may lead to reduced poverty, increased food
security and higher standards of living including better health and education. In transitional countries,
broad-based economic growth may offer the best chance to enhance political stability and social welfare.
There are, however, too many variables in a conflict situation to declare a direct causal link between
economic welfare and peace. The election results in the Palestinian Territories highlight the difficulties in
economic statecraft and support for development, as Hamas is associated with terrorist activities.
World Bank Group
The World Bank Group has recognized that conflict is one of the main obstacles to economic and social
development. As a result, the World Bank created the Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit in
implementing the 1997 `Framework for World Bank Involvement in Post-Conflict Reconstruction' and the
2001 Operational Policy on Development and Conflict. The bank's role in Conflict prevention and post-
conflict reconstruction is: 12
In all member countries:

Promote economic growth and poverty reduction through development assistance that promotes cohesion,
institutions capacity building and good governance and minimizes potential conflict.
In areas affected by conflict:

1. Continue efforts at poverty reduction and maintenance of socioeconomic assets where possible;
2. Provide — where requested by member states, the UN, or other partners — advice on the socioeconomic
impacts of emergency assistance; and
3. Analyze the impact of conflict on economic development and prepare for renewed lending assistance as
opportunities arise.
In areas emerging from conflict:

1. Facilitate the transition to sustainable peace;
2. Support economic and social recovery through investment and macro-economic policy advice; and
3. Provide advice and guidance on the socioeconomic impacts of post conflict reconstruction policies on
sustainable development.
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World Bank sponsored water supply project.
A central element of the World Bank's determination of whether a country will get assistance is the Conflict
Analysis Framework (CAF). The CAF is designed to enhance conflict sensitivity and conflict prevention of
World Bank development assistance programs.
Example: Burundi13
1999, the World Bank a new tool for assistance to low-income countries, many of which are affected
by conflict. Governments applying for external assistance prepare a Poverty Reduction Strategy
Paper with the help of the World Bank or the IMF. The PRSPs in return form the foundation for
external assistance and debt relief by the World Bank and the IMF.
Economic Statecraft: U.S. Government Agencies
The Federal Reserve

The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the United States. Established by Act of Congress in
1913, its role is to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible and stable monetary and financial
system. The Fed's duties fall into four general areas:
1. Managing the nation's monetary policy;

2. Supervising and regulating banking institutions and protecting the credit rights of consumers;
3. Maintaining the stability of the financial system; and
4. Providing uniquely specialized financial services to the U.S. government, the public, financial
institutions, and foreign official institutions.
The U.S. Trade and Development Agency

The U.S. Trade and Development Agency helps U.S. companies pursue overseas business
opportunities. Through the funding of feasibility studies, orientation visits, specialized training
grants, business workshops, and various forms of technical assistance, TDA enables American
businesses to compete for infrastructure and industrial projects in middle-income and developing
countries.
Export-Import Bank of the United States

The Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im) is an independent U.S. Government agency that helps finance the
overseas sales of U.S. goods and services. Ex-Im provides guarantees of working capital loans for
U.S. exporters, guarantees the repayment of loans and makes loans to foreign purchasers of U.S.
goods and services. In addition, Ex-Im furnishes credit insurance that protects U.S. orders against
the risks of non-payment by foreign buyers for political or commercial reasons. Ex-Im assumes the
risks that commercial lenders cannot accept. It must always conclude that there is reasonable
assurance of repayment on every transaction financed.
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Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC)

The Overseas Private Investment Corporation is a financially self-sustained, independent U.S.
Government agency that sells services to assist U.S. companies investing in developing economies
around the world. OPIC accomplishes this by aiding U.S. investors through three principal activities
designed to promote overseas investment and reduce the associated risks:
1. Insuring investment against a broad range of political risks;

2. Financing businesses through loans and loan guaranties; and
3. Financing private investment funds that provide equity to businesses.
Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR)

The Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) is responsible for developing and coordinating
U.S. international trade, commodity, and direct investment policy, and leading or directing
negotiations with other countries and organizations (e.g. WTO, GATT) on such matters. The U.S.
Trade Representative is a Cabinet member who acts as the principal trade advisor, negotiator, and
spokesperson for the President on trade and related investment matters. Through an interagency
structure, the USTR coordinates trade policy, resolves agency disagreements, and frames issues for
presidential decision.
Office of Foreign Assets Control, U.S. Department of the Treasury (OFAC)

The Office of Foreign Assets Control of the U.S. Department of the Treasury administers and
enforces economic and trade sanctions against targeted foreign countries, organizations sponsoring
terrorism and international narcotics based on U.S. foreign policy and national security goals. OFAC
acts under presidential wartime and national emergency powers, as well as authority granted by
specific legislation.
Office of Defense Trade Controls, U.S. Department of State

The Office of Defense Trade Controls manages the export of defense and related articles and
services. It achieves this through its approval authority on license applications and other requests
for defense trade exports. It also oversees matters related to defense trade compliance,
enforcement and reporting.
United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

USAID is the independent government agency that provides bilateral economic development and
humanitarian assistance to advance U.S. economic and political interests overseas. The primary
objective of the U.S. foreign assistance program is to promote sustainable economic development in
poor countries in order to:
1. Improve poor people's lives;

2. Prevent political crisis and promote stability, and
3. Advance democracy.
Aid is provided largely through specific grant-funded projects supporting technical assistance,
training and commodities.
Humanitarian relief organized by USAID in Aceh, Indonesia.
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Economic Statecraft: Key International Agencies 14
The World Trade Organization

The World Trade Organization is the only international organization dealing with the global rules of
trade between nations. The WTO's overriding objective is to help trade flow smoothly, freely, fairly
and predictably. It does this by:
1. Administering trade agreements;

2. Acting as a forum for trade negotiations;
3. Settling trade disputes;
4. Reviewing national trade policies;
5. Assisting developing countries in trade policy issues; and
6. Training programs.
The policies advanced by WTO are not welcomed by all. Many see
free trade as the legalized exploitation of developing countries and
their workforce.
Asian Development Bank The Asian Development Bank, a multilateral development finance institution,
was founded in 1966 to promote the social and economic progress of the Asian and Pacific region. The
Bank's principal functions are:
1. The extension of loans and equity investments for the economic and social development of its developing
member countries; and
2. The promotion and facilitation of investment of public and private capital for development purposes.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established in 1945 as the result of a conference held in
Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. It was created to:
1. Promote international monetary cooperation;

2. Facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade;
3. Promote foreign exchange stability; Make resources temporarily available to members
experiencing balance of payments difficulties; and
4. Shorten the duration and lessen the degree of disequilibrium in the international balances of
payments of members.
The Fund not only lends resources, but also provides technical assistance and advice to requesting
members.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

The 30 member countries of the OECD are provided with a setting that enables them to discuss,
develop and perfect economic and social policy. Such exchanges may lead to agreements to act in a
formal way - for example, by establishing legally binding codes for the free flow of capital and
services or agreements to crack down on bribery. Importantly, discussions within the OECD make
for better-informed work within member governments on a broad spectrum of public policy and
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clarify the impact of national policies on the international community.
United Nations Development Program (UNDP)

UNDP's mission is to help countries achieve sustainable human development. It seeks to accomplish
this by assisting them to build a capacity to design and carry out development programs in areas
such as poverty eradication, employment creation, the empowerment of women and the protection
and regeneration of the environment. UNDP also acts to help coordinate the development efforts of
other components of the United Nations family (e.g. UNICEF, UNHCR, the World Food Program), as
well as those of other international development entities (e.g. bilateral donors such as USAID).
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International Public Diplomacy
Public diplomacy is a U.S.-coined term that describes efforts to promote and increase mutual
understanding. One commentator has described American public diplomacy as:
"Official government efforts to shape the communications environment overseas in which American
foreign policy is played out, in order to reduce the degree to which misperceptions and
misunderstandings complicate relations between the U.S. and other nations." 15
U.S. public diplomacy is the primary responsibility of the Department of State's Bureau of Educational and
Cultural Affairs (ECA), which supports a wide range of personal, professional and institutional exchange
programs between citizens and organizations in the U.S. and abroad. With its posts in over 142 countries,
the Bureau is able to reach populations in every continent, creating a sense of collective outreach to the
world. This outreach serves as a transmitter of American values and introduces many Americans to foreign
cultures.
The Global War on Terrorism has increased the significance of public diplomacy. The U.S. government not
only seeks the support of other nations, but also tries to win the `hearts and minds' of the people abroad,
particularly in the Muslim World.
Karen Hughes, Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and

