India Hindu Literature

India ( HINDU LITERAURE)
Aryans A group of nomadic warriors and

herders, were the earliest known
migrants into India. They brought with
them a well-developed language and
literature and a set of religious beliefs.
These were cattle herders who wrote
Indian literature in Sanskrit language.
The ancient language of the Aryans which is
the language the Hindu scriptures are
written in Sanskrit.
Anuradha Roy He is a contemporary writer who is a
Booker Prize winner for “God of Small
Things.
Atharva-Veda “Book of Spells” which contains some
hymns, spells, encantations and notions
about demonology and witchcraft.
Atman Connection of one's soul to Brahman.
Bhagavad Gita Most important part of the scriptures;
means 'song of the Lord'.
- one of most important in Hindu tradition

- contains story between Pandavas and
Kauravas (frame story of Mahabharata)
- falls in the middle of the Mahabharata
taking place on a battlefield where the 2
families are about to fight.
Context of "Yoga of Knowledge (Bhagavad-

Gita)
-Arjuna (Pandava) has chosen Krishna to be
his charioteer. He does not realize that
Krishna is actually God (8th incarnation of
Vishu Hindu god; the preserver and
protector of humanity)
-Arjuna faces a dilemma: he is groping
"about in darkness" and does not want to
kill his cousins who are "noble and ancient,
worthy of great respect," but he also knows it
is duty to fight.
-Arjuna is in the warrior caste so it is his
duty to fight without question (Dharma and
caste system)
-Arjuna is being asked to practice non-
attached work or unworried participation.
BHARTENDU HARISHCHANDRA He was also known as the Father of Hindi
Literature.
Afro-Asian Literature|1
Buddha The enlightened one.
Brahman The one, self-existent impersonal spirit,

‘universal soul’
‘the absolute’
Defined by negative description (what he is

NOT): peeling away layers of an onion to
arrive at the core/truth:
-He is not life: the universe existed before life

-He is not earth: the universe existed before
the Earth was created.
- Brahman is not food, life, mind, reason. He

is JOY (vision)
- Each is more ABSTRACT and less
concrete, representing the transcedental
force that is behind all reality that is
Brahman
- Uses tapas (prayer, meditation) to discover
The understanding of Brahman is a personal
quest. One cannot be told what it is but must
discover its meaning on his/her own.
Colonial Period It is the period when the name India

started to be widely used.
Dalits Dalits have traditionally been tasked with
work such as cleaning streets and working
with human and animal corpses and
waste.
Dhammapada The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an
anthology of basic Buddhist teaching in a
simple aphoristic style. One of the best
known books of the Pali Buddhist canon,
it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26
chapters. These verses are compared
with the Letters of St. Paul in the Bible or
that of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.
Dharma A set of religious obligations.
The sum of a person's obligations and the

moral law which governs the world
- determined by one's social status (caste)
and even family situation.
Gitanjali This is Rabindranath Tagore's best
known work which won the Nobel Prize
for literature in 1913.
Great Britain Country colonized India from 1858 to
1947.
Moksha  Each time a Hindu soul is born
into a better life, it has the
opportunity to improve itself
further, and get closer to ultimate
liberation.
 This liberation is called Moksha.
 One attains Moksha when one has
"overcome ignorance", and no
longer desires anything at all.
 The ones who reach this state no
longer struggle with the cycle of
life and death.
 The way to get to Moksha is to not
create any karma.
Sakuntala a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells of the

love between
 Sakuntala and King Dushyanta.

What begins as a physical
attraction for both of them
becomes spiritual in the end as
their love endures and surpasses
all difficulties. King Dushyanta is
a noble and pious king who
upholds his duties above personal
desire. Sakuntala, on the other
hand, is a young girl who matures
beautifully because of her
kindness, courage, and strength of
will.
Harijans dalits, or untouchables

Hind It is the name India was known for
during medieval times.
The name India is derived from Indus River.
Hinduism Religion teaching rebirth of souls.
Hotar Name for priest.
INDIAN LITERATURE One of the world’s oldest and richest
literature.
India has more than 200 languages.

22- officially recognized languages are
there in India.
INDIA  World’s 7th largest country

located in South Asia
 Second most populous country.
 About 3,000 km(1,865 mi) wide,
shoreline about 7000 km (4,350
mi) along Bay of Bengal
 India and Bharat are both official
names.
 Derives from Indus river used by
Greek
 India civilization grew up in the
Indus Valley 4000 to 2500 BC.
Indian Caste System  Indian Caste system – major

social system that groups people
according to birth
Brahmans/Brahmins – priests, the

highest caste (mouth)
Kshatriyas – rulers, warriors and kings
(arms)
Vaishyas - farmers and merchants and
tradesmen (thighs)
Shudras - servants and menial workers/
manual labourers (feet)
Outcasts - those performing the most
unclean jobs (untouchables).
Central Message of "Yoga of Knowledge

(Bhagavad-Gita)
-Krishna's teaching reinforces the

concept of non-attached work, painting
out that "the truly wise mourn neither
for the living or the dead".
the nature of life

