CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Introduction to foundry technology

Manufacture of a machine part by heating a metal or alloy above its melting point and pouring the
liquid metal/alloy in a cavity approximately of same shape and size as the machine part is called
casting process. After the liquid metal cools and solidifies, it acquires the shape and size of the cavity
and resembles the finished product required.
Foundry engineering deals with the processes of making castings in moulds formed in either sand or
some other material. The art of the foundry is ancient, dating back to the dawn of civilization. Even
in prehistoric times, as far back as 5000 BC. One of man’s first operations with metal was melting
the ore and pouring it into suitable moulds.

The casting process is said to have been practiced in early historic times by the craftsmen of Greek and Roman
civilizations. Since then, the role of metals has acquired unique significance. Copper and bronze were common
in ancient times, but evidence indicates that iron also had been discovered and developed in the period around
2000 BC, though its use was greatly restricted.

The earliest use of the metals was mostly for the purpose of knives, arrow points, coins, and tools.
The moulds were made in stone or sand. The greatest breakthrough in the application of metals for
gunnery and other arms possibly took place at the time when Alexander was contemplating victory
over the entire Eurasian continent. Since then, the whole art of metal founding has emerged as an
exact science. Today, we have a variety of molding processes and melting equipment and a host of
metals and their considerably, the basic principles still remain almost the same.

Today, it is becoming increasingly difficult to cope with the growing demand for various types of
castings as required for automobiles, tractors, earth moving machinery, and railways. Sophisticated
castings needed for aeronautics, atomic energy, defense, and space research pose yet another
challenge in terms of stringent requirements of quality. The problem is more or less similar in all
developing countries. To achieve self-reliance, the foundry industry has to accept the challenge and
quickly learn the new technology, methods, and know-how already available and in use elsewhere. It
is also possible, through a sharper awareness and greater appreciation of the need for improved
materials and more efficient methods, to increase production with the existing level of inputs in terms
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of equipment and manpower. Adequate means of quality control at levels of production, steps to keep
the wastage of materials and unproductive efforts at the minimum through proper organization and
coordination, and the use of enlightened human relations can go a long way in enhancing production
and productivity in foundries.
The casting process is basically one of introducing molten metal into a cavity in the mould,
previously shaped as desired, and allowing it to solidify. The mould is usually prepared in sand; an
object similar in shape and size to the casting required, which is called a ‘‘pattern,’’ embedded in the
sand. The pattern is thus an exact facsimile of the articles to be cast.
The whole process of producing castings may be classified into five stages:
1. Patternmaking
In the patternmaking section the patterns are designed and prepared as per the drawing of the casting
received from the planning section and according to the moulding process to be employed. The
material of the pattern may be selected from a wide range of alternatives available, the selection
depending on factors such as
 The number of castings required
 The possibility of repeat orders and
 The surface finish desired in the casting
2. Moulding and core making
After the patterns are prepared, the moulds are prepared in either sand or a similar material with the
help of the patterns so that a cavity of the desired shape is produced. The moulds and cores are then
baked to import strength and finally assembled for pouring. The moulding work may be carried out
either by hand or with the help of machines, depending on the output required. Proper mould design
and arrangement for flow of molten metal is very important for the production of sound castings.
3. Melting and casting
The metal of correct composition is melted in a suitable furnace. When molten, it is taken into ladles
and poured into the moulds. The moulds are then allowed to cool down so that the metal solidifies.
The castings are finally extracted by breaking the moulds.
4. Fettling
The castings as obtained from the moulds are not fit for immediate use or for work in the machine
shop as they carry unwanted metal attached in the form of gates, risers, etc. sand particles also tend to

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adhere to the surface of the castings. The castings are therefore needs fettling where the unnecessary
projections are cut off, the adhering sand removed, and the entire surface made clean and uniform.
The casting may also need heat treatment depending on the required specific properties.
5. Testing and Inspection
Finally, before the casting is dispatched from the foundry, it is tested and inspected to ensure that it is
flawless and conforms to the desired specifications. In case any defects or shortcomings are observed
during inspection which may render the casting unfit, analysis is necessary to determine the causes of
these defects, so as to prevent their recurrence. The production process then has to be corrected
accordingly.
2.2 Foundry tools and equipments
There are large number of tools and equipments used in foundry shop for carrying out different
operations such as sand preparation, molding, melting, pouring and casting. They can be broadly
classified as hand tools, sand conditioning tool, flasks, power operated equipments, metal melting
equipments and fettling and finishing equipments. Different kinds of hand tools are used by molder
in mold making operations. Sand conditioning tools are basically used for preparing the various types
of molding sands and core sand. Flasks are commonly used for preparing sand moulds and keeping
molten metal and also for handling the same from place to place. Power operated equipments are
used for mechanizing processes in foundries. They include various types of molding machines, power
riddles, sand mixers and conveyors, grinders etc. Metal melting equipment includes various types of
melting furnaces such as cupola, pit furnace, crucible furnaces etc. Fettling and finishing equipments
are also used in foundry work for cleaning and finishing the casting.
2.2.1 Hand tools used in foundry shop
Hand riddle: It is a metal screen (sieve) used for removing foreign materials such as stones,
nails, etc., from the molding sand. It has a circular or square wooden frame with a wire mesh
at the bottom.

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 Fig. 1 hand riddle
Shovel: It is used in mixing, tempering and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also
used for moving and transforming the molding sand to the container and molding box or
flask. It should always be kept clean.

Fig. 2 shovel
Rammer: It is used for pressing or ramming the molding sand uniformly around the pattern.
It has got two ends. One end is wedge-shaped and it is known as ‘‘peen.’’ The other end is
cylindrical in shape known as ‘‘butt end.’’ Peen end is used for ramming the sand near the
coners. When the box is full and surface of the sand is to be rammed, the butt end is used.

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 Fig.3 Rammer

Sprue pin: It is a tapered wooden piece. It is used for making a sprue hole in the mold. The
size of the sprue pin depends upon the size of the mold. Molten metal is poured into the mold
through the sprue hole.

Fig.4 Sprue pin

Strike off bar: It is a flat bar having straight edge and is made of wood or iron. It is used to
strike off or remove the excess sand from the top of a molding box after completion of
ramming thereby making its surface plane and smooth.

Fig.5 strike-off bar

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Mallet: It is used for driving the draw spike into the pattern and then lifting it from the mold.
Draw spike: the pattern cannot be picked up with hand. It is a tapered steel rod having a loop
or ring at its one end and a sharp point at the other. It may have screw threads on the end to
engage metal pattern for it withdrawal from the mold. It is used for driven into pattern which
is embedded in the molding sand and raps the pattern to get separated from the pattern and
finally draws out it from the mold cavity.

Fig. 6 Draw spike

Vent rod: It is a thin spiked steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one end and a
wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking off the excess sand it is
utilized to pierce series of small holes in the molding sand in the cope portion. The series of
pierced small holes are called vents holes which allow the exit or escape of steam and gases
during pouring mold and solidifying of the molten metal for getting a sound casting.

Fig.7 vent rod

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Lifter: It is used for removing loose sand which has fallen to the bottom of the mold after the
withdrawal of the pattern. It is also used to repair broken surfaces of the mold.

Fig.8 lifter

Trowels: They are utilized for finishing flat surfaces and joints and partings lines of the
mold. They consist of metal blade made of iron and are equipped with a wooden handle. The
common metal blade shapes of trowels may be pointed or contoured or rectangular oriented.
The trowels are basically employed for smoothing or slicking the surfaces of molds. They
may also be used to cut in-gates and repair the mold surfaces.

Fig.9 trowels

Slicks: They are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which are
generally used for repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after withdrawal
of the pattern. The commonly used slicks are of the types of heart and leaf, square and heart,
spoon and bead and heart and spoon. The nomenclatures of the slicks are largely due to their
shapes.

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 Fig.10 slicks

Swab: It is a small fibre brush. It is used for moistening the edges of the pattern before
removing it from the mold. Otherwise, the pattern would carry some of the molding sand with
it, thus requiring major repair of the cavity.

Fig.11 swab

Bellows: Is used for blowing out dust sand particles from the mold.

Fig.12 Bellow

2.2.2. Flasks

Moulding Boxes which may be made of wood, cast-iron or steel and consist of two or more parts.
The lower part is called the drag; the upper part is the cope.
All the parts are individually equipped with suitable means for clamping arrangements during
pouring. Wooden Boxes are generally used in green-sand molding. Dry sand moulds always require
metallic boxes because they are heated for drying. Large and heavy boxes are made from cast iron or
steel and carry handles and grips as they are manipulated by cranes or hoists, etc.

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 Fig.13 molding box

2.2.3 Crucible
Crucibles are made from graphite or steel shell lined with suitable refractory material like fire clay.
They are commonly named as metal melting pots. The raw material or charge is broken into small
pieces and placed in them. They are then placed in pit furnaces which are coke-fired. In oil- fired
tilting furnaces, they form an integral part of the furnace itself and the charge is put into them while
they are in position. After melting of metals in crucibles, they are taken out and received in crucible
handle. Pouring of molten is generally done directly by them instead of transferring the molten metal
to ladles. But in the case of an oil fired furnace, the molten metal is first received in a ladle and then
poured into the molds.
2.2.4 Ladle
It is similar in shape to the crucible which is also made from graphite or steel shell lined with suitable
refractory material like fire clay. It is commonly used to receive molten metal from the melting
furnace and pour the same into the mold cavity. Its size is designated by its capacity.

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2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of casting process

2.3.1 Advantages:
 Versatility in production: casting is one the most versatile form of manufacturing processes,
for producing components, because there is no limit to the size and shape of the component
that can be produced by casting. In addition to this a wide range of metals and alloys with
different compositions and properties can be cast easily.

 Low cost: It is found to be the cheapest method of metal forming.

 Complexity: most complex shaped products which cannot be easily produced by other means
can be produced by casting.

 Rate of production: It gives a faster rate of production. Thus the total time per unit
production is minimized.

 Production of proto-type: By casting process, it is possible to produce proto-type products

as desired.

 Surface finish: The surface finish can be controlled depending on the metal to be cast. Hence
in most of the cases, the process of casting reduces or eliminates subsequent machining
operations.

2.3.2 Disadvantages:
Casting defects: Castings are susceptible to various defects such as blow holes, shrinkage, hard
spots, run out, cracks, shift, etc.

Economy: It is not economical when the parts to be made are very small in quantity.

2.4 Safety Precautions while working in casting shop

Similar to other manufacturing processes, the following safety precautions need to be taken in the
casting shop.
 One should use mask to avoid excessive inhalation of the dust, which may cause serious
problem to health.
 Always wear protective clothes to keep safe from the heat radiating from the melting process.
 All foundry men should wear protective clothes, glasses, shoes, and gloves while handling
molten metal for casting process.
 One should be alert as severe burn injury can result from spillage of the molten metal.

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  Always use proper ventilation to protect from molten metal fumes and gases that evolve from
the mould during pouring.
 One should not touch hot moulds and castings.
 Always use earplugs to safeguard against the heavy noise.
 One should always keep clean the work area.
2.4. Pattern making

Before any product is produced through casting process, a model, which is an exact facsimile of the
product to be produced, known as ‘‘pattern’’ is prepared.