Pubic Affairs visits with King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud of Saudi
Arabia.
Stereotypes abroad about Americans and the U.S. government range form arrogant, self-indulgent to
hypocritical and unable to engage in cross-cultural dialogue. Some argue that the inability or unwillingness
of the U.S. government to work changing these stereotypes is at the root of anti-American terrorism. In
addition, the experiences in Afghanistan and Iraq have shown how negative perceptions of U.S. policies can
be detrimental to policy implementation.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

APEC was established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence among Asia-Pacific
economies. Its goal is to advance Asia-Pacific economic dynamism but also a sense of community in
the region. Starting with only twelve founding members in 1991, the organization has now grown to
include twenty-one members from around the world. Among other functions, APEC serves as a
forum for members to considers various approaches to preventing and resolving conflict.
Consensus-building is a critical objective, as is collaborative problem-solving.
Since 2003, as a consequence of the September 11 terrorist attacks, APEC has a Special Counter-terrorism
Task Force with the goal to identify and assess counter-terrorism needs, coordinate capacity building and
technical assistance programs, cooperate with international and regional organizations and facilitate
cooperation between APEC fora on counter-terrorism issues. One of the key elements of APEC counter-
terrorism strategy is the Secure Trade in the APEC Region program, which aims to secure the flow of goods
and persons through measures that protect cargo, ships, international aviation and people in transit.
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Voice of America (VOA)

This U.S. Government sponsored international radio service provides information in forty-four
languages and reaches 100 million people via radio, satellite television and the Internet. Relying on
its affiliate stations around the world, VOA is mandated by law to provide objective and accurate
information about global events. In addition, special events are planned through VOA headquarters
in Washington, D.C. that provide virtual forums for people from around the world to discuss current
events with various radio hosts, politicians, academics and local citizens.
Voice of America Chinese Branch
Exchange Programs
The Fulbright Program was established in the United States in 1946 under legislation introduced by
former Senator J. William Fulbright of Arkansas, who described its aim as: "...to bring a little more
knowledge, a little more reason, and a little more compassion into world affairs and thereby to
increase the chance that nations will learn at last to live in peace and friendship." The Fulbright
Program provides grants for graduate students, scholars and professionals, and teachers and
administrators from the U.S. and other countries to observe each others' political, economic and
cultural institutions, and to exchange ideas and embark on joint ventures of importance to the
general welfare of people around the world. 16
Many other programs, both public and private, exist in the United States and throughout the world that
promote the exchange of business professionals, athletes, students, and everyday people. Some of these
programs are specifically designed to create awareness between citizens in conflict situations, such as the
"People-to-People" initiatives that bring Israelis into contact with other Arabs in the Middle East. Other
organizations conduct exchange programs between states not in conflict, but their goal is the same:
increased cultural awareness and lasting interpersonal relationships.
Some critics believe that public diplomacy is just a polite form of propaganda that pushes American values
and interests abroad and serves as a cover for other, more nefarious, activities. Others argue that America
should concentrate more on solving its internal domestic problems and that the need to reach foreign
peoples with American ideals should be a much lower priority.
Defenders of public diplomacy note that:
"The United States can and should help foster the growth of indigenous democratic institutions
wherever conditions are favorable, based on the traditional principle that America is the friend of
freedom everywhere . . . A modest investment of effort and resources to shape a freer and more
democratic world will pay enormous dividends over the years, and perhaps prevent future conflicts
that would demand greater expenditure of American blood and resources." 17
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Multilateral Organizations
With increasing globalization and interdependence, states continue to banded together regionally and
internationally to advance common interests. As discussed in this unit, some organizations are economic in
nature, others political, and still others security oriented. There is only one organization, the United Nations,
which seeks to perform all three functions on a global scale. This section will introduce and briefly explain
the primary regional and international organizations active diplomatically in the world today, including the
mega-organization, the United Nations.
Regional Organizations
Organization of American States (OAS)
The Organization of American States was formed in April 1948 and currently includes
35 member states from North and South America.
The Organization of American States was formed in April 1948 and currently includes 35 member states
from North and South America. The organization brings together the countries of the Western Hemisphere
to strengthen cooperation and advance common interests. It is the region's forum for multilateral dialogue
and concerted action.
At the core of its mission is the commitment to democracy as is stated by the OAS Charter:
"The peoples of the Americas have a right to democracy and their government have an obligation to
promote and defend it."
The organization's areas of focus are:
Defending Democracy
The Inter-American Democratic Charter, adopted on September 11, 2001, defines the essential elements of
democracy and establishes guidelines for collective action when democracy is at risk and faces serious
challenges.
Protecting Human Rights