(samsara/reincarnation);
the nature of Atman (undying, never

ending or beginning);
role of attachment (do non-attached

work)
Islamic It was the strong influence Indian culture
was subjected to.
Jainism Began in ancient India.
-It is an ancient Indian religion teaching a
path to spiritual purity and enlightenment
through disciplined nonviolence.
KABYA The major form of classical literature in
Sanskrit.
KARMA A force that determines the quality of
each life, depending on how well one
behaved in a past life.
It was a religious doctrine and the chain

of good and bad action and their
inevitable consequences, which result to
the repeated birth and death of the soul.
Hinduism says we create karma by our
actions on earth. If you live a good life,
you create good karma. If you live a bad
life, you create bad karma.
Krishna Incarnation of Vishnu
-totality of one's deeds
Linguistic and cultural practices These are important bases of
classification in the Indian society.
Linguistic diversity It is important in understanding Indian
civilization
MAHABHARATA “The Great Epic of the Bharata
Dynasty”. A Hindu epic poem comprised
of about 10 000 verse. This poem is
considered as the longest epic in the
world.
-longest epic poem (three times length of

Bible, longer than Odyssey and Illiad
combined)
- compiled between 200BC and 200AD
-considered the encyclopedia of
Hinduism (myths and tales reinforce
important Hindu Values).
- A frame tale: the royal family

(Pandavas) have been overthrown and
exiled to the forest by another branch of
the family (Kauravas)
- In the forest, Pandavas meet characters
who entertain them with stories.
Mahatama Gandhi Pioneer of non-violent protests.
Medieval Literature This is the period when unique version of

local myths, legends, romances and epics
emerged.
Moguls Islamic conquerors.
Mughal Dynasty It is the Muslim dynasty that ruled most

of northern India from the early 16th to
the mid-18th century
Nirvana It is the highest spiritual state that can
possibly be achieved. Entering the realm
of Nirvana is only possible for those who
have become pure. People sometimes
refer to a state of complete happiness and
peace as nirvana.
“extinguished flame”
Nirvana literally means “quenching” or
“blowing out,” in the way that the flame
of a candle is blown out.
The simplest definition of nirvana-in-

this-life is “the end of greed, hatred, and
delusion”. It is clear that nirvana-in-this-
life is a psychological and ethical reality.
It’s a transformed state of personality
characterized by peace, deep spiritual
joy, compassion, and a refined and subtle
awareness. Negative mental states and
emotions such as doubt, worry, anxiety,
and fear are absent from the enlightened
mind.
Panchatantra It is a collection of stories in prose and
verse, which feature animals as the
characters, teach lessons about human
conduct.
PURANAS A genre of mythological narratives.
Rabindranath Tagore He became the first non- European

writer to win the Nobel Prize for
literature.
Ramayana This heroic text tells the story of the hero

Rama, prince of Ayodhya and
incarnation of the god Vishnu. one of two
classical Hindu epics telling of the
banishment of Rama from his kingdom
and the abduction of his wife by a demon
and Rama's restoration to the throne.
-2nd greatest epic of India

-recounts author of Rama - the perfect
man - who is also an avatar of Vishnu.
Author of Ramayana
Valmiki (a wise man living in the forest)
RIG-VEDA The anthology of 1080 hymns to various
gods. Collection of hymns paying homage
to the gods. Hymn of Knowledge.
It has come to mean “hymns of supreme

sacred knowledge,” is the foremost
collection or Samhita made up of 1,028
hymns.
The oldest of the Vedas, it contains
strong, energetic, non-speculative hymns,
often comparable to the psalms in the
Old Testament. The Hindus regard these
hymns as divinely inspired or ‘heard’
directly from the gods.
NATURE: Natural forces are personified

(an early religious development) as Gods:
sun, moon, rain (both hostile and
friendly) Focus of Rig Veda.
Priests recite seeking protection and

sustenance daily concerns discussed
(virtues and vices)
Early deities tend to relate to forces of

nature (Gods of wind, storms, fire,
thunder; Night and Dawn in Vedas)
Later deities tend to be a single powerful

deity (replacing earlier one) (God and
Allah).
SARAJINI NAIDU She was famously known as Bharatiya
Kokila (The Nightingale of India).
SANSKRIT LITERATURE In this literature, text were produced
about 16th century BC by people known
as Aryans.
Sanskrit, the language of classic Indian
literature, was highly regarded for its
Beauty and subtlety.
Siddharta Gautama A major influence on Indian literature

and culture is the religion of Buddhism
which was founded in India.
Gautama, prince and founder of
religions.
THE GIFT OF INDIA This poem was a tribute to the

contribution of Indian soldiers in World
War I.
Reincarnation The Hindu belief in reincarnation.
It is the belief that the soul repeatedly

goes through a cycle of being born into a
body, dying, and being reborn again in a
new body.
Promises physical rebirth into another
life.
THE REIGN OF MANUS It was called as the Legendary Hindi
figures.
UPANISHADS India’s oldest philosophical treaties and
form the foundation of major schools of
Hindu philosophy.
A major book in Hinduism that is often
in the form of dialogues that explored the
Vedas and the religious issues that they
raised.
Final set of sacred books belonging to the
Vedas; represents the development of
Indian Religious thought.
Importance of individual God is
diminished.
Concept of Brahman (universal God) is
developed.
Vedas This is the fundamental scripture of the

Hindu religion.
It was also called as the "Book of
Knowledge". The first scripture in
Hinduism, it has information about
spiritual, scientific, and philosophy.
Anthology of ten books containing over
1,000 hymns.
4 COLLECTIONS- prayers, magic

spells, hymns, rituals
Vikas Swarup He wrote the novel, Q & A.