A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted). It is embedded in molding sand and
suitable ramming of molding sand around the pattern is made. The pattern is then withdrawn for
generating cavity (known as mold) in molding sand.
A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting. It may also possess projections
known as core prints for producing extra recess in the mould for placement of core to produce
hol1owness in casting. It may help in establishing seat for placement of core at locating points on the
mould in form of extra recess. It establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mold. It may
help to position a core in case a part of mold cavity is made with cores, before the molding sand is
rammed. It should have finished and smooth surfaces for reducing casting defects.
Much preparation is necessary before the patternmaker can actually start producing the pattern. The
preparatory work includes decisions about:
 The type and form of material to be used
 The type of pattern to suit the method of moulding to be adopted
 The provision of core boxes
 Constructional details, including the provision of loose pieces, core prints, etc,
 Considerations are regards the value of allowances to be used, etc
The patternmaker has a very important role to play in casting production. It is he who is responsible
for details of form and construction. He must be able to interpret the engineering drawings prepared
by the designer, visualize the object in three dimensions, draw the layout of the item, and finally
produce a pattern complete with gating, risers, and other auxiliary items of tooling.
2.4.1 Pattern materials

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The selection of pattern materials depends on factors such as:
 Service requirements, e.g. quantity, quality and intricacy of castings, minimum thickness
desired, degree of accuracy and finish required;
 Possibility of design changes;
 Type of production of castings, and type of moulding method and equipment to be used; and
 Possibility of repeat orders.
To be suitable for use, pattern material should be:
Easily worked, shaped, and joined;
Light in weight for facility in handling and working;
Strong, hard, and durable (i.e. of high strength-to-weight ratio);
Resistant to wear and abrasion, to corrosion, and to chemical action;
Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variation in temperature and humidity;
Available at low cost;
Having ability to take a good surface finish.
The common materials used for making patterns are wood, metal, plastic, plaster and wax.
Some important pattern materials are discussed as under.
1. Wood
Wood is the most popular and commonly used material for pattern making. It is cheap, easily
available in abundance, repairable and easily fabricated in various forms using resin and glues. It is
very light and can produce highly smooth surface. Wood can preserve its surface by application of a
shellac coating for longer life of the pattern. But, in spite of its above qualities, it is susceptible to
shrinkage and warpage and its life is short because of the reasons that it is highly affected by
moisture of the molding sand. After some use it warps and wears out quickly as it is having less
resistance to sand abrasion. It can not withstand rough handily and is weak in comparison to metal. In
the light of above qualities, wooden patterns are preferred only when the numbers of castings to be
produced are less. The main varieties of woods used in pattern-making are shisham, kail, deodar, teak
and mahogany.
Mahogany
This is a hard and strong wood. Patterns made of this wood are more durable than those of above
mentioned woods and they are less likely to warp. It has got a uniform straight grain structure and it

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can be easily fabricated in various shapes. It is generally not preferred for high accuracy for making
complicated pattern. It is also preferred for production of small size castings in small quantities.
2. Metal

Metallic patterns are preferred when the number of castings required is large enough to justify their
use and repetitive production of casting is required in large quantities. These patterns are not much
affected by moisture as wooden pattern. The wear and tear of this pattern is very less and hence
posses longer life. Moreover, metal is easier to shape the pattern with good precision, surface finish
and intricacy in shapes. It can withstand against corrosion and handling for longer period. It
possesses excellent strength to weight ratio. The main disadvantages of metallic patterns are higher
cost, higher weight and tendency of rusting.
It is preferred for production of castings in large quantities with same pattern. The metals commonly
used for pattern making are cast iron, brass and bronzes and aluminium alloys.
Cast Iron
It is cheaper, stronger, tough, and durable and can produce a smooth surface finish. It also possesses
good resistance to sand abrasion. The drawbacks of cast iron patterns are that they are hard, heavy,
and brittle and get rusted easily in presence of moisture.
3. Plastic
Plastics are getting more popularity now a day because the patterns made of these materials are
lighter, stronger, moisture and wear resistant, non sticky to molding sand, durable and they are not
affected by the moisture of the molding sand. Moreover they impart very smooth surface finish on
the pattern surface. These materials are somewhat fragile, less resistant to sudden loading and their
section may need metal reinforcement. The plastics used for this purpose are thermosetting resins.
Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used. These are originally in liquid form and get solidified
when heated to a specified temperature.
4. Plaster
This material belongs to gypsum family which can be easily cast and worked with wooden tools and
preferable for producing highly intricate casting. The main advantages of plaster are that it has high
compressive strength and is of high expansion setting type which compensate for the shrinkage
allowance of the casting metal. Plaster of paris pattern can be prepared either by directly pouring the
slurry of plaster and water in moulds prepared earlier from a master pattern or by sweeping it into
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desired shape or form by the sweep and strickle method. It is also preferred for production of small
size intricate castings and making core boxes.
5. Wax
Patterns made from wax are excellent for investment casting process. The materials used are blends
of several types of waxes, and other additives which act as polymerizing agents, stabilizers, etc. The
commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees-wax, cerasin wax, and micro-crystalline
wax. The properties desired in a good wax pattern include low ash content up to 0.05 per cent,
resistant to the primary coat material used for investment, high tensile strength and hardness, and
substantial weld strength. The general practice of making wax pattern is to inject liquid or semi-
liquid wax into a split die. Solid injection is also used to avoid shrinkage and for better strength.
Waxes use helps in imparting a high degree of surface finish and dimensional accuracy castings. Wax
patterns are prepared by pouring heated wax into split moulds or a pair of dies. The dies after having
been cooled down are parted off. Now the wax pattern is taken out and used for molding. Such
patterns need not to be drawn out solid from the mould. After the mould is ready, the wax is poured
out by heating the mould and keeping it upside down. Such patterns are generally used in the process
of investment casting where accuracy is linked with intricacy of the cast object.

2.4.2 Types of Patterns

There are various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job, the number of castings
required and the moulding procedure adopted.

1. One piece or solid pattern

2. Two piece or split pattern
3. Cope and drag pattern
4. Three-piece or multi-piece pattern
5. Loose piece pattern
6. Match plate pattern
7. Follow board pattern

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 8. Gated pattern
9. Sweep pattern
10. Skeleton pattern
1. Single-piece or solid pattern
These are inexpensive and the simplest type of pattern. As the name indicates, they are made of a
single piece. This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very simple and does not
create any withdrawal problems. It is also used for applications in very small scale production or in
prototype development. This pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag. One of the surfaces is
expected to be flat which is used as the parting plane.

Fig. 14 single piece pattern

2. Split pattern or two piece pattern
This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings. When the contour of the casting
makes its withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth of the castings is too high, then the
pattern is split into two parts so that one part is the drag and the other in the cope. The split surface of
the pattern is same as the parting plane of the mould. The two halves of the pattern should be aligned
properly by making use of the dowel pins which are fitted to the cope half. These dowel pins match
with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern and thus align the two halves properly
seen in the fig below.

Fig.16 split pattern

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3. Cope and drag pattern
These are similar to split patterns. In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of the
pattern along with the gating and risering systems are attached separately to the metal or wooden
plates along with the alignment pins. The cope and drag mould may be produced using these patterns
separately by two molders but they can be assembled to form a complete mould. These types of
pattern are used for castings which are heavy and inconvenient for handling as also for continuous
production.

Fig. 17 Cope and drag pattern

4. Three-piece or multi-piece pattern

Some patterns are of complicated kind in shape and hence can not be made in one or two pieces
because of difficulty in withdrawing the pattern. Therefore these patterns are made in either three
pieces or in multi-pieces. Multi molding flasks are needed to make mold from these patterns.
5. Match plate pattern
Here the cope and drag patterns along with the gating and the risering are mounted on a single
matching metal or wooden plate on either side. On one side of the match plate the cope flask is
prepared and on the other, the drag flask. After moulding when the match plate is removed, a
complete mould with gating is obtained by joining the cope and the drag together.

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The complete pattern with match plate is entirely made of metal, usually aluminium for its light
weight and machinability. But when dimensions are critical, the match plate may be made of steel
with necessary case hardening of the critical wear points. E.g. bushing in large amount
These are generally used for small castings with higher dimensional accuracy and large production.

Fig.18 match plate pattern

6. Follow board pattern.
This type of pattern is adopted for those castings where there are some portions which are structurally
weak and if not supported properly are likely to break under the force of ramming. Hence the bottom
board is modified as a follow board to closely fit the contour of the weak pattern and thus support it
during the ramming of the drag. During the preparation of the cope, no follow board is necessary
because the sand which is compacted in the drag will support the fragile pattern.

Fig. 19 follow board pattern

7. Gated pattern
In the mass production of casings, multi cavity moulds are used. Such moulds are formed by joining
a number of patterns and gates and providing a common runner for the molten metal, as shown in
Fig. These patterns are made of metals and metallic pieces to form gates and runners are attached to
the pattern.

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 Fig.19 Gated pattern
8. Loose piece pattern
This type of pattern is also used when the contour of the part is such that withdrawing the pattern
from the mould is not possible. Hence during moulding the obstructing part of the contour is held as a
loose piece by a wire. After moulding is over, first the main pattern is removed and then the loose
pieces are recovered through the gap generated by the main pattern. Moulding with loose pieces is a
highly skilled job and is generally expensive and therefore, should be avoided where possible.

Fig. 20 loose piece pattern

9. Sweep pattern
Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular moulds of symmetric kind by revolving a sweep
attached to a spindle as shown in Fig. Actually a sweep is a template of wood or metal and is attached
to the spindle at one edge and the other edge has a contour depending upon the desired shape of the
mould. The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in the center of the mould.

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 Fig. 21 sweep pattern

10. Skeleton pattern

When only a small number of large and heavy castings are to be made, it is not economical to make a
solid pattern. In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be used. This is a ribbed construction of
wood which forms an outline of the pattern to be made. This frame work is filled with loam sand and
rammed. The surplus sand is removed by strickle board. For round shapes, the pattern is made in two
halves which are joined with glue or by means of screws etc.

Fig. 22 skeleton pattern

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2.4.3 Pattern allowances:
‘‘pattern allowances’’ is a vital feature in pattern design as it affects the dimensional characteristics
of the casting. Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes
specified in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be
produced. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid
rejections.
The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are now detailed.
2.4.3.1 Shrinkage Allowance
In practice it is found that all common cast metals shrink a significant amount when they are cooled
from the molten state. The total contraction in volume is divided into the following parts:
 Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period in which the temperature of the
liquid metal or alloy falls from the pouring temperature to the liquidus temperature.
 Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus temperature, i.e. solidifying
contraction.
 Contraction that results there after until the temperature reaches the room temperature.
This is known as solid contraction.
The first two of the above are taken care of by proper gating and risering. Only the last one, i.e. the
solid contraction is taken care by the pattern makers by giving a positive shrinkage allowance. This
contraction allowance is different for different metals. This contraction allowance is different for
different metals. The contraction allowances for different metals and alloys such as Cast Iron 10
mm/mt., Brass 16 mm/mt., Aluminium Alloys., 15 mm/mt., Steel 21 mm/mt, Lead 24 mm/mt.
2.4.3.2 Machining Allowance
It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the amount of material that is lost in machining or
finishing the casting. If this allowance is not given, the casting will become undersize after
machining. The amount of this allowance depends on the size of casting, methods of machining and
the degree of finish. In general, however, the value varies from 3 mm. to 18 mm.
2.4.3.3 Draft or Taper Allowance
By draft is meant the taper provided by the patternmaker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that
it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the mould and without excessive
rapping by moulder. Draft is thus given to provide light clearance for the pattern as it is lifted up.

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 Fig.23 Draft allowance

The amount of draft depends on

 The length of the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted;
 The intricacy of the pattern
 The method of moulding; and
 Pattern material
In case of hand moulding on exterior surfaces, the draft is about 10-20mm per metre, and on interior
surfaces, e.g. holes, etc., it should be 40-60mm per metre.
2.4.3.4 Rapping and shake allowance
Before withdrawing the pattern it is rapped and thereby the size of the mould cavity increases.
Actually by rapping, the external sections move outwards increasing the size and internal sections
move inwards decreasing the size. This movement may be insignificant in the case of small and
medium size castings, but it is significant in the case of large castings. This allowance is kept
negative and hence the pattern is made slightly smaller in dimensions 0.5-1.0 mm.
2.4.3.5 Distortion allowance
Sometimes castings get distorted during cooling due to their typical shape. For example, if the casting
has the form of latter V and U, it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the vertical legs to
look slightly inclined and out of parallel. This can be prevented by making the legs of the pattern
converge slightly (inwards) so that the casting after distortion will have its side parallel. This
allowance is considered only the casting that tends to get distorted and have an irregular shape.
2.4.4 Color codification for patterns and core prints.