Police abuse, due process violations, and corruption in the administration of justice are important problems
in the region. The human rights system of the OAS provides recourse to people in the Americas who have
suffered human rights violations by the state. The principal instruments are the Inter-American Commission
on Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. These institutions apply regional law on
human rights.
Strengthening Security
The Inter-American Committee against Terrorism seeks to prevent the financing of terrorism, strengthen
border controls and increase cooperation among law enforcement agencies in different countries. The OAS
continues to lead international efforts to remove landmines in previous zones of conflict. In 2003, the OAS
pronounced the Declaration on Security in the Americas, reaffirming the member states' commitment to
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preserve peace through cooperation.
Fostering Free Trade

In 2004, at the Special Summit of the American in Monterrey, Mexico, the leaders of the hemisphere
reaffirmed the role of free trade in promoting sustained growth and economic development.
Combating Illegal Drugs

The Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission is the organization's tool to strengthen anti-drug laws
and prevention programs of member states. The commission also works on taking measures to stem drug
and firearm trafficking.
Fighting Corruption
The 1996 Inter-American Convention against Corruption sets forth provisions to eliminate corruption and
established an evaluation process, which monitors each country's compliance with the convention.
Organization of American States (OAS)

Through the Summit of the Americas process leaders of the hemisphere discuss common issues and
seek solutions to shared problems.
African Union (AU)
African Union
The African Union emerged out of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which was established in 1963.
In September 1999 the Heads of Governments of the OAU issued a declaration calling for the establishment
of an African Union to accelerate the process of integration in the African continent in order to play a
prominent role in the global economy. It also recognized the necessity to address the social, economic and
political problems facing African nations.
Three additional summits were held on the way to formally establishing the African Union: The 2000 Lome
Summit adopting the Constitutive Act of the Union, the 2001 Lusaka Summit drawing the road map for
implementing the AU, and the 2002 Durban Summit formally launching the AU by convening the first
Assembly of the Heads of States of the African Union.
The vision of the organization is to promote increased socio-economic integration of the continent that will
lead to greater solidarity and unity among African countries and peoples. This includes the promotion of
peace, security and stability, as well as strengthening the partnerships between the government and civil
society, in particular women, youth and the private sector.
League of Arab States
The League of Arab States, or the Arab League, was formed in March 1945 as a
result of the desire of the Arab states for unity and independence. The Arab
League consists of 22 member states, including the "state of Palestine". Its
major institutions include a Summit of Heads of States, a Council of Ministers,
the Standing Committees and a Secretariat General, headquartered in Cairo,
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Egypt.
The Arab League is primarily a forum for discussion and for consensus seeking on the major issues faced by
its member states. It has been a major supporter of the Palestinian resistance movement since the creation
of Israel in 1948. The Arab League has cooperated with the European Union through the Euro-Arab Dialogue
since 1973.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations was founded in August 1967 for the purpose of
securing peace, stability and development in the region. ASEAN consists of ten member
states, encompassing all of Southeast Asia. Its institutions include multiple committees, a
national secretariat in each member state, and a General Secretariat headquartered in
Jakarta, Indonesia.
ASEAN member states cooperate in the following fields:
Politics and security