Valmiki (a wise man living in the - considered India's fist poet (since poetry
forest) is connected a spiritual insight, a poet
would be a person who was enlightened
spiritually - different from learned poet)
Epic conventions in "Rama and Ravana
in Battle" (Ramayama)
Quest; Hero's challenge; Scope of

Conflict; God-like Hero; heroes and
events reflect cultural values
Epic convention: Quest in "Rama and
Ravana in Battle" (Ramayana)
Rama is journeying India to free Sita
(wife), who has been kidnapped by
Ravana
Epic convention: Hero's Challenge in
"Rama and Ravana in Battle"
(Ramayana)
Rama must string a bow that others
cannot (Odysseus and bow; Arjuna the
Archer)
RELIGION
Four major religious traditions have
emerged from this area:
 Hinduism – 83%
 Jainism (and Islam)– 11%
 Buddhism – less than 1%
 Sikhism
1. Literary Periods .
The Indus Valley civilization flourished in northern India between 2500 and 1500 B.C.
The Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and herders, were the earliest known migrants
into India. They brought with them a well-developed language and literature and a set of
religious beliefs.
a) Vedic Period (1500 B.C. –500 B.C.). This period is named for the Vedas, a set of
hymns that formed the cornerstone of Aryan culture. Hindus consider the Vedas,
which were transmitted orally by priests, to be the most sacred of all literature for
they believe these to have been revealed to humans directly by the gods.
• The Rigveda which has come to mean “hymns of supreme sacred knowledge,”
is the foremost collection or Samhita made up of 1,028 hymns. The oldest of
the Vedas, it contains strong, energetic, non-speculative hymns, often
comparable to the psalms in the Old Testament. The Hindus regard these
hymns as divinely inspired or ‘heard’ directly from the gods.
The Song of Creation
Then was not non-existent nor existent: there was no realm of air, no sky
beyond it.
What covered it and where? And what gave shelter? Was water there,
unfathomedmdepth of water?
Death was not then nor was there aught immortal: no sign was there, the
day’s and night’s divider.
That one thing, breathless, breathed by its own nature: apart from it was
nothing whatsoever.
Darkness there was: at first concealed in darkness, this All was
indiscriminated chaos.
All that existed then was void and formless: by the great power of warmth
was born that unit.
b) Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). The period of composition of the two
great epics, Mahabharata and the Ramayana. This time was also the growth of
later Vedic literature, new Sanskrit literature, and Buddhist literature in Pali. The
Dhammapada was also probably composed during this period. The Maurya
Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by Ashoka promoted Buddhism and preached
goodness, nonviolence, and ‘righteousness’ although this period was known for
warfare and iron-fisted rule. The Gupta Dynasty (320-467 B.C.) was the next
great political power. During this time, Hinduism reached a full flowering and
was evident in culture and the arts.
• The Mahabharata, traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, consists of a

mass of legendary and didactic material that tells of the struggle for
supremacy between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas set
sometime 3102 BC. The poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided
into 18 parvans or sections. It is an exposition on dharma (codes of conduct),
including the proper conduct of a king, of a warrior, of a man living in times
of calamity, and of a person seeking to attain emancipation from rebirth.
• The Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song) is one of the greatest and
most beautiful of the Hindu scriptures. It is regarded by the Hindus in
somewhat the same way as the Gospels are by Christians. It forms part of
Book IV and is written in the form of a dialogue between the warrior Prince
Arjuna and his friend and charioteer, Krishna, who is also an earthly
incarnation of the god Vishnu.
From the Bhagavad-Gita
Arjuna: Krishna, what defines a man/ deep in contemplation whose insight/

and thought are sure? How would he speak?/ How would he sit? How
would he move?
Lord Krishna: When he gives up desires in his mind,/ is content with the self
within himself,/ then he is said to be a man/ whose insight is sure, Arjuna.
When suffering does not disturb his mind,/ when his craving for pleasures has
vanished,/ when attraction, fear, and anger are gone,/ he is called a sage
whose thought is sure.
• The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 BC, by the
poet Valmiki and consists of some 24,000 couplets divided into seven books.
It reflects the Hindu values and forms of social organization, the theory of
karma, the ideals of wifehood, and feelings about caste, honor and promises.
The poem describes the royal birth of Rama, his tutelage under the sage
Visvamitra, and his success in bending Siva’s mighty bow, thus winning Sita,
the daughter of King Janaka, for his wife. After Rama is banished from his
position as heir by an intrigue, he retreats to the forest with his wife and his
half brother, Laksmana. There Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka, carries off
Sita, who resolutely rejects his attentions. After numerous adventures Rama
slays Ravana and rescues Sita. When they return to his kingdom, however,
Rama learns that the people question the queen’s chastity, and he banishes her
to the forest where she gives birth to Rama’s two sons. The family is reunited
when the sons come of age, but Sita, after again protesting her innocence, asks
to be received by the earth, which swallows her up. From the Ramayana:
“Brother’s Faithfulness”
If my elder and his lady to the pathless forests wend,