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There is no set or accepted standard for representing of various surfaces of pattern and core boxes by
different colors. The practice of representing of various pattern surfaces by different colors varies
with from country to country and sometimes with different manufactures within the country. Out of
the various color codifications, the American practice is the most popular. In this practice, the color
identification is as follows.
 Surfaces to be left unfinished after casting are to be painted as black.
 Surface to be machined are painted as red.
 Core prints are painted as yellow.
 Seats for loose pieces are painted as red stripes on yellow background.
 Stop-offs is painted as black stripes on yellow base.
2.5 Moulding and core making
Sand is the principal moulding material in the foundry shop where it is used for all types of castings,
irrespective of whether the cast metal is ferrous or non-ferrous, iron or steel. This is because it
possesses the properties vital for foundry purposes. The most important characteristic of sand is its
refractory nature due to which it can easily withstand the high temperature of molten metal and does
not get fused.
The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granulular elements
of rocks, and deserts. Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic. Natural
molding sands contain sufficient binder. Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially
using basic sand molding constituents (silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture
content 3-6%) and other additives in proper proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling in
suitable equipments.

2.5.1 Properties of moulding sand

The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are described as under
Refractoriness: Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high
temperatures without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly
important characteristic of molding sands. Molding sand with poor refractoriness may burn on to the
casting surface and no smooth casting surface can be obtained. The degree of refractoriness depends
on the SiO2 i.e. quartz content, and the shape and grain size of the particle. The higher the SiO2
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content and the rougher the grain volumetric composition the higher is the refractoriness of the
molding sand and core sand.
Permeability: It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any
air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into it. All
these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification process must escape otherwise the casting
becomes defective. Permeability is a function of grain size, grain shape, and moisture and clay
contents in the molding sand. The extent of ramming of the sand directly affects the permeability of
the mould. Permeability of mold can be further increased by venting using vent rods
Cohesiveness: It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and
attract each other within the molding sand. Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand gets
enhanced to increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding and core sand.

Green strength: The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength
and toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains must be
adhesive, i.e. they must be capable of attaching themselves to another body and. Sand grains having
high adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the molding box. Also, the sand grains must have the
property known as cohesiveness i.e. ability of the sand grains to stick to one another. By virtue of this
property, the pattern can be taken out from the mould without breaking the mould and also the
erosion of mould wall surfaces does not occur during the flow of molten metal. The green strength
also depends upon the grain shape and size, amount and type of clay and the moisture content.
Dry strength: As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand layer
adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient strength to its
shape in order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the flow of molten metal. The dry strength also
prevents the enlargement of mould cavity cause by the metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal.
Flow ability or plasticity: It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It
will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure
evenly all around in all directions. Generally sand particles resist moving around corners or
projections. In general, flow ability increases with decrease in green strength, and, decrease in grain
size. The flow ability also varies with moisture and clay content.

23
Adhesiveness: It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign material such
sticking of molding sand with inner wall of molding box
Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must be
collapsible so that free contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or
cracking of the contracting metal. In absence of this property the contraction of the metal is hindered
by the mold and thus results in tears and cracks in the casting. This property is highly desired in cores
Miscellaneous properties: In addition to above requirements, the molding sand should not stick to
the casting and should not chemically react with the metal. Molding sand should be cheap and easily
available. It should be reusable for economic reasons. Its coefficients of expansion should be
sufficiently low.
2.5.2 Constituents of molding sand
The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder, moisture content and additives.
2.5.2.1 Silica sand
Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent of molding sand having enough
refractoriness which can impart strength, stability and permeability to molding and core sand.
But along with silica small amounts of iron oxide, alumina, lime stone, magnesia, soda and potash
are present as impurities. The chemical composition of silica sand gives an idea of the impurities like
lime, magnesia, alkalis etc. present. The presence of excessive amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides
and lime can lower the fusion point to a considerable extent which is undesirable. The silica sand can
be specified according to the size (small, medium and large silica sand grain) and the shape (angular,
sub-angular and rounded).
Effect of grain shape and size of silica sand: The shape and size of sand grains has a significant
effect on the different properties of molding and core sands. The shape of the sand grains in the mold
or core sand determines the possibility of its application in various types of foundry practice. The
shape of foundry sand grains varies from round to angular. Some sands consist almost entirely of
grains of one shape, whereas others have a mixture of various shapes. According to shape, foundry
sands are classified as rounded, sub-angular, angular and compound. Use of angular grains (obtained
during crushing of rocks hard sand stones) is avoided as these grains have a large surface area.
Molding sands composed of angular grains will need higher amount of binder and moisture content
for the greater specific surface area of sand grain. However, a higher percentage of binder is required
to bring in the desired strength in the molding sand and core sand. For good molding purposes, a
24
smooth surfaced sand grains are preferred. The smooth surfaced grain has a higher sinter point, and
the smooth surface secures a mixture of greater permeability and plasticity while requiring a higher
percentage of blind material. Rounded shape silica sand grain sands are best suited for making
permeable molding sand. These grains contribute to higher bond strength in comparison to angular
grain. However, rounded silica sand grains sands have higher thermal expandability than angular
silica grain sands.
Silica sand with rounded silica sand grains gives much better compact ability under the same
conditions than the sands with angular silica grains. This is connected with the fact that the silica
sand with rounded grains having the greatest degree of close packing of particles while sand with
angular grains the worst. The green strength increases as the grains become more rounded. On the
other hand, the grade of compact ability of silica sands with rounded sand grains is higher, and other,
the contact surfaces between the individual grains are greater on rounded grains than on angular
grains. As already mentioned above, the compact ability increases with rounded grains. The
permeability or porosity property of molding sand and core sand therefore, should increase with
rounded grains and decrease with angular grains. Thus the round silica sand grain size greatly
influences the properties of molding sand.
The characteristics of sub-angular sand grains lie in between the characteristics of sand grains of
angular and rounded kind. Compound grains are cemented together such that they fail to get
separated when screened through a sieve. They may consist of round, sub-angular, or angular sub-
angular sand grains. Compound grains require higher amounts of binder and moisture content also.
These grains are least desirable in sand mixtures because they have a tendency to disintegrate at high
temperatures. Moreover the compound grains are cemented together and they fail to separate when
screened.
Grain sizes and their distribution in molding sand influence greatly the properties of the sand. The
size and shape of the silica sand grains have a large bearing upon its strength and other general
characteristics. The sand with wide range of particle size has higher compact ability than sand with
narrow distribution. The broadening of the size distribution may be done either to the fine or the
coarse side of the distribution or in both directions simultaneously, and a sand of higher density will
result. Broadening to the coarse side has a greater effect on density than broadening the distribution
to the fine sand. Wide size distributions favour green strength, while narrow grain distributions

25
reduce it. The grain size distribution has a significant effect on permeability. Silica sand containing
finer and a wide range of particle sizes will have low permeability as compared to those containing
grains of average fineness but of the same size i.e. narrow distribution. The compactability is
expressed by the green density obtained by three ram strokes. Finer the sand, the lower is the
compact ability and vice versa. This results from the fact that the specific surface increases as the
grain size decreases. As a result, the number of points of contact per unit of volume increases and this
in turn raises the resistance to compacting. The green strength has a certain tendency, admittedly not
very pronounced, towards a maximum with a grain size which corresponds approximately to the
medium grain size. As the silica sand grains become finer, the film of bentonite becomes thinner,
although the percentage of bentonite remains the same. Due to reducing the thickness of binder film,
the green strength is reduced. With very coarse grains, however, the number of grains and, therefore,
the number of points of contact per unit of volume decreases so sharply that the green strength is
again reduced. The sands with grains equal but coarser in size have greater void space and have,
therefore greater permeability than the finer silica sands. This is more pronounced if sand grains are
equal in size.
2.5.2.2 Binder
In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. The inorganic group includes
clay sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be
Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and Bentonite. Binders included in the
organic group are dextrin, molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde,
urea formaldehyde etc. Organic binders are mostly used for core making. Among all the above
binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most common. However, this clay alone can not develop
bonds among sand grins without the presence of moisture in molding sand and core sand.
2.5.2.3 Moisture
The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies generally between 2 to 8 percent.
This amount is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand for developing bonds. This is the amount
of water required to fill the pores between the particles of clay without separating them. This amount
of water is held rigidly by the clay and is mainly responsible for developing the strength in the sand.
The effect of clay and water decreases permeability with increasing clay and moisture content. The
green compressive strength first increases with the increase in clay content, but after a certain value,

26
it starts decreasing. For increasing the molding sand characteristics some other additional materials
besides basic constituents are added which are known as additives.
2.5.2.4 Additives
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to develop some
special property in the sand. Some common used additives for enhancing the properties of molding
and core sands are discussed as under.
 Coal dust: Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing atmosphere during casting.
This reducing atmosphere results in any oxygen in the poles becoming chemically bound so
that it cannot oxidize the metal. It is usually added in the molding sands for making molds for
production of grey iron and malleable cast iron castings.
 Corn flour: It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is used to increase the
collapsibility of the molding and core sand. It is completely volatilized by heat in the mould,
thereby leaving space between the sand grains. This allows free movement of sand grains,
which finally gives rise to mould wall movement and decreases the mold expansion and
hence defects in castings. Corn sand if added to molding sand and core sand improves
significantly strength of the mold and core.
 Dextrin: Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that behaves also in a manner
similar to that of the corn flour. It increases dry strength of the molds.
 Sea coal: Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place among the
pores of the silica sand grains in molding sand and core sand. When heated, it changes to coke
which fills the pores and is unaffected by water: Because to this, the sand grains become
restricted and cannot move into a dense packing pattern. Thus, sea coal reduces the mould
wall movement and the permeability in mold and core sand and hence makes the mold and
core surface clean and smooth.
 Pitch: It is distilled form of soft coal. It can be added from 0.02 % to 2% in mold and core
sand. It enhances hot strengths, surface finish on mold surfaces and behaves exactly in a
manner similar to that of sea coal.
 Wood flour: This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its relatively
long thin fibers prevent the sand grains from making contact with one another. It can be added
from 0.05 % to 2% in mold and core sand. It volatilizes when heated, thus allowing the sand

27
 grains room to expand. It will increase mould wall movement and decrease expansion defects.
It also increases collapsibility of both of mold and core.
 Silica flour: It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3% which
increases the hot strength and finish on the surfaces of the molds and cores. It also reduces
metal penetration in the walls of the molds and cores.
2.5.3 Types of sands used in molds
Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties which are
described below.
Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared mixture of silica sand
with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay and water furnish the
bond for green sand. It is fine, soft, light, and porous. Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand
and it retains the shape and the impression to give to it under pressure. Molds prepared by this sand
are not requiring backing and hence are known as green sand molds. This sand is easily available and
it possesses low cost. It is commonly employed for production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings.
Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores is called
dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. It is mainly suitable for larger
castings. Mold prepared in this sand are known as dry sand molds.
Loam sand
Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses high clay
as much as 30-50% and 18% water. Patterns are not used for loam molding and shape is given to
mold by sweeps. This is particularly employed for loam molding used for large grey iron castings.
Facing sand
Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly next to the surface of the
pattern and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould is poured. Initial coating around the
pattern and hence for mold surface is given by this sand. This sand is subjected severest conditions
and must possess, therefore, high strength refractoriness. It is made of silica sand and clay, without
the use of used sand. Different forms of carbon are used to prevent the metal burning into the sand. A
facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may consist of 25% fresh and specially prepared and