Economy, including the reduction of trade barriers between member states
Social development
Science and technology
Culture and information
Transnational crime
European Union (EU)
The European Union started as a 6-member organization focused on trade and the
economy. Today the EU embraces 25 countries and covers a wide range of issues
beyond trade, including defense and security policy. Four more countries are
currently in the process of applying to the Union.
The main institutions of the EU are:
1. The European Parliament — elected every 5 years and containing 732 representatives. Elected
officials represent the people of Europe rather than their home state.
2. The Council of the European Union — consisting of the ministers form the national governments.
Meetings are attended by the minister in charge of the issues discussed. While it shares the
responsibility of passing laws and making policy decisions with the Parliament, the Council is
responsible for the common foreign and security policy as well as EU action in the area of justice.
Decisions are taken in most areas by majority vote and each country has a number of votes
according to its population. Unanimity is required with regard to taxation, asylum and immigration,
and foreign and security policy.
3. The European Commission — represents the interests of the EU as a whole and is independent of
national governments. It manages the day to day business of the EU and drafts European laws. The
Commission consists of 25 members, one from each country, who are appointed for a period of 5
years.
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4. The Court of Justice — ensures that European law is applied by all members of the Union. Located in
Luxembourg it is made up from 25 judges representing all member states.
5. The Court of Auditors — checks that the revenues from taxpayers are spent legally, economically
and for their intended purposes.
6. The European Central Bank — based in Frankfurt the bank is responsible for monetary policy
regarding the Euro in order to ensure price stability (rather than employment)
In December 2003, as part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), EU leaders adopted a
European Security Strategy and have since agreed on its basic mission and priority areas for action: the
fight against terror; a Middle East strategy; a comprehensive policy on Bosnia-Herzegovina.
In line with the CFSP, the Union created a rapid reaction force, whose military strength will be built up
gradually over several years and could contain up to 50'000 troops. The intervention capabilities of the EU
include humanitarian and rescue missions, peacekeeping, crisis management and even peacemaking.
The European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) in Action
European Union
European Union
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe is the largest regional security organization in the
world, with 55 participating states from Europe, Central Asia and North America. All OSCE participating
states have equal status, and decisions are based on consensus. OSCE maintains various offices and
institutions and is headquartered in Vienna, Austria. It is active in early warning, conflict prevention, crisis
management and post-conflict rehabilitation.
The OSCE approach to security encompasses the following areas:
Arms control
Preventive diplomacy
Confidence and security building measures
Human rights
Democratization
Election monitoring
Economic and environmental security
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in April 1949, creating an alliance of states
committed to mutual defense. Today, following the end of the Cold War and the division
of Europe, the Alliance of 26 member states has been restructured, and NATO's political
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and military structures transformed to undertake in particular peacekeeping and crisis management tasks in
cooperation with countries which are not members of the Alliance and with other international
organizations.
NATO's essential purpose is to ensure the freedom and security of its members by political and military
means, in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. It is dedicated to protecting
democracy, human rights and the rule of law. The best means of safeguarding these shared values is to
bring about a just and lasting peaceful order in Europe as a whole. NATO has worked since its inception to
achieve this goal.
NATO's transformation from a defense alliance to a security alliance has taken place throughout the 1990s.
The debate about whether or not this transformation was necessary for the alliance to remain relevant was
resolved by the crises in the former Yugoslavia and subsequent interventions by NATO. Today, NATO has
important conflict management capabilities. A new debate has since emerged concerning the geographic
area of intervention appropriate for the alliance. Even though this question has been answered temporarily
by the deployment of NATO troops in Iraq and Darfur, there are still concerns about NATO's role in out-of-
area conflicts, meaning conflicts outside the broader European region.