Armed with bow and ample quiver Lakshman will on them attend,
Where the wild deer range the forest and the lordly tuskers roam,
And the bird of gorgeous plumage nestles in its jungle home,
Dearer far to me those woodlands where perennial bliss prevails!
Grant me then thy sweet permission, - faithful to thy glorious star,
Lakshman, shall not wait and tarry when his Rama wanders far,
Grant me then thy loving mandate, - Lakshman hath no wish to stay,
None shall bar the faithful younger when the elder leads the way!
c) Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.). The main literary language of northern
India during this period was Sanskrit, in contrast with the Dravidian languages of
southern India. Sanskrit, which means ‘perfect speech’ is considered a sacred
language, the language spoken by the gods and goddesses. As such, Sanskrit was
seen as the only appropriate language for the noblest literary works. Poetry and
drama peaked during this period. Beast fables such as the Panchatantra were
popular and often used by religious teachers to illustrate moral points. • The
Panchatantra is a collection of Indian beast fables originally written in Sanskrit.
In Europe, the work was known under the title The Fables of
Bidpai after the narrator, and Indian sage named Bidpai, (called Vidyapati in
Sanskrit). It is intended as a textbook of artha (worldly wisdom); the
aphorisms tend to glorify shrewdness and cleverness more than helping of
others. The original text is a mixture of Sanskrit prose and stanzas of verse,
with the stories contained within one of five frame stories. The introduction,
which acts as an enclosing frame for the entire work, attributes the stories to a
learned Brahman named Vishnusarman, who used the form of animal fables
to instruct the three dull-witted sons of a king.
From the Panchatantra: “ Right-Mind and Wrong-Mind”

The good and bad of given schemes/ wise thought must first reveal: the stupid
heron saw his chicks/ provide a mongoose meal.
• Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells of the love between Sakuntala

and King Dushyanta. What begins as a physical attraction for both of them
becomes spiritual in the end as their love endures and surpasses all difficulties.
King Dushyanta is a noble and pious king who upholds his duties above
personal desire. Sakuntala, on the other hand, is a young girl who matures
beautifully because of her kindness, courage, and strength of will. After a
period of suffering, the two are eventually reunited. Emotion or rasa
dominates every scene in Sanskrit drama. These emotions vary from love to
anger, heroism to cowardice, joy to terror and allows the audience to take part
in the play and be one with the characters.
Excerpt from Sakuntala :

King. You are too modest. I feel honoured by the mere sight of you.
Shakuntala. Anusuya, my foot is cut on a sharp blade of grass, and my dress
is caught on an amaranth twig. Wait for me while I loosen it. (She casts a
lingering glance at the king, and goes out with her two friends.)
King. (sighing). They are gone. And I must go. The sight of Shakuntala has
made me dread the return to the city. I will make my men camp at a distance
from the pious grove. But I cannot turn my own thoughts from Shakuntala.
It is my body leaves my love, not I;/ My body moves away, but not my
mind;
For back to her struggling fancies fly/ Like silken banners borne against
the wind. (Exit.)
• The Little Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika) is attributed to Shudraka, a king. The
characters in this play include a Brahman merchant who has lost his money
through liberality, a rich courtesan in love with a poor young man, much
description of resplendent palaces, and both comic and tragic or near-tragic
emotional situations.
PROLOGUE ( Benediction upon the audience )

May His, may Shiva's meditation be
Your strong defense; on the Great Self thinks he,
Knowing full well the world's vacuity.
And again:
May Shiva's neck shield you from every harm,
That seems a threatening thunder-cloud, whereon,
Bright as the lightning-flash, lies Gauri's arm.
d) Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – present). Persian influence on literature
was considerable during this period. Persian was the court language of the
Moslem rulers. In the 18th century India was directly under the British Crown and
remained so until its Independence in 1947. British influence was strong and
modern-day Indians are primarily educated in English. Many have been brought
into the world of Western learning at the expense of learning about their own
culture.
• Gitanjali: Song Offerings was originally published in India in 1910 and it s

translation followed in 1912. In these prose translations, Rabindranath
Tagore uses imagery from nature to express the themes of love and the
internal conflict between spiritual longings and earthly desires.
Moment’s Indulgence
I ask for a moment's indulgence to sit by thy side.
The works that I have in hand I will finish afterwards.
Away from the sight of thy face my heart knows no rest nor respite,
and my work becomes an endless toil in a shoreless sea of toil.
• The Taj Mahal, a poem by Sahir Ludhianvi, is about the mausoleum in

North India built by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz-
iMahal. The façade of this grandiose structure is made of white marble and is
surrounded by water gardens, gateways, and walks. The tomb at the center of
the dome stands on a square block with towers at each corner. The
construction of the building took twenty years to complete involving some 20,
000 workers.
Excerpt from the Taj Mahal

Do dead king’s tombs delight you?
If so, look into your own dark home.
In this world, countless people have loved.
Who says their passions weren’t true?
They just couldn’t afford a public display like this.
• On Learning to be an Indian an essay by Santha Rama Rau illustrates the

telling effects of colonization on the lives of the people particularly the
younger generation. The writer humorously narrates the conflicts that arise
between her grandmother's traditional Indian values and the author’s own
British upbringing.
Because Mother had to fight against the old standards, and because she was
brought up to believe in them, she has an emotional understanding of them
which my sister I will never have. Brought up in Europe and educated in
preparatory and public schools in England, we felt that the conventions were
not only retrogressive and socially crippling to the country but also a little
ridiculous.
2. Religions . Indian creativity is evident in religion as the country is the birthplace of