28
5% sea coal. They are sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as much fine molding sand to make facings.
The layer of facing sand in a mold usually ranges from 22-28 mm. From 10 to 15% of the whole
amount of molding sand is the facing sand.
Backing sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the whole volume of
the molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for this purpose. The backing sand is
sometimes called black sand because that old, repeatedly used molding sand is black in color due to
addition of coal dust and burning on coming in contact with the molten metal.
System sand
In mechanized foundries where machine molding is employed. So-called system sand is used to fill
the whole molding flask. In mechanical sand preparation and handling units, no facing sand is used.
The used sand is cleaned and re-activated by the addition of water and special additives. This is
known as system sand. Since the whole mold is made of this system sand, the properties such as
strength, permeability and refractoriness of the molding sand must be higher than those of backing
sand.
Parting sand
Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick to the pattern and
also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without clinging. This is
clean clay-free silica sand which serves the same purpose as parting dust.
Core sand
Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This is highly rich
silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral
oil and other bind materials. Pitch or flours and water may also be used in large cores for the sake of
economy.
2.5.4 Refractory sands
There are many types of molding sands. Among these:
 Silica sand
 Zircon
 Olivine
 Graphite/carbon

29
  Magnesite
 Dolomite
 Sillimanite; etc
Silica sands are considered to be the best molding materials for the following facts
 They maintain their shape and other characteristics even at very high temperatures while they
are in contact with molten metals
 Even when packed as the mold cavity, they remain sufficiently porous or permeable to give
vent to the mold gases.
 They can be molded into intricate shapes
 They are chemically immune to molten metals
 They can be used repeatedly for making molds
 They are inexpensive
 They can be made available without much difficulty
However silica sands have the disadvantage of high thermal expansion or volume increase at 1063oF,
Zircon is zirconium silicate (ZrSiO4). It is highly refractory and possesses excellent foundry
characteristics. Its primary advantages are a very low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity
and bulk density (which gives it a chilling rate about four times that of quartz), and very low
reactivity with molten metal. Zircon requires less binder than other sands because its grains are
rounded. The very high dimensional and thermal stabilities exhibited by zircon are the reasons it is
widely used in steel foundries and investment foundries making high-temperature alloy components.
2.5.4.1Molding sands sources
 River beds
 Sea
 Lakes
 Desert
Types:
 Natural sands
 Synthetic sands
 Loam sands
2.5.4.2 Natural sands

30
Natural sand can be used for making molds as soon as it is received from its source. It contains
binding materials (5-20% clay) and needs only water (5-8%) to mix before making the mold. It also
can maintain moisture content for a long time.
Besides natural sands possess a wide working range for moisture and permit easy patching and
finishing of molds. In addition they involve lesser cost and need lesser control as compared to
synthetic sand. Molds made from natural sands can be repaired easily in the case of damage.
However, natural sands may contain considerable organic matter and become less refractory as
compared to synthetic sands.
Natural sands are employed for casting cast iron and non-ferrous metals.
2.5.4.3 Synthetic sands
Synthetic sands are formulated sands. This is done in order to acquire certain desired properties not
possessed by natural sands.
It consists of;
 Natural sand (base) with or without clay
 Binder (say bentonite)
 Moisture
Synthetic sands are used for casting steel and other ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
2.5.4.4 Loam sand
Loam sand contains much more clay as compared to ordinary molding sand. The clay content is of
the order, of 50 % or so. The ingredients of loam sand may be fine sands. Finely ground
refractoriness, clays, graphite, and fibrous reinforcements.
A typical loam sand mixture contains silica sand 20 volumes, clay 5 volumes, manure 1 volume, and
moisture 20%.
Molds for casting large bells etc. are made up of brick frame work and lined with loam sand and
dried. Sweep or skeleton patterns may be used for loam molding.
2.5.5 Refractory Sand Grains
Sands used for molding purposes can be classified according to their grain size and grain shape. The
grain shape and size of molding sand determine its specific surface which may be defined as the total
surface area of grains contained in unit mass. Specific surface gives a rough idea about the amount of
binder needed to coat the grains of molding sand.

31
2.5.5.1 Grain Size
The grain size and its distribution influence many sand properties like permeability, flow ability,
refractoriness, surface fineness and strength etc.
The finer the sand grain, the finer is the molding sand as a whole. Fine grained sands give surface
fineness but possess low permeability. Coarse and uniformly graded sands impart high permeability,
high flow ability and maximum refractoriness.
For the same clay content in clay bonded sands, green strength is higher in case of fine sands as
compared to coarse sands.
Fine-grained sands are used for producing ornamental castings, intricate and small sized castings
whereas coarser-grained sands are preferred for producing large castings as they easily permit the
escape of mold gases.
2.5.5.2 Grain shape
Grain shape influences molding sand properties such as flow ability and strength.
Foundry sand grains can be categorized into the following four shapes
 Rounded sand grains
 Sub-angular sand grains
 Angular sand grains
 Compound sand grains
Round sand grains:
Grains which get rubbed against each other by the action of wind, waves or flowing water, acquire
rounded shapes. In some circumstances rounded grains are superior to angular grains as they import
high permeability. In other cases, as compared to angular grains, round grains do not give a better
bond after ramming as they make minimum contact with each other.
Round grain molding sands possess lower strength as compared to stands with angular grains but
possess greater flow ability.
Sub-angular grains:
As compared to round grains sands, sub-angular grains sands possess:
 Better strength, and
 Lower permeability

32
Sub-angular sand grains are formed because of the movement and moderate rubbing of angular
grains with each other. This breaks sharp edges of grains and they acquire a sub-angular shape.
Angular grains:
Angular grains result when the sand is formed owing to the decomposition of rocks without
movement. Also, the formation of angular sand grains is closely associated with frost and glacial
action.
Angular sand grains give steeper bulk density gradients and represent a lower standard of flow ability
in molding.
2.5.6 Sand testing
Molding sand and core sand depend upon shape, size composition and distribution of sand grains,
amount of clay, moisture and additives. The increase in demand for good surface finish and higher
accuracy in castings necessitates certainty in the quality of mold and core sands.
Sand testing often allows the use of less expensive local sands. It also ensures reliable sand mixing
and enables a utilization of the inherent properties of molding sand. Sand testing on delivery will
immediately detect any variation from the standard quality, and adjustment of the sand mixture to
specific requirements so that the casting defects can be minimized. It allows the choice of sand
mixtures to give a desired surface finish. Thus sand testing is one of the dominating factors in
foundry and pays for itself by obtaining lower per unit cost and increased production resulting from
sound castings. Generally the following tests are performed to judge the molding and casting
characteristics of foundry sands:
2.5.6.1 Moisture Content Test
The moisture content of the molding sand mixture may determined by drying a weighed amount of
20 to 50 grams of molding sand to a constant temperature up to 100°C in a oven for about one hour.
It is then cooled to a room temperature and then reweighing the molding sand. The moisture content
in molding sand is thus evaporated. The loss in weight of molding sand due to loss of moisture, gives
the amount of moisture which can be expressed as a percentage of the original sand sample.
2.5.6.2 Clay content test
The clay content of moulding sand is determined by dissolving or washing it off the sand. To
determine the clay percentage a 50g sample is dried at 105 to 110oc, and the dried samples is taken in

33
a one litre glass flask and added with 475ml of distilled water and 25ml of a one percent solution of
caustic soda( NaOH 25 g per litre). This sample is thoroughly stirred.
After the stirring, for a period of five minutes the sample is diluted with fresh water up to a 150mm
graduation mark and the sample is left undisturbed for 10 minutes to settle. The sand settles at the
bottom and the clay particles washed from the sand would be floating in the water. 125mm of this
water is siphoned off the flask and it is again topped to the same level and allowed to settle for five
minute. The above operation is repeated till the water above the sand becomes clear, which is an
indication the clay in the moulding sand has been removed. Now, the sand is removed from the flask
and dried by heating. The difference in weight of the dried sand and 50g when multiplied by two
gives the clay percentage in the moulding sand.
2.5.6.3 Grain Fineness Test
For carry out grain fineness test a sample of dry silica sand weighing 50 gms free from clay is placed
on a top most sieve bearing U.S. series equivalent number 6. A set of eleven sieves having U.S.
Bureau of standard meshes 6, 12, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 100, 140, 200 and 270 are mounted on a
mechanical shaker. The series are placed in order of fineness from top to bottom. The free silica sand
sample is shaked in a mechanical shaker for about 15 minutes. After this weight of sand retained in
each sieve is obtained sand and the retained sand in each sieve is multiplied by 2 which gives % of
weight retained by each sieve. The same is further multiplied by a multiplying factor and total
product is obtained. It is then divided by total % sand retained by different sieves which will give
G.F.N.
2.5.6.4 Strength Test
Green strength and dry strength is the holding power of the various bonding materials. Generally
green compression strength test is performed on the specimen of green sand (wet condition). The
sample specimen may of green sand or dry sand which is placed in lugs and compressive force is
applied slowly by hand wheel until the specimen breaks. The reading of the needle of high pressure
and low pressure manometer indicates the compressive strength of the specimen in kgf/cm2. The most
commonly test performed is compression test which is carried out in a compression sand testing
machine.

34
Fig. 24 strength test machine
2.5.6.5 Permeability Test
Permeability and strength are two of the most essential properties of sand, and their values should
therefore be as high as possible. Although the permeability and strength of sand depend primarily o
the size and shape of the sand grains and the clay content, the required values would not be realised
unless the correct quantity of water were mixed with the sand and the sand itself were rammed to a
particular degree of hardness.
For absolute determination, permeability is tested with an apparatus known as the ‘‘permeability
remains meter’’. This has arrangement for allowing a controlled amount of air to pass through a sand
sample.
Permeability is expressed in terms of the permeability number, which is defined as the volume of air
in c.c. that will pass per minute through a sand sample of 1 sq cm in cross section and 1 cm high, at a
pressure of 1 gm per cm2 .thus

Where, P = permeability
v = volume of air passing through the specimen in c.c.
h = height of specimen in cm
p = pressure of air in gm/cm2
35
a = cross-sectional area of the specimen in cm2
t = time in minutes.
2.5.6.6. Shatter test
This is also a measure of sand toughness, particularly the capacity of sand to withstand rough
handling and strain during pattern withdrawal. It is specified by a shatter index number.
The apparatus for the shatter index test has provision for a standard specimen to fall through a given
height onto a steel anvil. The broken pieces are put on a 12mm mesh sieve. The ratio of the weight
retained on the sieve to the total weight, percentage wise, gives the shatter index; both extra low and
extra high values of shatter index are deleterious to the mould.
2.5.7 Steps involved in making a sand mold
1. Initially a suitable size of molding box for creating suitable wall thickness is selected for a
two piece pattern. Sufficient care should also be taken in such that sense that the molding box
must adjust mold cavity, riser and the gating system (sprue, runner and gates etc.).
2. Next, place the drag portion of the pattern with the parting surface down on the bottom (ram-
up) board as shown in Fig. 25(a).
3. The facing sand is then sprinkled carefully all around the pattern so that the pattern does not
stick with molding sand during withdrawn of the pattern.
4. The drag is then filled with loose prepared molding sand and ramming of the molding sand is
done uniformly in the molding box around the pattern. Fill the molding sand once again and
then perform ramming. Repeat the process three four times,
5. The excess amount of sand is then removed using strike off bar to bring molding sand at the
same level of the molding flask height to completes the drag.
6. The drag is then rolled over and the parting sand is sprinkled over on the top of the drag [Fig.
25(b)].
7. Now the cope pattern is placed on the drag pattern and alignment is done using dowel pins.
8. Then cope (flask) is placed over the rammed drag and the parting sand is sprinkled all around
the cope pattern.
9. Sprue and riser pins are placed in vertically position at suitable locations using support of
molding sand. It will help to form suitable sized cavities for pouring molten metal etc. [Fig.
25 (c)].