United Nations
Established in 1945, the United Nations is a multilateral organization with a broad

mandate that includes political, legal, cultural, social, health, education, economic,
security and other functions. One-hundred ninety-one member states currently
participate in the UN system which is organized into more than 30 affiliated
organizations.
The UN and its family of organizations work to promote respect for human rights, protect the environment,
fight disease, foster development and reduce poverty. UN agencies define the standards for safe and
efficient transport by air and sea, help improve telecommunications and enhance consumer protection, work
to ensure respect for intellectual property rights and coordinate allocation of radio frequencies. The United
Nations plays a leading role in the international campaigns against drug trafficking and terrorism.
Throughout the world, the UN and its agencies assist refugees and set up programs to clear landmines, help
improve the quality of drinking water and expand food production, make loans to developing countries and
help stabilize financial markets.
UN Members are sovereign countries. The United Nations is not a world government, but it does, however,
provide the means to help resolve international conflict and formulate policies on matters of global
importance. At the UN, all the member states - large and small, rich and poor, with differing political views
and social systems - have a voice and vote in this process.
United Nations
United Nations
Page 1 of 1
Summary
Track-one is generally understood to involve government-to-government efforts to address issues

of conflict and conflict resolution. Legal authority and a monopoly of coercive power form the
foundations of the track-one approach.
Diplomacy is the main instrument of track-one. The principal objective of diplomacy is to advance
the interests of the state. This involves protecting the state's independence, security, and territorial,
political, and economic integrity.
Diplomacy is considered most effective when it secures maximum national advantage without resort
to military force and while preserving positive external relations.
Sanctions offer states and multilateral organizations, such as the United Nations, a means of
addressing threats to the peace, with militaries playing enforcement roles short of war fighting.
Sanctions are most effective when combined with incentives to encourage a negotiated solution.
Classical deterrence theory argues that credible and capable threats can prevent the initiation and
contain the escalation of conflict." When non-military means are used, deterrence may take a
positive form (inducements) as well as a negative one (deprivations), the latter often associated
with sanctions.
Collective security assumes that rules of behavior among nations should be encouraged, that rules
should be enforced, that enforcement actions should be legitimized through broad international
agreement, and that enforcement actions should generally be undertaken by multinational
coalitions.
The general objective of coercive diplomacy is to back a demand to an adversary with the threat
of punishment for noncompliance, a threat that the adversary will consider credible and potent
enough to persuade him to comply with the demand.
Preventive diplomacy is action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to prevent
existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur.
In the modern global system, states increasingly utilize economic instruments , such as trade,
aid, and investment to advance various interests, including conflict prevention and peace building.
The World Bank Group is the most prominent of the international organizations that explicitly
address peace and stability as among the objectives of their lending and related financial practices.
Public diplomacy is a U.S. coined term that describes efforts to promote people-to-people contacts
to increase mutual understanding.
Multilateral organizations play various conflict prevention and peacemaking/peace building
functions, from election monitoring to de-mining to economic development to mutual security.
Page 1 of 2
Endnotes
1
David Cortright and George A. Lopez, "Sanctions and Contending Views of Justice: The Problematic
Case of Iraq," as quoted in Peace Action.
(http://www.webcom.com/peaceact/sanctions_perspectives.html#create.)
2
Manford Kulsessa and Dorethee Starck, "Peace through Sanctions? Recommendations for German
UN Policy," Development and Peace Foundation, Bonn - Dec '97, as quoted in Peace Action,
(http://www.webcom.com/peaceact/sanctions_content.html.)
3
Frank C. Zagare and D. Marc Kilgour, "Deterrence Theory and the Spiral Model Revisited," Journal of
Theoretical Politics, Volume 10 Issue 01, January 1998. See
(http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journals/details/issue/abstract/ab002150.html.)
4
Herman Kahn, On Thermonuclear War, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960.
5
Devin T. Hagerty, "Nuclear Deterrence in South Asia: the 1990 Indo-Pakistani Crisis," International
Security. Vol. 20(3). Winter 1995. See (http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/sasianuk.htm)
6
James Goodby (1996). "Can Collective Security Work?," Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and
Responses to International Conflict. Washington, DC, United States Institute of Peace Press. p. 237-
253.
7
James Goodby. "Collective Security in Europe After the Cold War," Journal of International Affairs,
Vol. 46(2), pp. 299-321. (http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/example/good7497.htm)
8
Alexander L. George (1991). "The General Theory and Logic of Coercive Diplomacy," in Forceful
Persuasion: Coercive Diplomacy as an Alternative to War. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute
of Peace Press, pp. 3-14. (http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/example/geor7394.htm.)
9
Alexander L. George (2000). "Strategies for Preventive Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution:
Scholarship for Policymaking," The American Political Science Association Online, March 2000.
(http://www.apsanet.org/PS/march00/george.cfm)
10
United Nations (1992). Report of the Secretary-General: An Agenda for Peace: Preventive
diplomacy, peacemaking and peace-keeping. United Nations publication A/47/277 - S/24111, June
17, 1992. (http://www.un.org/Docs/SG/agpeace.html.)
11
David A. Ruth (1996). "Economic Diplomacy". Remarks before the Denver Chamber of Commerce,
Denver, Colorado, August 6, 1996. Published by the US Department of State.
(www.state.gov/www/issues/economic/ruthsp2.html)
12
World Bank. Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction. The World Bank in Conflict and Development.
February 10, 2006.
(http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/EXTCPR/0,,contentMDK:20486307~
13 Brachet, J. and H. Wolpe (2005). Conflict-Sensitive Development Assistance: The Case of Burundi.
Page 2 of 2
Solcial Development Papers. Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction. Paper No. 27. Washington, DC, World
Bank.
14
See http://www.ndu.edu/ndu/nwc/5611SYL/EconGlossary.htm.
15
Hans N. Tuch (1990). Communicating With the World. New York: St. Martin's Press.
16
See http://exchanges.state.gov/education/fulbright/.
17
See http://www.heritage.org/issues/98/chap20.html.