two important faiths: Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which
ironically became extinct in India but spread throughout Asia.
a) Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the predominant faith of
India and of no other nation. The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and the
creation of the universe.
The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma – virtue, duty,
righteousness, moral law; artha – wealth; and kama – love or pleasure. A fourth
end is moksha – the renunciation of duty, wealth and love in order to seek
spiritual perfection. It is achieved after the release from samsara, the cycle of
births and deaths. The Hindus believe that all reality is one and spiritual, and that
each individual soul is identical with this reality and shares its characteristics:
pure being, intelligence, and bliss. Everything that seems to divide the soul from
this reality is maya or illusion.
Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages of effort
called the four asramas: a) the student stage – applies to the rite of initiation into
the study of the Vedas; b) the householder stage – marries and fulfills the duties
as head of the family where he begets sons and earns a living; c) the stage of the
forest dweller – departs from home and renounces the social world; and d)
ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals or social duties of life in the world
and devotes time for reflection and meditation.
Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as
householder, that of pleasure and love. The Kama-sutra is a classic textbook on
erotics and other forms of pleasure and love, which is attributed to the sage
Vatsyayana.
The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the soul and original
source of the universe. As the universal soul, Purusha is the life-giving principle
in all animated beings. As a personified human being, Purusha's body is the
source of all creation. The four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the
organization of the Hindu society. These were thought to have been created from
Purusha’s body:
- The Brahman (priest) was Purusha’s mouth. Their duty is to perform
sacrifices, to study and to teach the Vedas, and to guard the rules of
dharma. Because of their sacred work, they are supreme in purity and
rank.
- The Ksatriyas (warriors) are the arms. From this class arose the kings
who are the protectors of society.
- The Vaisyas (peasants) are the thighs. They live by trading, herding,
and farming.
- The Sudras (serfs) are the feet. They engage in handicrafts and manual
occupation and they are to serve meekly the three classes above them.
They are strictly forbidden to mate with persons of a higher varna.
• The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on the religious

thought suggested by the poetic hymns of the Rigveda. The name implies,
according to some traditions, ‘sitting at the feet of the teacher.’ The most
important philosophical doctrine is the concept of a single supreme being, the
Brahman, and knowledge is directed toward reunion with it by the human
soul, the Atman or Self. The nature of eternal life is discussed and such
themes as the transmigration of souls and causality in creation.
b) Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C. This religion is based on the
teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha, or the ‘Enlightened One.’
Much of Buddha’s teaching is focused on self-awareness and selfdevelopment in
order to attain nirvana or enlightenment.
According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound to the wheel of
life which is a continual cycle of birth, death, and suffering. This cycle is an
effect of karma in which a person’s present life and experiences are the result of
past thoughts and actions, and these present thoughts and actions likewise create
those of the future. The Buddhist scriptures uphold the Four Noble Truths and the
Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths are: 1) life is suffering; 2) the
cause of suffering is desire; 3) the removal of desire is the removal of suffering;
and 4) the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the end of suffering. The Noble
Eightfold Path consists of: 1) right understanding; 2) right thought; 3) right
speech; 4) right action; 5) right means of livelihood; 6) right effort; 7) right
concentration; and 8) right meditation. The Buddhist truth states that bad actions
and bad feelings such as selfishness, greed, hostility, hate are evil not because
they harm others but because of their negative influence on the mental state of the
doer. It is in this sense that evil returns to punish the doer
• The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of basic Buddhist