36
10. The gaggers in the cope are set at suitable locations if necessary. They should not be located
too close to the pattern or mold cavity otherwise they may chill the casting and fill the cope
with molding sand and ram uniformly.
11. Strike off the excess sand from the top of the cope.
12. Remove sprue and riser pins and create vent holes in the cope with a vent wire. The basic
purpose of vent creating vent holes in cope is to permit the escape of gases generated during
pouring and solidification of the casting.
13. Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the cope surface and roll over the cope on the bottom
board.
14. Rap and remove both the cope and drag patterns and repair the mold suitably if needed and
dressing is applied
15. The gate is then cut connecting the lower base of sprue basin with runner and then the mold
cavity.
16. Apply mold coating with a swab and bake the mold in case of a dry sand mold.
17. Set the cores in the mold, if needed and close the mold by inverting cope over drag.
18. The cope is then clamped with drag and the mold is ready for pouring,[Fig. 25 (d)].

37
Fig. 25 mold making
2.6 Core making
Cores are the materials used for making cavities and hollow projections which cannot normally be
produced by the pattern alone. Any complicated contour or cavity can be made by means of cores so
that really intricate shapes can be easily obtained. These are generally made of sand and are even
used in permanent moulds. In general, cores are surrounded on all sides by the molten metal and are
therefore subjected to much more several thermal and mechanical conditions and as a result, the core
sand should be of higher strength than the moulding sand.
The normal characteristics desired of a core are:
 Green strength: A core made of green sand should be strong enough to retain the shape till it
goes for baking
 Dry strength: It should have adequate dry strength so that when the core is placed in the
mould, it should be able to resist the metal pressure acting on it.
 Refractoriness: since in most cases, the core is surrounded all around it is desirable that the
core material should have higher refractoriness.
 Permeability: some of the gases evolving from the molten metal and generated from the
mould may have to go through the core to escape out of the mould. Hence cores are required
to have higher permeability.
 Collapsibility: As the casting cools, it shrinks, and unless the core has good collapsibility
(Ability to decrease in size). It is likely to provide resistance against shrinkage and thus can
cause hot tears.
 Friability: After the casting is completely cooled, the core should be removed from the casting
before it is processed further. Hence the friability (the ability to crumble) should also be a
very important consideration.
 Smoothness: the surface of the core should be smooth so as to provide a good finish to the
casting.
 Low gas emission: Because of the high temperatures to which a core is subjected to, it should
allow only a minimal amount of gases to be evolved such that voids in the castings can be
eliminated.
2.6.1 Core sands

38
The core sand should contain the sand grains, binders and other additives to provide specific
properties.
Sand: The silica sand which is completely devoid of clay is generally used for making core sands
Course silica, because of its higher refractoriness is used in steel foundries whereas the finer sands
are used for cast irons and non-ferrous alloys.
Binders: as explained earlier, core sands need to be stronger than the moulding sand and therefore
the clay binder used in moulding sands is not enough but some what better binders need to be used.
The normal binders are organic in nature, because these would be burnt away by the heat of molten
metal and thus make the core collapsible during the cooling of the casting. The amount of binder
required depends to a great extent on the fineness of the sand grains. Also, the amount of clay left in
the sand increases the consumption of the binder.
The binders generally used are, linseed oil, core oil, resins, dextrin, molasses, etc. core oils are
mixtures of linseed, soy, fish and petroleum oils and coal tar.
The general composition of a core sand mixture could be core oil (1%) and water (2.5 to 6%)
The actual composition to be used depends on the size and shape of the core and the alloy being cast.
2.6.2 Types of cores
The cores are essentially of two types, based on the type of sand used.
Green sand: cores are those which are obtained by the pattern itself during moulding. Though this is
the most economical way of preparing core, the green sand being low in strength cannot be used for
fairly deep holes. Also, a large amount of draft is to be provided so that the pattern can be withdrawn.
This is used only for those types of cavities which permit the withdrawal of the pattern.
Dry sand: cores are those which are made by means of special core sands in a separate core box,
baked and then placed in the mould before pouring.
Any kind of hollowness in form of holes and recesses in castings is obtained by the use of cores.
Cores are made by means of core boxes comprising of either single or in two parts. Core boxes are
generally made of wood or metal and are of several types. For example split core box,

39
 Fig. 26 split core box
2.6.3 Core prints
When a hole blind or through is needed in the casting, a core is placed in the mould cavity to produce
the same. The core has to be properly located or positioned in the mould cavity on pre-formed
recesses or impressions in the sand. To form these recesses or impressions for generating seat for
placement of core, extra projections are added on the pattern surface at proper places. These extra
projections on the pattern (used for producing recesses in the mould for placement of cores at that
location) are known as core prints. Core prints may be of horizontal, vertical, balanced, wing and
core types. Horizontal core print produces seats for horizontal core in the mould. Vertical core print
produces seats to support a vertical core in the mould. Balanced core print produces a single seat on
one side of the mould and the core remains partly in this formed seat and partly in the mould cavity,
the two portions balancing each other. The hanging portion of the core may be supported on chaplets.
Wing core print is used to form a seat for a wing core. Cover core print forms seat to support a cover
core.
2.6.4 Chaplets
Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either to prevent shifting of mould or locate
core surfaces. The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent metal of which the casting
is. These are placed in mould cavity suitably which positions core and to give extra support to core

40
and mould surfaces. Its main objective is to impart good alignment of mould and core surfaces and to
achieve directional solidification. When the molten metal is poured in the mould cavity, the chaplet
melts and fuses itself along with molten metal during solidification and thus forms a part of the cast
material. Various types of chaplets are shown in Fig. 27.

Fig.27 types of chaplets

2.7 Melting
Before pouring into the mold, the metal to be casted has to be in the molten or liquid state.
Furnace is used for carrying out not only the basic ore refining process but mainly utilized to melt the
metal also. A blast furnace performs basic melting (of iron ore) operation to get pig iron, cupola
furnace is used for getting cast iron and an electric arc furnace is used for re-melting steel. Different
furnaces are employed for melting and re-melting ferrous and nonferrous materials. The following
are the factors which are responsible for the selection of furnace.
 Considerations of initial cost and cost of its operation.
 Relative average cost of repair and maintenance.
 Availability and relative cost of various fuels in the particular locality.
 Melting efficiency, in particular speed of melting.
 Composition and melting temperature of the metal.
 Degree of quality control required in respect of metal purification of refining,
 Cleanliness and noise level in operation.

41
  Personnel choice or sales influence.
Heat in a melting furnace is created by combustion of fuel, electric arc, electric resistance, etc. A
furnace contains a high temperature zone or region surrounded by a refractory wall structure which
withstands high temperatures and being insulating minimizes heat losses to the surroundings. For
refining and melting the ferrous and non ferrous materials, various furnaces are used.
Various types of furnaces are in use in foundry shops for melting ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
alloys.
1. Crucible furnace ( for ferrous and non-ferrous castings)
a. Coke-fired crucible furnace
b. Oil- fired crucible furnace
2. Cupola furnace (for manufacture of cast iron from pig iron)
3. Electric furnaces (for steel castings)
a. Direct arc furnace
b. Indirect arc furnace
c. Electric induction furnace

2.7.1 Crucible furnaces

These are very convenient for small foundries. Crucible furnaces are used for melting relatively small
amount of ‘‘pig iron’’ to produce cast iron castings or for melting ‘‘non-ferrous metals’’. Various
fuels such as coke, oil, gas, etc, can be used to heat the crucible.
The crucible furnace utilises a pot-like structure made of graphite and clay, called ‘‘crucible.’’
Crucibles are available in various sizes and shapes.
The furnace is erected at the floor level. The crucible is placed at the heating chamber. The heating
chamber is lined with refractory fire bricks, to withstand high temperature. Coke is used as the fuel.
A blower is used for the supply of air to the heating chamber.
As soon as the crucible is white hot, the metal charge is fed into the crucible. The melting hole is
filled with coke. The metal is melted. During melting, a small amount of manganese is added to the
contents of the crucible so as to get rid of formation of blow holes due to the gases in the molten
metal.

42
 Fig.28 pouring practices

2.7.2 Cupola furnace

A cupola furnace is most commonly employed for melting and refining pig iron along with scrap in
the production of iron castings. This furnace has many distinct advantages over other types, e.g.
simplicity of operation, continuity of production, economy of working and increased output coupled
with a relatively high degree of efficiency.
The cupola furnace is made up of a vertical steel shell, 6-12mm thick, lined with refractory material
down the whole length. The lining is generally thicker in the lower region, i.e. beneath the charging
door, where the temperatures encountered are higher than in the upper region. A constant volume of
air for combustion is obtained from a motorised blower of the positive displacement type. The air is
carried from a motorised blower of the positive displacement type. The air is carried from the blower
through a pipe called the windpipe, first to circular jacket around the shell and then into the furnace
through a number of openings called ‘‘tuyeres’’. These tuyeres are generally 4,6, or 8 in number,
depending on the size of the cupola. The combined area of air inlets or tuyeres should be about one-
fourth of the cupola plan area. The height of the tuyeres from the bed of the cupola is about 450-
500mm. opposite each tuyeres, a small window with mica covers makes the inspection of fire
conditions possible. At the bottom of the bed a spout, called the tapping spout, is provided for the
molten metal. Opposite this tap hole, and some what above it, is another hole, called the slag hole,
which enables the slag to be taken out.

43
The base of the cupola is made by thoroughly ramming moulding sand. It is prepared on drop-bottom
plates, which are hinged on two sides and supported by a vertical rod called the prop. When the
melting work is over, the furnace is empties of the remaining contents by removing the prop; this
causes the bottom plates to open out.
The entire furnace is supported by four cast iron pillars on the floor. Since the charging door is at a
higher level from the floor, a charging platform is provided at a suitable height. At the top of the
furnace a conical cap called the spark arrester, prevents hot sparks from emerging into vicinity. The
spark arrester cools down the spark and allows only smoke to escape from the opening.

44
Fig. 29 Cupola furnace

General description:
It is supported at bottom on cast iron legs. The bottom of the shell is usually drop-bottom type, made
by joining two hinged semi-circular doors supported by a prop.

45
Wind box: Air from the blowers enters the wind box through the blast pipe. The wind box supplies
air evenly to the tuyeres.
Tuyeres: are openings on the wall of the shell through which air is supplied the coke bed for
combustion. Usually a single row of tuyeres around the circumference of the wall is placed.
Tap hole: is provided through which molten metal flows to the tapping spout at the front of the
cupola.
Slag hole: is provided at the back of the cupola just a few centimetres below the tuyeres to prevent
the slag running into them and also few centimetres above the metal tap hole.
Charging door and charging floor: the charging floor or platform is constructed at suitable height
from the ground level. It is approachable by ladder. Over this platform, a charging door is provided
through which the metal and coke are fed inside the cupola.
Spark arrestor: At the top of the cupola, a spark arrester is provided. It is conical in shape. It
deflects the dust and spark back to the inside of the cupola. At the same time, the gases escape freely
to the atmosphere.
2.7.3 Operation of cupola

The operation of cupola requires considerable amount of preparation and strict attention followed by
firing, charging and melting

Preparation:

The slag and debris from ‘‘previous’’ melting are cleaned. Broken fire bricks are repaired. Bottom
doors are closed and propped properly so that it may not collapse due to weight of the charge.

A sand bottom is then prepared, slopping towards the tap hole.

Firing:

Oil waste and small wooden pieces are placed on the sand bottom and are fired. Air is supplied into
the furnace through the tuyeres for burning. Coke is charged, and the coke bed is allowed to burn.

Charging:

First, charge of pig iron along with scrap is placed on the burning coke bed. A charge may have
purchased scrap including broken machine parts of cast iron and steel. Later coke, pig iron and flux
(lime stone) may be charged in alternate layers till the cupola is filled to the level of charging door.