6 - Track 1 Diplomacy

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Page 1 of 5

The track-one approach is generally understood to involve government-to-government efforts to address

President Bush exercises diplomacy in the international arena.

Summit meetings and other international conferences;

Arms control and disarmament

Former U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell meeting with NATO

Sanctions are generally imposed to:

Reinforce international norms

French Prime Minister de Villepin debating sanctions against Iran at

Culture and Sports

Deterrence and Collective Security

India and Pakistan - Deterrence at Work? 5

The most prominent institutional expression of collective security is,

Collective security is based on four precepts:6

1. Rules of behavior among nations should be encouraged.

Coercive diplomacy involves four basic variables: 8

The Use of Coercive Diplomacy in Bosnia

Economic Tools of Statecraft

World Bank Group

In all member countries:

In areas affected by conflict:

In areas emerging from conflict:

World Bank sponsored water supply project.

Economic Statecraft: U.S. Government Agencies

The Federal Reserve

1. Managing the nation's monetary policy;

The U.S. Trade and Development Agency

Export-Import Bank of the United States

Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC)

1. Insuring investment against a broad range of political risks;

Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR)

Office of Foreign Assets Control, U.S. Department of the Treasury (OFAC)

Office of Defense Trade Controls, U.S. Department of State

United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

1. Improve poor people's lives;

Humanitarian relief organized by USAID in Aceh, Indonesia.

Economic Statecraft: Key International Agencies 14

The World Trade Organization

1. Administering trade agreements;

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

1. Promote international monetary cooperation;

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

clarify the impact of national policies on the international community.

United Nations Development Program (UNDP)

International Public Diplomacy

Karen Hughes, Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

Voice of America (VOA)

Voice of America Chinese Branch

Defenders of public diplomacy note that:

Organization of American States (OAS)

The organization's areas of focus are:

Protecting Human Rights

preserve peace through cooperation.

Fostering Free Trade

Combating Illegal Drugs

Organization of American States (OAS)

African Union (AU)

League of Arab States