teaching in a simple aphoristic style. One of the best known books of the Pali
Buddhist canon, it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters. These verses
are compared with the Letters of St. Paul in the Bible or that of Christ’s
Sermon on the Mount.
.
Thought
As a fletcher makes straight his arrow, a wise man makes straight his
trembling and unsteady thought which is difficult to guard, difficult to hold
back.
As a fish taken from his watery home and thrown on the dry ground, our
thought trembles all over in order to escape the dominion of Mara, the
tempter.
It is good to tame the mind, which is difficult to hold in and flighty, rushing
wherever it listeth; a tamed mind brings happiness.
Let the wise man guard his thoughts, for they are difficult to perceive, very
artful, and they rush wherever they list: thoughts well guarded bring
happiness.
Those who bridle their mind which travels far, moves about alone, is without a
body, and hides in the chamber of the heart, will be free from the bonds of
Mara, the tempter
3. Major Writers .
a) Kalidasa a Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably the greatest Indian writer of
all time. As with most classical Indian authors, little is known about Kalidasa’s
person or his historical relationships. His poems suggest that he was a Brahman
(priest). Many works are traditionally ascribed to the poet, but scholars have
identified only six as genuine.
b) Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941). The son of a Great Sage, Tagore is a
Bengali poet and mystic who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Tagore
managed his father's estates and lived in close contact with the villagers. His
sympathy for their poverty and backwardness was later reflected in his works.
The death of his wife and two children brought him years of sadness but this also
inspired some of his best poety. Tagore is also a gifted composer and a painter.
c) Prem Chand pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai Srivastava (1880-1936). Indian
author of numerous novels and short stories in Hindi and Urdu who pioneered in
adapting Indian themes to Western literary styles. He worked as a teacher before
joining Mahatma Gandhi’s anticolonial Noncooperation Movement.
• Sevasadana (House of Service). His first major novel deals with the problems
of prostitution and moral corruption among the Indian middle class.
• Manasarovar (The Holy Lake). A collection of 250 or so short stories which
contains most of Prem Chand’s best works.
• Godan (The Gift of a Cow). This last novel was Prem Chand’s masterpiece
and it deals with his favorite theme – the hard and unrewarding life of the
village peasant.
d) Kamala Markandaya (1924). Her works concern the struggles of
contemporary
Indians with conflicting Eastern and Western values. A Brahman, she studied at
Madras University then settled in England and married an Englishman. In her
fiction, Western values typically are viewed as modern and materialistic, and
Indian values as spiritual and traditional.
• Nectar in a Sieve. Her first novel and most popular work is about an Indian
peasant’s narrative of her difficult life.
e) R. K. Narayan (1906). One of the finest Indian authors of his generation writing
in English. He briefly worked as a teacher before deciding to devote himself
full-time to writing. All of Narayan’s works are set in the fictitious South Indian
town of Malgudi. They typically portray the peculiarities of human relationships
and the ironies of Indian daily life, in which modern urban existence clashes with
ancient tradition. His style is graceful, marked by genial humor, elegance, and
simplicity.
• Swami and Friends. His first novel is an episodic narrative recounting the
adventures of a group of schoolboys.
• Novels: The English Teacher (1945), Waiting for the Mahatma (1955), The
Guide (1958), The Man-Eater of Malgudi (1961), The Vendor of Sweets
(1967), A Tiger for Malgudi (1983), and The World of Nagaraj (1990).
• Collection of Short Stories: Lawley Road (1956), A Horse and Two Goats
and Other Stories (1970), Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories (1985),
and Grandmother’s Tale (1992).
f) Anita Desai (1937). An English-language Indian novelist and author of
children’s books, she is considered India’s premier imagist writer. She excelled
in evoking character and mood through visual images. Most of her works reflect
Desei’s tragic view of life.
• Cry, the Peacock. Her first novel addresses the theme of the suppression and
oppression of Indian women.
• Clear Light of Day. Considered the author’s most successful work, this is a
highly evocative portrait of two sisters caught in the lassitude of Indian life.
This was shortlisted for the 1980 Booker Prize.
• Fire on the Mountain. This work was criticized as relying too heavily on
imagery at the expense of plot and characterization, but it was praised for its
poetic symbolism and use of sounds. This won for her the Royal Society of
Literature’s Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize.
g) Vir Singh (1872-1957). A Sikh writer and theologian, he wrote at a time when
Sikh religion and politics and the Punjabi language were under heavy attack by
the English and Hindus. He extolled Sikh courage, philosophy, and ideals,
earning respect for the Punjabi language as a literary vehicle.
• Kalghi Dhar Chamatkar. This novel is about the life of the 17th century guru
Gobind Singh.
• Other novels on Sikh philosophy and martial excellence include Sundri
(1898) and Bijai Singh (1899).
h) Arundhati Roy. A young female writer whose first book The God of Small Things
won for her a Booker Prize.
Sanskrit Literature
Puranas (400 B.C-A.D 1400)