46
The ratio of coke to pig iron should be 1:8 or 1:10 by weight. The ratio depends upon the heating
value of the coke. Small changed in alternate layers give good results. Pig iron is mixed with scrap
iron to have proper composition of cast iron to be produced. The flux aids forming slag to remove
impurities like ash, dirt, sand, etc. from the molten metal. Fluorspar may also be added to increase the
fluidity of the slag. Two to four percent of the weight of the iron charge is in most cases a sufficient
amount of flux. An excess of fluxing material is likely to damage the cupola lining.

Melting:

After the charging is over, a blast of air is introduced through the wind box and tuyeres. Coke burns
producing heat of combustion. Within minutes, molten metal will begin to collect at the sand bed.
When enough molten metal is melted, it is collected through the tap hole in ladles, for pouring into
the molds.

The slag that is formed from sand, dirt, iron oxide and coke ash floats on the molten metal. It is
tapped out through the slag hole. At the end of the melt, the cupola is shut-off by stopping the air
blast. The bottom doors are opened by pulling out the prop. The wastes drop down and are cooled by
water.

Cupola Zones:

Various zones of the cupola are illustrated in the figure.

Combustion or oxidizing zone:

It is the zone where combustion takes place. It extends from the top of the tuyeres to a surface
boundary below which all the oxygen of air is consumed by combustion. Chemical reaction that takes
place in the zone is

C (coke) +O2 (from air) = CO2 + Heat. The temperature in this zone is about 1800oC.

Reducing Zone:

It extends from the top of the combustion zone to the top of the initial coke bed. The CO2 produced in
the combustion zone moves up and is reduced to CO. the temperature also drops to 1650oc .

47
CO2 +C = 2 CO – Heat

Melting Zone:

It includes the first layer of pig iron above the initial coke bed. In this zone, the pig iron is melted.
The following reaction takes place.

3Fe + 2 CO = Fe3C + CO2

Preheating zone:

It includes all the layers of cupola charges placed above the melting zone to the top of the last charge.
The layers of charges are heated by the out-going gases. The temperature in the zone may be up to
1050oc.

Stack:

It is the zone beyond the pre-heating zone, through which the hit gases go to the atmosphere.

2.8 Gating and Risering of Casting:

2.8.1 Gating system

The term ‘‘gating’’ or ‘‘gating system’’ refers to all the passage ways through which metal enters a
mould cavity. It thus mainly includes parts such as

 pouring basin
 sprue
 sprue base well
 runner
 runner extension
 Ingate
 Riser

48
Fig. 30 gating system

Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect free casting. This can be achieved by
making provision for certain requirement while designing the gating. These are as follows:
1. The mould should be completely filled in the smallest time possible without having to raise
metal temperature nor use higher metal heads.
2. The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence. A turbulent metal
flow tends to from dross in the mould.
3. Unwanted material such as slag, dross and other mould material should not be allowed to
enter the mould cavity.
4. The metal entry into the mould cavity should properly control in such a way that aspiration of
the atmospheric air is prevented.
5. A proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that the casting is cooled without any
shrinkage cavities or distortions.
6. Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating or mould erosion takes place.

49
7. The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal reaches the mould cavity. The
gating system design should be economical and easy to implement and remove after casting
solidification.
8. The gating system design should be economical and easy to implement to have all these
requirements together is a tall order, still a mould designer should strive to achieve as many of
the above objective as possible. Before going into the mechanics of gating design, let as
describe some of the functions and types of the various gating system elements.
Pouring Basin:
The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity because it may cause mould
erosion. Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin which acts as a reservoir from which it
moves smoothly into the sprue. The pouring basin is also able to stop the slag from entering the
mould cavity by means of a skimmer or skim core as shown Fig.31.a. it holds back the slag and
dirt which floats on the top and only allows the clean metal underneath it into the sprue. The
pouring basin may be cut into the cope portion directly or a separate dry sand pouring basin may
be prepared and used as show in fig. 31 (b). The molten metal in the pouring basin should be full
during the pouring operation. Otherwise, a funnel is likely to form through which atmospheric air
and slag may enter the mould cavity.

Fig. 31 pouring basin

50
Sprue:
Sprue is the channel through which the molten metal is brought into the parting plane where it enters
the runners and gates to ultimately reach the mould cavity. The molten metal when moving from top
of the cope to the parting plan gains in velocity and as a consequence requires a smaller area of cross
section for the same amount of metal to flow at the top. If the sprue were to be straight cylindrical as
shown in Fig. 32 then the metal flow would not be full at the bottom, but some low pressure area
would be created around the metal in the sprue. Since the sand mould is permeable, atmospheric air
would be breathed into this low pressure area which would then be carried to the mould cavity. To
eliminate this problem of air aspiration the sprue is tapered to gradually reduce the cross-section as in
moves away from the top of the cope as shown in Fig. 32

Fig. 32 straight and tapered spure

Sprue Base Well:

This is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the sprue to reduce the momentum of the molten metal.
The molten metal as it moves down the sprue gains in velocity, some of which is lost in the sprue
base well by which the mould erosion is reduced. This molten metal then changes direction and flows
into the runners in a more uniform way.
Runner:
It is generally located in the horizontal plane (parting plane) which connects the sprue to its in gates,
thus letting the metal enter the mould cavity. The runners are normally made trapezoidal in cross
section. It is a general practice for ferrous metals to cut the runners in the cope and the ingates in the
drag.

51
Runner Extension:
The runner is extended a little further after it encounters the ingate. This extension is provided to trap
the slag in the molten metal. The molten initially comes along with the slag floating at the top of the
ladle and this flow straight, going beyond the ingate and then trapped in the runner extension
Gates
Also called the ingates, these are the opening through which the molten metal enters the mould
cavity. The shape and the cross-section of the ingate should be such that it can readily be broken off
after casting solidification and also allow the metal to enter quietly into the mould cavity.
Depending on the application, various types of gates are used in the casting design. They are:
Top gate: This is the type of gating through which is the molten metal enters the mould cavity from
the top as shown in Fig 33. Since the first metal entering the gate reaches the bottom and hotter metal
is at the top. A favourable temperature gradient towards the gate is filled very quickly. But as the
metal falls directly into the mould cavity through a height, it is likely to cause mould erosion. Also
because it causes turbulence in the mould cavity, it is prone to form dross and as such top gate is not
advisable for those materials which are likely to form excessive dross.

Fig. 33 Top Gate

It is suitable only for simple casting shape which is essentially shallow in nature. To reduce the
mould erosion pencil gates are provided in the pouring cup. This type of gate requires minimum of
additional runners to lead the liquid metal into the cavity, and as such provides higher casting yield.

Bottom gate: The gates which enter into the mould cavity near the bottom of the drag are called
bottom drag. It is particularly used for to avoid or reduce erosion and gas entrapment and to prevent
splashing, as shown in Fig. 34
52
 Fig. 34. Bottom Gate
Horn gate: A horn gate, as shown in Fig..35 is a type of bottom gate. There is one disadvantage in its
use that it has a tendency of producing a fountain effect in the casting. However, it is a means of
bottom gating without the necessity of a core for the gate.

Fig. 35 Horn Gate

Branch gate: A branch gate, as shown in Fig.36. Is designed either to feed a single casting at several
points or a number of individual casting.

Fig. 36 Branch Gate

2.8.2 Gating Ratio:
Gating ratio is used to describe the relative cross-sectional areas of the components of a gating
system. It is defined as the ratio of sprue area to the total runner area to total gate area. A gating

53
system having a spure of 1 sq cm cross-section, a runner of 3 sq cm cross-section, and three gates,
each of 1 sq cm cross-sections, will have a gating ratio of 1:3:3.
2.8.3 Risering of castings
A riser is a hole cut or moulded in the cope to permit the molten metal to rise above the highest point
in the casting. The riser serves a number of useful purposes.
It enables the pourer to see the metal as it falls into the mould cavity. If the metal does not appear in
the riser, it signifies that either the metal is insufficient to fill the mould cavity or there is some
obstruction to the metal flow between the sprue and riser. The riser facilitates ejection of the steam,
gas, and air from the mould cavity as the mould is filled with the molten metal. Most important, the
riser serves as a feeder to feed the molten metal into the main casting to compensate for its shrinkage.
The use of several risers may be necessary in the case of an intricate or large casting with thin
sections.
Different materials have different shrinkage and hence the risering requirements vary for the
materials. In grey cast iron, because of graphitisation during solidification, there may be an increase
in volume sometimes. This of course, depends on the degree of graphitisation in grey cast iron which
is controlled by the silicon content.
In order to make them effective, the risers should be designed keeping the following in mind.
 The metal in the riser should solidify in the end
 The riser volume should be sufficient for compensating the shrinkage in the casting.
In order to satisfy the above requirements, risers of large diameters are generally used. But it proves
to be a very expensive solution since the solidified metal in the riser is to be cut off from the main
casting and is to be melted for reuse.
In casting, metallic chills are used in order to provide progressive solidification or to avoid the
shrinkage cavities. Chills are essentially, large heat sinks, whenever, it is not possible to provide a
riser for a part of the casting which is heavy, a chill is placed close to it as shown in the fig. 37, so
that more heat is quickly absorbed by the chill from the larger mass making the cooling rate equal to
that of the thin sections. Thus, this does not permit the formation of a shrinkage cavity. But use of a
chill means essentially providing higher cooling rate which is also likely to form a hard spot at the
contact area with the chill and may therefore cause a problem if that area needs further processing by
way of machining.

54
 Fig. 37 chill
2.9. Gating system Design:
The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys the Bernoulli’s theorem
which states that the total energy head remains constant at any section. The same sated in the
equation form ignoring frictional losses is

Where h= potential head, m

P= pressure, pa
V= liquid velocity, m/s
W= specific weight of liquid, N/m3
g= gravitational constant on earth
Though quantitatively Bernoulli’s theorem may not be applied, it helps to understand qualitatively,
the metal flow in the sand mould. As the metal enters the pouring basin, it has the highest potential
energy with no kinetic or pressure energies. But as the metal moves through the gating system, a loss
of energy occurs because of the friction between the molten metal and the mould walls. Also heat is
continuously lost through the mould material through it is not represented in the Bernoulli’s equation.
This lets the casting solidify.
Another law of fluid mechanics, which is useful in understanding the gating system behaviour is the
law of continuity which says that the volume of metal flowing at any section in the mould is constant.
The same in equation form can be

Where Q= rate of flow,m3/s

A= area of cross section, m2
V= velocity of metal flow, m/s
2.9.1 Pouring time:
55
One of the objectives as mentioned earlier, for the gating system design is to fill the mould in the
smallest time. The time for complete filling of a mould termed as pouring time, is a very important
criteria for design. Too long a pouring time requires a higher pouring temperature and too less a
pouring time means turbulent flow in the mould which makes the casting defect prone. There is thus
an optimum pouring time for any given casting.
The pouring time depends on the casting materials, complexity of the casting, section thickness and
casting size. The various relations used are not theoretically obtained but established generally by the
practice at various foundries and by experimenters. The general considerations for choosing pouring
time for grey cast iron may not be much relevant for steels since they lose heat very fast and therefore
the pouring time should be very less. For non-ferrous materials, a longer pouring time would be
beneficial since they lose heat slowly and also tend to form dross if metal is poured too quickly.
Since the thickness of casting is affected to a great extent, by the ratio of surface area to volume of
the casting, it is an important variable in calculating the optimum pouring time in addition to the
mass of the casting itself. Normally while considering the mass of the casting, it may not be
necessary to consider the mass of the gating system because the gating system is completely filled
before metals starts entering the mould cavity. However, if the gating systems are in comparable size
to the actual casting. It may be desirable to include them for the calculation.
The following are some standard methods to calculate the pouring time for different casing materials.
E.g. grey cast iron, mass less than 450kg