Pancatantra (c. A.D. 450)
Beginning about 400 B., when PANINI produced his Sanskrit grammar, there was an
outpouring of literature that sought to systematize all learning in the form of laws for the
arts and sciences, called shastras, as well as devotional, epic,and lyric poetry and stylized
drama treating either traditional heroic themes or invented plots often set in the
Guptacities of the 4th and 5th century A.D.
Anthology of love lyrics- Kuruntokai
Mogul emperors produced Perso-AraDic writing, which inspired a literature in Urdu. The
major artistic form was the ghazal, a stylized form of lyrical folk song and notable
exponents of the form include MUHAMMAD QULI QUTB SHAH.
General View of Literature. Most of the literature of ancient India was written in Sanskrit,
the oldest extant Aryan language. A small portion of the literature was written in Prakrit, a
vernacular form of Sanskrit.
The history of Indian literature falls into two periods: (1) the Vedic period, which
extends from about 1500 B.C. to about 200 B.C. and of whichthe writings are made up
principally of religious and lyric poetry (although some fairly successful attempts to
establish a prose style were made) and (2) the so-called Sanskrit
period, which extends from about 200 B.C. well on into the Middle Ages, and, in a sense,
down to the present day. In the Sanskrit period many types of literature achieved
distinction-epic, lyric, and didactic poetry; drama, fairy tales; fables; romances; and
philosophy.
RELIGIOUS WORKS
Poetry
The oldest sacred literature of India is found in the four Vedas ("Books of Knowledge").
The Rig-Veda (c. 1400 B.C.). is An anthology of 1028 hymns to various gods many of them
impersonal nature deities. The prevailing religion of the Rig-veda is Hindu pantheism; its
chief object of worship is Brahma, the eternal, self-existent god. The most notable single
poem in this collection is the "Creation Hymn."
The Sama-Veda or "Book of Chants." It consists principally of liturgies, of which most are
repetitions of hymns in the Rig-veda.
The Yajur-Veda or "Prayer Book." This is also liturgical and repetitions of the Rig-veda,
but it contains, in addition, many original prose formulas.
The Atharva-Veda or "Book of Spells." Containing somehymns, it consists chiefly of spells,
incantations, and notions about demonology and witchcraft.
Prose
The Brahmanas. Commentaries on the Vedic hymns and religious rites, these are possibly
the earliest extant pieces of Indo-European prose.
The Upanishads (c. 800-500 B.C.). A collection of 108 discourses on the Brahman religion.
Though they fail to establish a coherent system of philosophical belief, they give a great
deal of information concerning the conceptions of maya
(the illusory world) and nirvana (absorption into the universal soul). The Upanishads were
influential on Emersion and Schopenhauer.
The Sutras (c. 500-200 B.C). Extremely concise, often unintelligible treatises concerning
ritual.
SECULAR WORKS
Epics
Though classified as secular works, the two epics contain a great deal of Indian
mythological and religious matter.
The Mahabharata (c. 500 B.C.). The longest poem in the World (about 200,000 lines, nearly
eight times as long as the lliad and the Odyssey combined), it is divided into eighteen books.
The epic nucleus of the poem (about 80,000 lines) concerns the battle between the Kauravas
(Kurus), representing the principle of good. The remainder of the Mahabharata contains
glosses, descriptions, legends, and treatises on religion, law, philosophy, and military
matters. Interpolations make the poem cumbersome and sometimeshard to follow.
Two notable interpolations are: (1) the Bhagavad-Gita (“divine song"), a long, didactic
poem (eighteen cantos) in which Krishna (an incarnation or Vishnu, one ot the great Indian
gods) discuss philosophy and the good life with Arjuna, one of the Pandavas; and (2) Nala
and Damayanti, a love story concerning conjugal patience and fiadelity. The Bhagavad-
Gita was influential on Emerson.
Dramas
Very little is known about the origin of Indian drama; literary historians disagree as to the
amount-and even the presence-of Greek influence. It seems likely, however, that the origin
was indigenous and that the first real drama arose
out of ceremonies connected with the worship of Vishnu-Krishna.
There was no special theater; the dramas were presented in the banquet hall or ballroom of
the rulers' palaces. The chronology, too, is uncertain, but the sixty-odd plays of which we
know were probably written between 100 B.C. and A.D.
600; most of them came after A.D. 400. Indian drama shows a mixture of joy and sorrow,
but the ending is always happy. Each drama has a prologue and is divided into scenes and
acts (from one to ten). Most of the plays have intricate though not very original plots,
realistic characterization, a court jester, and a mixture of prose dialogue and lyrical poetry.
The custom of employing both Sanskrit (for the men of high rank) and Prakrit (for the
lower classes) in the same play probably led to the death of the drama.
The Toy Clay Cart (c. 500 B.C. present form, c. A.D. 450).
Attributed to King Sundra. It has three acts. A courtesan saves the life of a merchant
because of his former kindness and generosity. There are many romantic elements and
some good portrayal of real human emotions.
Sakuntala or the Fatal Ring (attributed to KALIDASA, "the Hindu Shakespeare,C. A.D.
500), While King Dushyanta is absent, a Brahman sage hurls a curse at Queen Sakuntala.
As a result, Dushyanta rails to recognize her when they are reunited, and she is whisked
away to heaven. When a fisherman returns the lost ring to the king, the curse is broken,
and Dushyanta’s memory. Sakuntala returns. After years of sadness and vain searching,
Dushyanta finds his wife on a sacred mountain, and all ends happily. The play has superior
plot construction and excellent characterization, especially of Sakuntala.
Tales
The ancient Indians had a great talent for telling stories. The several collections of Indian
tales have often been considered the sources of many of the folk tales which have appeared
in various forms all over the world. A large percentage of the tales were written for
didactic or religious purposes. The most important collections were the following:
The Jatakas (c. 300 B.C.). Imaginative legends concerning the 550 births of Buddha and his
early life, supposedly related by himself. Many are animal fables, and most are didactic
folklore.
The Panchantantra or "Five Books" (c. A.D. 300-500). A series of tales (derived chiefly
from the Latakas) probably intended as a manual of instruction for king's sons. The tales
are arranged in a framework; a Brahman attempts to instruct
Six young princes by relating "moral" tales to them.
The "five books" are:
(1) "Separation of Friends,"
(2) "Acquisition of Friends,"
(3) "War of the Crows and Owls,"
(4) "Loss of What Has Been Acquired," and
(5) "Inconsiderate Action."
The collection shows much humor. It contains many animal stories and has often been
considered the source of a large number of medieval tales, especially those in the, Gesta
Romanorum.
The Hitopdesa or "Book of Good Counsels," a series of forty-three tales, of which twenty-
five, in four books. Are from the Panchantantra. The tales are more sententious than those
in the earlier collection.
The Sukasaptati or "Seventy Stories of a Parrot." A framework series of fairy tales.
Lyrics
In addition to sacred poetry, many secular lyrics were composed in ancient India, most of
them after 100 B.C. Many contain great passion and real beauty.
The leading lyricists were (1) KALIDASA (c. A.D. 350-500), famous for a large number of
poems of sentiment; for example, the Maghaduta ("The Cloud Messenger"); and (2)
JAVADEVA (fl.c. A.D.
HINDUISM
literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the predominant faith of India and of
no other nation. The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and the creation of the
universe.
Hinduism believes that there is only one supreme Absolute called “Brahma”.
The most fundamental of Hindu deities is the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva
– creator, preserver and destroyer respectively. Hindus also worship spirits, trees,
animals and even planets.
A Hindu is an individual who accepts and lives by the religious guidance of the
Vedic scriptures.
The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma – virtue, duty, righteousness,
moral law; artha – wealth; and kama – love or pleasure. A fourth end is moksha –
the renunciation of duty, wealth and love in order to seek spiritual perfection.
It is achieved after the release from samsara, the cycle of births and deaths.
The Hindus believe that all reality is one and spiritual, and that each individual
soul is identical with this reality and shares its characteristics: pure being,
intelligence, and bliss. Everything that seems to divide the soul from this reality is
maya or illusion.
Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages of effort called the
four asramas:
a) the student stage – applies to the rite of initiation into the study of the Vedas;
b) the householder stage – marries and fulfills the duties as head of the family
where he begets sons and earns a living;
c) the stage of the forest dweller – departs from home and renounces the social
world; and
d) ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals or social duties of life in the world
and devotes time for reflection and meditation.
Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as householder, that of
pleasure and love.
The Kama-sutra is a classic textbook on erotics and other forms of pleasure and
love, which is attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.
The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the soul and original source of
the universe.
As the universal soul, Purusha is the life-giving principlein all animated beings. As
a personified human being, Purusha's body is the source of all creation.
The four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the
organization of the Hindu society.
These were thought to have been created from Purusha’s body:
The Brahman (priest) was Purusha’s mouth. Their duty is to perform sacrifices, to
study and to teach the Vedas, and to guard the rules of dharma. Because of their
sacred work, they are supreme in purity and rank.
The Ksatriyas (warriors) are the arms. From this class arose the kings who are the
protectors of society.
The Vaisyas (peasants) are the thighs. They live by trading, herding, and farming.
The Sudras (serfs) are the feet. They engage in handicrafts and manual occupation
and they are to serve meekly the three classes above them. They are strictly
forbidden to mate with persons of a higher varna.
• The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on the religious thought