Pouring time,

Where =fluidity of iron in inches/40

T= average section thickness, mm
W= mass of the casting, Kg
2.9.2 Choke area
Having calculated the optimum pouring time, it is now required to establish the main control area
which metres the metal flow into the mould cavity so that the mould is completely filled within the
calculated pouring time. This controlling area is called choke area. Normally the choke area
happened to be at the bottom of the sprue and hence the first element to be designed in the gating
system is the sprue size and its proportions. The main advantage in having sprue bottom as the choke
area is that proper flow characteristics are established early in the mould.
56
The choke area can be calculated using Bernoulli’s equation as

Where A= choke area, mm2

W= casting mass, kg
t= pouring time, s
d= mass density of the molten metal, kg/mm2
g= acceleration due to gravity, mm/s2
H= effective metal head (sprue height), mm
C= efficiency factor which is a function of the gating system used.
The effective sprue height H, of a mould depends on the casting dimensions and the type of gating
and the effective sprue heads can be calculated using the following relations
Top gate

Bottom

Parting where h= height of sprue

p= height of mould cavity in cope

c= total height of mould cavity
2.10 Casting
Casting process is one of the earliest metal shaping techniques known to human being. It means
pouring molten metal into a refractory mold cavity and allows it to solidify. The solidified object is
taken out from the mold either by breaking or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called
casting and the technique followed in method is known as casting process. The casting process was
discovered probably around 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. In many parts of world during that period,
copper axes (wood cutting tools) and other flat objects were made in open molds using baked clay.
These molds were essentially made in single piece. The Bronze Age 2000 BC brought forward more
refinement into casting process.
Casting technology was greatly improved by Chinese from around 1500 BC. For this there is
evidence of the casting activity found in China. For making highly intricate jobs, a lot of time in

57
making the perfect mold to the last detail so hardly any finishing work was required on the casting
made from the molds.
Different casting techniques have seen in the world. The greatest tonnage in modern industry is
produced by sand casting, a large quantity of small sized casting, particularly those in aluminium and
magnesium, is cast by means of permanent moulds. These moulds, which are metallic, are ideal when
numerous identical castings are required. Unlike sand moulds which are serviceable only once, as
they have to destroy to extract the casting permanent moulds are used many times without getting
damaged.
2.10.1 PERMANENT MOLD OR GRAVITY DIE CASTING
This process is commonly known as permanent mold casting in U.S.A and gravity die casting in
England. A permanent mold casting makes use of a mold or metallic die which is permanent.
A typical permanent mold is shown in Fig. 38. Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity
only and no external pressure is applied to force the liquid metal into the mold cavity.
However, the liquid metal solidifies under pressure of metal in the risers, etc. The metallic mold can
be reused many times before it is discarded or rebuilt. These molds are made of dense, fine grained,
heat resistant cast iron, steel, bronze, anodized aluminum, graphite or other suitable refractoriness.
The mold is made in two halves in order to facilitate the removal of casting from the mold. It may be
designed with a vertical parting line or with a horizontal parting line as in conventional sand molds.
The mold walls of a permanent mold have thickness from 15 mm to 50 mm. The thicker mold walls
can remove greater amount of heat from the casting. For faster cooling, fins or projections may be
provided on the outside of the permanent mold. This provides the desirable chilling effect. There are
some advantages, disadvantages and application of this process which are given as under.
Advantages
 Fine and dense grained structure is achieved in the casting.
 No blow holes exist in castings produced by this method.
 The process is economical for mass production.
 Because of rapid rate of cooling, the castings possess fine grain structure.
 Close dimensional tolerance or job accuracy is possible to achieve on the cast product.
 Good surface finish and surface details are obtained.
 Casting defects observed in sand castings are eliminated.
 Fast rate of production can be attained.
58
  The process requires less labor.
Disadvantages
The cost of metallic mold is higher than the sand mold. The process is impractical for large
castings.
The surface of casting becomes hard due to chilling effect.
Refractoriness of the high melting point alloys.
Applications
 This method is suitable for small and medium sized casting such as carburettor bodies, oil
pump bodies, connecting rods, pistons etc.
 It is widely suitable for non-ferrous casting.

Fig. 38 a typical permanent mold

2.10.2 PRESSURE DIE CASTING
Unlike permanent mold or gravity die casting, molten metal is forced into metallic mold or die under
pressure in pressure die casting. The pressure is generally created by compressed air or hydraulically
means. The pressure varies from 70 to 5000 kg/cm2 and is maintained while the casting solidifies.
The application of high pressure is associated with the high velocity with which the liquid metal is
injected into the die to provide a unique capacity for the production of intricate components at a
relatively low cost. This process is called simply die casting in USA. The die casting machine should
59
be properly designed to hold and operate a die under pressure smoothly. There are two general types
of molten metal ejection mechanisms adopted in die casting set ups which are:
1. Hot chamber type
 Gooseneck or air injection management
 Submerged plunger management
2. Cold chamber type
Die casting is widely used for mass production and is most suitable for non-ferrous metals and al1oys
of low fusion temperature. The casting process is economic and rapid. The surface achieved in
casting is so smooth that it does not require any finishing operation. The material is dense and
homogeneous and has no possibility of sand inclusions or other cast impurities. Uniform thickness on
castings can also be maintained.
The principal base metals most commonly employed in the casting are zinc, aluminum, and copper,
magnesium, lead and tin.
Applications
 Carburettor bodies
 Hydraulic brake cylinders
 Refrigeration castings
 Washing machine
 Connecting rods and automotive pistons
 Oil pump bodies
 Gears and gear covers
 Aircraft and missile castings, and
 Typewriter segments

60
Fig.39 Air blown or goose neck type die casting setup
2.10.3 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
In centrifugal casting process, molten metal is poured into a revolving mold and allowed to solidify
molten metal by pressure of centrifugal force. It is employed for mass production of circular casting
as the castings produced by this process are free from impurities. Due to centrifugal force, the
castings produced will be of high density type and of good strength. The castings produced promote
directional solidification as the colder metal (less temperature molten metal) is thrown to outside of
casting and molten metal near the axis or rotation. The cylindrical parts and pipes for handling gases
are most adoptable to this process. Centrifugal casting processes are mainly of three types which are
discussed as under.
 True centrifugal casting
 Semi-centrifugal casting and
 Centrifuged casting

True Centrifugal Casting

In true centrifugal casting process, the axis of rotation of mold can be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Usually it is horizontal. The most commonly articles which are produced by this process are cast iron
pipes, liners, bushes and cylinder barrels. This process does not require any core. Also no gates and

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risers are used. Generally pipes are made by the method of the centrifugal casting. Processes are
commonly used in true centrifugal casting. The same are discussed as under:

Fig. 40. True centrifugal casting process.

Semi-Centrifugal Casting
It is similar to true centrifugal casting but only with a difference that a central core is used to form the
inner surface. Semi- centrifugal casting setup is shown in Fig. 41. This casting process is generally
used for articles which are more complicated than those possible in true centrifugal casting, but are
axi-symmetric in nature. A particular shape of the casting is produced by mold and core and not by
centrifugal force. The centrifugal force aids proper feeding and helps in producing the castings free
from porosity. The article produced by this process is shown in Fig. 41. Symmetrical objects namely
wheel having arms like flywheel, gears and back wheels are
Produced by this process. The mould rotates about a vertical axis in a properly balanced state, the
metal is poured into a central sprue from where, it first enters the hub and then is forced outward to
the rim by centrifuging process for stack moulding.

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Fig 41. Semi- centrifugal casting
Centrifuging Casting
Centrifuging casting setup is shown in Fig. 42. This casting process is generally used for producing
non-symmetrical small castings having intricate details. A number of such small jobs are joined
together by means of a common radial runner with a central sprue on a table which is possible in a
vertical direction of mold rotation. The sample article produced by this process is depicted in Fig. 42.

Fig. 42 centrifuging casting setup

2.11. Defects of casting and quality control
The defects in a casting may be due to pattern and moulding box equipment, moulding sand, cores,
gating system or molten metal. Some of the defects and their reason are discussed below:
1. Mould shift: It results in a mismatching of the top and bottom parts of a casting, usually at the
parting line. It occurs due to following reasons:
 Misalignment of pattern parts, due to worn or damaged pattern, and
 Misalignment of moulding box or flask equipment.

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This defect can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment of the pattern, moulding boxes, correct
mounting of pattern on pattern plates.
2. Core shift: It is an abnormal variation of the dimensions which are dependent on core position. It
is caused by
 Misalignment of cores in assembling cored-moulds,
 Undersized or oversized core prints, and
 By using incorrect size of chaplet.
This defect can be eliminated by providing the core at the proper place and must be gripped properly
in the sand.
3. Swell: It is an enlargement of the mould cavity by molten metal pressure resulting in localized or
general enlargement of the casting.
It is due to the following reasons:
 Insufficient ramming of sand,
 Insufficient weighting if the mould during casting, and
 Pouring of molten metal too rapidly or too hard.
The swells are avoided by the proper ramming of sand and uniform flow of molten metal into the
mould.
4. Fins and flash: These are thin projections of metal not intended as a part of casting.
These usually occur at the parting line of the mould or core sections. These are caused by:
 Excessive rapping of the pattern before it is withdrawn from the mould,
 Insufficient weight on the top part of the mould, and
 Loose clamping of the mould.
In order to avoid defect, sufficient weight should be placed on the top part of the mould so that the
two parts fit tightly together.
5. Sand wash: It usually occurs near the ingates as rough lumps on the surface of a casting.
The sand that has been washed away appears on the upper surfaces of the casting as rough holes or
depressions. This is due to the following reasons:
 Soft ramming of sand,
 Weak sand,
 Poor pattern, and

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  Insufficient draft.
This defect is avoided by the proper ramming of sand.
6. Shrinkage: It is crake in the casting or dishing on the surface of a casting which results from
unequal contraction of the metal during solidification. This is due to the following reasons:
 Improper location and size of gates and runner,
 Inadequate risers,
 Lack of directional solidification,
 Incorrect metal composition, and
 Incorrect pouring temperatures.
This defect can be eliminated by the use of feeders and chills at proper locations to promote
directional solidification.
7. Hot tear: It is an internal or external ragged discontinuity in the metal casting resulting from
hindered contraction occurring just after the metal has solidified. This defect is due to the following
reasons:
 Abrupt changes in section, inadequate filleting of inside corners, and improper placement of
chills.
 Poor collapsibility of mould and core material which will place extra stress on certain details.
 Improper pouring temperature.
In order to eliminate this defect, abrupt changes in section should be avoided. The pouring
temperature should be correct and there should be even rate of cooling.
8. Sand blow or blow hole: It is an excessively smooth depression and the outer surface of a casting.
This defect is also called blow hole. This defect is due to the following reasons:
 High moisture content in moulding sand,
 Low permeability of sand,
 Hard ramming of sand,
 Defective gating system, and
 Improper venting of sand.
This defect can be removed by proper venting, completely drying up the mould, selecting proper sand
with required permeability and proper in-gate system for the flow of molten metal.

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9. Core blow: It is an excessively smooth depression on the inner surface of a cored cavity or a gas
pocket immediately above a cored cavity. This defect is caused by using insufficient baked cores.
Thus, cores should be baked sufficiently before using.
10. Honeycombing or slag holes: These are smooth depressions on the upper surface of the casting.
They usually occur near the ingates. This defect is due to imperfect skimming of the metal or due to
poor metal.
This defect can be avoided by preventing the slag from entering along with the molten metal.
11. Scabs: These are patches (i.e., slightly raised areas) of sand on the upper surface of casting. This
defect is due to the following reasons:
 Uneven ramming of sand, and
 Slow or intermittent running of metal.
The proper ramming of sand and uniform flow of the molten metal into the mould can eliminate this
defect. Another method to remove this defect is to mix additives such as wood flour, sea coal or
dextrin into the sand.
12. Cold shuts and misruns: These occur when the mould cavity is not completely filled and an
incomplete casting result. This defect is due to the following reasons:
 Too small gates,
 Too many restrictions in the gating system,
 Pouring head is too low,
 Faulty venting of the moulds, and
 Metal lacking in fluidity.
In order to eliminate these defects, the casting should be designed keeping in mind the fundamental
principles of gating and risering. The thin sections should be preheated and the molten metal should
be poured at the correct temperature.
13. Pour short: It occurs when the mould cavity is not completely filled because of insufficient
metal. It is due to the following reasons:
 Interruptions during pouring operation, and
 Insufficient metal in the ladles being used to pour the metal.
In order to avoid this defect, the ladle should have sufficient molten metal at the correct temperature.

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14. Metal penetration: It occurs when the alloy being cast tends to penetrate into sand grains and
causes a fused aggregate of metal and sand on the surface of the casting. It is due to the following
reasons:
 Soft rammed sand,
 Moulding sand and core sand being too coarse,
 Improper use of mould and core washes will cause penetration, and
 Excessive metal temperature or increased fluidity of metal.
This defect can be eliminated by removing the above mentioned reasons.
15. Run-outs and bust-outs: These permit drainage of the metal from the cavity and result in
incomplete castings. These are due to the following reasons:
 A pattern that is too large for a given flask or pattern placed too close to the flask edge results
in a weak spot and cause run-out,
 The match plate surface that are out of parallel or uneven results in a poorly formed parting
line and cause run-out,
 Inadequate mould weights or clamps will permit the cope to lift which results a run out,
 Improper sealing of mould joints causes run-out,
 Excessive pouring pressures may cause run-out, and
 Misalignment of cope and drag may promote a run-out.
The corrective measures taken in respect of the above reasons will prevent this defect.
16. Rough surface finish: It is merely a lack of sufficient smoothness in the casting. It is due to the
following reasons:
 Soft ramming of sand,
 Coarser sand,
 Hard pouring or too high metal fluidity, and
 Improper use of mould and core washes often promote rough casting surface.
This defect can be avoided by using a proper mould and ramming of sand.
17. Crush: It is an irregularly shaped cavity or projection on the castings caused by the displacement
of the sand at the mould joints or core prints, which usually occurs when the mould is being closed. It
occurs due to the following reasons:
 Badly made mould joints,

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  Excessive pressure on the sand surface, and
 Too large cores or too small core prints.
This defect can be eliminated by taking proper care in placing the cope over the drag. The sand in the
cope should be rammed properly.
18. Warpage: It is unintentional and undesirable deformation that occurs during or after
solidification.
It is due to the following reasons:
 Continuous large flat surface on castings, indicating a poor design, and
 No directional solidification of casting.
This defect can be eliminated by modifying the casting design and proper directional solidification.
2.11.1. Inspection and testing of casting
Two basic objectives of inspection are:
 To reject castings that fail to meet the customer’s requirement, and
 To serve as a means of maintaining the quality of workmanship and materials used in the
foundry. ‘’ Inspection ‘’ broadly covers a large number of methods and techniques used to
check the quality of castings. These methods may be classified into five categories:
1. visual inspection
2. dimensional inspection
3. mechanical testing
4. flaw detection by non-destructive methods; and
5. metallurgical inspection
1. Visual inspection
All castings are subjected to a visual inspection to ensure that the surfaces fulfil the requirement of
both the customer and the producer.
Visual inspection of each casting ensures that none of its features has been omitted or malformed by
molding errors, short running, or mistakes in cleaning. Most surface defects and roughness can be
observed at this stage. Casting imperfections as shrinks, cracks, blows, or dross usually indicates the
need for adjustment in the gating or foundry techniques. If the casting appears to be satisfactory upon
visual inspection, internal quality can be checked by radiographic and ultrasonic inspection.

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2. Dimensional inspection
Dimensional control is usually required for all types of castings. Sometimes it is not so critical but at
other times it may be vital. When the castings are found to be consistently within the tolerances, spot
checks, together with a regular check of the pattern and dies being used, may be sufficient. In the
case of the jobbing type of foundry, each casting produced may be different and therefore, according
to the customer’s requirements, each one may have to be thoroughly inspected for dimensional
variations by rule, vernier callipers, vernier height gauge, vernier depth gauge, micrometers,
combination set, coordinate measuring and marking machine (CMM). etc
3. Mechanical testing
All foundries should have facilities for determining the mechanical properties of cast metal.
Mechanical testing methods includes include certain procedures which require a standard type of
equipment. These are:
 tensile test to determine the tensile strength, yield strength, percentage elongation, and
percentage reduction in areas,
 bend, notch bend, and impact transverse tests to evaluate the ductility and resistance to shock
of the cast metal:
 hardness test, which can indicate the strength and ductility of the metal
 fatigue test, applied in cases where an appraisal of the life in service to be known; and
 test for damping capacity and wear resistance
4. Flow direction by non-destructive methods
Non-destructive tests are also required to be conducted in foundries to examine the castings for any
sub-surface or internal defects, surface defects, which cannot be detected by visual examination and
for overall soundness or pressure tightness which may be required in service.
These tests are valuable not only in detecting but even impair the performance of the machine
member when placed in service. Parts may be examined in service, permitting their replacement
before the actual failure or breakdown occurs:
The important non-destructive tests for castings include:
1. sound or percussion test
2. impact test
3. pressure test

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 4. radiographic examination
5. magnetic particle inspection
6. electrical conductivity test
7. fluorescent dye penetrate inspection
8. ultrasonic test; and
9. eddy current test
5. Metallurgical inspection
Metallurgical inspection is very useful for checking grain size, non-metallic inclusions, sub
microscopic pin holes, the type and distribution of phases present in the cast structure, and the
response to heat treatment. These features can be appraised by certain methods:
1. chill;
2. fracture test
3. macro-etching test;
4. microscopic examination
2.11.2 Quality control in foundries
The main purpose of quality control is ‘’to prevent rather than merely detect’’ defective parts.
Inspection, on the other hand, is generally accepted as just separating the good parts from the bad.
The quality of production cannot be improved simply by inspection. Quality control in its true sense,
deals with the whole system of production and the methods employed to establish and achieve the
desired standards. Quality control should therefore be aimed at the appraisal of the causes of scrap
and re-work, and at the elimination of these causes.
In a total quality control system, the responsibility for quality has to be shared by the entire
organization, not just one or two groups of people or departments. Every one involved with the
product, from the designer to the sales executive, is delegated his task. The designer must design for
simplicity, easy cast ability, and lowest cost. The customer’s requirement must be within the normal
capabilities of the plant. The management must be able to provide satisfactory materials and the tools
required at all stages of production, adequate checks to maintain the required quality. The employees
must endeavour to produce accurately the first time, whether it is pattern, mould, core or casting,
communicate difficulties or problems, make sure they understand what is expected of them, and act

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as a team. Lastly, the sales personnel must not promise deliveries that cannot be met, prices that are
low and therefore unrealistic and quality that cannot be produced.
Quality control using statistical techniques, known as statistical quality control (S.Q.C) and statistical
process control has several applications in the foundry:
1. Sand control: It is essential to limit variations in sands within allowable values. Control chart
techniques can be of great use in regulating various sand and mould characteristics, such as moisture
content, green permeability, green compressive strength, dry permeability and compression, hot
tensile strength, deformation, collapsibility, dry shear (for facing sand). And clay content. Control
may be exercised on shift averages of each of these parameters and individual values on a batch
basis. Statistical control limits can be determined for average and range charts from the date available
from previous experiments.
2. Control of cores: The quality of cores can be controlled with regard to their critical dimensions,
spacing, etc. A dimensional check may be kept be either by using a limit gauge and preparing control
chart based on attributes or by using actual measuring instruments and making control charts based
on variables.
3. Melting control: A number of variables, such as electrode consumption, slag control, carbon and
silicon content in melts, pouring temperature, and weighment of raw materials, can be by using
control charts based on variables.
4. Control of casting defects: by setting a quality level for castings, a number of likely defects can
be controlled and corrective measures taken before actual scrap is produced.
5. Casting weight control: control limits can be established for the minimum and the maximum
allowable casting weight and the variation can be controlled.
6. Control of scrap and Re-work: by studying the process to be adopted, it is possible to determine
the range of scrap that can be reasonably expected. Control limits can then be expressed as
percentage or as a number of items.
2.12 Cast design
A design engineer committing pencil to paper is not only creating a shape but also strongly
influencing the cost required to place that shape into use. In other words, well-designed parts are less
costly to obtain than poorly designed parts and are more likely to be delivered to the customer on
time. Although this is true of every method of manufacture, it is particularly true of shapes to be

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made by the casting process. The casting process has gained the reputation as a technique that can be
used to create almost any shape the designer can envision, but whether or not a shape can be cast
economically is another matter. If the manufacturing process were considered at the design table, an
inherently easier to manufacture design would result. Ease of manufacture translates into castings
that are purchased at a lower cost, are of high quality, and are delivered on time.
The solidification of a casting can involve as many as three separate contractions as a result of
cooling:
 Liquid-liquid contraction
 Liquid-solid contraction
 Solid-solid contraction
Liquid-liquid contraction occurs as a result of the liquid cooling from its pouring temperature
(usually 110 to 165 °C, or 200 to 300 °F, above its melting point) down to the melting point or
solidification temperature. This particular factor is of little consequence to designers and is fairly
easily dealt with by the foundry engineer. However, the design engineer must consider the other two
contractions if cost-effective designs and specifications are to be realized.
Solid-solid contraction occurs after a casting has solidified and as it cools from the solidification
temperature to room temperature. The design engineer must be concerned with this contraction. To
ensure that the dimensions of the casting are correct, the pattern used to produce a given casting
usually must be made slightly larger than the casting dimensions at room temperature. The
patternmaker compensates for this pattern enlargement for a particular alloy by using a shrink rule
specifically for the alloy involved. Further, because the amount of solid contraction is a function of
the particular metal to be cast, problems with dimensions can often occur when changing alloys if the
same pattern equipment is used. Whenever such a change is contemplated, the foundry engineer
should be provided with this information because other factors such as gating and risering could also
be involved. Therefore, the designers specifying the alloys should carefully consider any change in
alloy to ensure that the cost of new equipment does not cancel out the benefits to be achieved by such
changes.
Solid-solid contraction should also be considered in part design, because it is one of the primary
causes of warped and cracked castings. A basic concept that governs the way castings cool is the
casting modulus (the volume of a portion of a casting divided by the surface area of that portion of

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the casting). This relationship of geometry to cooling is easily understood by considering the effects
of both volume and surface area on cooling rates. As volume increases, more hot metal will be
contained within it, and the casting will therefore take longer to cool. Conversely, because all the heat
within a casting must pass through a surface at the metal/mold interface, the greater the surface area,
the faster the casting will cool. Thus, as the volume-to-surface area ratio (casting modulus) increases,
the time required for cooling and solidification is extended.
Liquid-solid contraction is by far the greatest difficulty due to solidification that faces the foundry
engineer. It is also one of the greatest opportunities for the design engineer to design for low cost,
high quality, and timely delivery. Most metals contract as they pass from the liquid to the solid state.
Certain compositions of gray and ductile iron are the exceptions to this rule in the major alloys
produced by foundries. The entire founding process is possible only because volumetric contraction
locates itself in solidifying castings in a systematic way.
Solidification Sequence
The aspect of liquid-solid contraction that allows castings to be produced is that all of the contraction
is concentrated in the last portion(s) of the casting to solidify. The foundry man uses this principle to
produce sound castings by attaching a volume of metal to the last portion of the casting to solidify.
Proper placement of risers on castings changes the way in which both casting and riser(s) solidify
such that the riser is the last to solidify. When used properly, this produces a casting free of shrinkage
because all the shrinkage for the entire mass of both casting and riser will be concentrated in the riser.
However, in many cases, the design of the casting restricts the proper placement of risers, making the
production of sound castings difficult if not impossible. In this way, casting designers have a
significant impact on quality and cost.

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