suggested by the poetic hymns of the Rigveda. The name implies, according to
sometraditions, ‘sitting at the feet of the teacher.’
The most important philosophical doctrine is the concept of a single supreme
being, the Brahman, and knowledge is directed toward reunion with it by the
human soul, the Atman or Self. The nature of eternal life is discussed and such
themes as the transmigration of souls and causality in creation.
BUDDHISM
 Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C. This religion is based on the teachings of
Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha, or the ‘Enlightened One.’
 Much of Buddha’s teaching is focused on self-awareness and self-development in order to
attain nirvana or enlightenment.
The Four Noble Truths are:
1) life is suffering;
2) the cause of suffering is desire;
3) the removal of desire is the removal of suffering; and
4) the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the end of suffering.
The Noble Eightfold Path consists of:
1) right understanding; 5) right means of livelihood;
2) right thought; 6) right effort;
3) right speech; 7) right concentration; and
4) right action; 8) right meditation.
The Buddhist truth states that bad actions and bad feelings such as
selfishness, greed, hostility, hate are evil not because they harm others but
because of their negative influence on the mental state of the doer. It is in
this sense that evil returns to punish the doer.
 The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of basic Buddhist

teaching in a simple aphoristic style. One of the best known books of the
Pali Buddhist canon, it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters.
These verses are compared with the Letters of St. Paul in the Bible or
that of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.

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India ( HINDU LITERAURE)

Aryans A group of nomadic warriors and

- one of most important in Hindu tradition

Context of "Yoga of Knowledge (Bhagavad-

Buddha The enlightened one.

Brahman The one, self-existent impersonal spirit,

Defined by negative description (what he is

-He is not life: the universe existed before life

- Brahman is not food, life, mind, reason. He

Colonial Period It is the period when the name India

The sum of a person's obligations and the

Sakuntala a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells of the

 Sakuntala and King Dushyanta.

Harijans dalits, or untouchables

Hotar Name for priest.

INDIAN LITERATURE One of the world’s oldest and richest

India has more than 200 languages.

INDIA  World’s 7th largest country

Indian Caste System  Indian Caste system – major

Brahmans/Brahmins – priests, the

Central Message of "Yoga of Knowledge

-Krishna's teaching reinforces the

the nature of life

the nature of Atman (undying, never

role of attachment (do non-attached

It was a religious doctrine and the chain

-longest epic poem (three times length of

- A frame tale: the royal family

Mahatama Gandhi Pioneer of non-violent protests.

Medieval Literature This is the period when unique version of

Mughal Dynasty It is the Muslim dynasty that ruled most

The simplest definition of nirvana-in-

Rabindranath Tagore He became the first non- European

Ramayana This heroic text tells the story of the hero

-2nd greatest epic of India

It has come to mean “hymns of supreme

NATURE: Natural forces are personified

Priests recite seeking protection and

Early deities tend to relate to forces of

Later deities tend to be a single powerful

Siddharta Gautama A major influence on Indian literature

THE GIFT OF INDIA This poem was a tribute to the

It is the belief that the soul repeatedly

Final set of sacred books belonging to the

Vedas This is the fundamental scripture of the

4 COLLECTIONS- prayers, magic

Vikas Swarup He wrote the novel, Q & A.

Quest; Hero's challenge; Scope of

Four major religious traditions have

emerged from this area:

• The Mahabharata, traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, consists of a

From the Bhagavad-Gita

Arjuna: Krishna, what defines a man/ deep in contemplation whose insight/

If my elder and his lady to the pathless forests wend,

From the Panchatantra: “ Right-Mind and Wrong-Mind”

• Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells of the love between Sakuntala

Excerpt from Sakuntala :

PROLOGUE ( Benediction upon the audience )