 FOOD SAFETY

Food Safety refers to handling, preparing and storing food in a way to best reduce
the risk of individuals becoming sick from foodborne illnesses.

Food safety is a global concern that covers a variety of different areas of everyday
life.

The principles of food safety aim to prevent food from becoming contaminated and
causing food poisoning. This is achieved through a variety of different avenues,
some of which are:

 Properly cleaning and sanitizing all surfaces, equipment and utensils.

 Maintaining a high level of personal hygiene, especially hand-washing.
 Storing, chilling and heating food correctly with regards to temperature,
environment and equipment.
 Implementing effective pest control.

In considering industry to market practices, food safety considerations include

the origins of food including the practices relating to food labeling, food hygiene,
food additives and pesticide residues, as well as policies on biotechnology and
food and guidelines for the management of governmental import and export
inspection and certification systems for foods. In considering market to
consumer practices, the usual thought is that food ought to be safe in the market
and the concern is safe delivery and preparation of the food for the consumer.

 IMPORTANCE OF FOOD SAFETY

Food safety is important for the following reasons:-

1. If food or drink is not safe to eat, you cannot eat or drink. The easiest example of
this is safe drinking water. We would never drink water that did not come from a
reputable source. The very same principle applies to food.
2. Every day, people worldwide get sick from the food or drink they consume.
Bacteria, viruses and parasites found in food can cause food poisoning.

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3. There is no immediate way of telling if food is contaminated because you cannot
see, taste or smell anything different from the norm.
4. Food poisoning can lead to gastroenteritis and dehydration or potentially even
more serious health problems such as kidney failure and death.
5. This risk is especially significant for those in the high-risk category: Small children/
babies, pregnant moms, the elderly and immune-compromised, especially HIV
infections and cancer patients.
6. Food hygiene and safety prevent germs from multiplying in foods and reaching
dangerous levels.
7. Ensures daily healthy family living.
8. Keeping one healthy and preventing the additional cost of buying medication and
medical check-ups. This is especially important is business. Companies worldwide
loss Billions of Dollars per year due to staff downtime.
9. Hand washing accounts from 33% of all related food poisoning cases. It is
therefore important to maintain good personal hygiene practice. This is something
we are taught early in our childhood, yet hand washing is still a critical problem in
the kitchen

 SCOPE OF FOOD SAFETY

In addressing food quality and food safety, it is important to keep in mind that the
term “food” covers any unprocessed, semi-processed, or processed item that is
intended to be used as food or drink. This includes any ingredient incorporated into
a food or drink, and any substance that comes into direct contact with a food during
processing, preparation, or treatment. Therefore, food quality and food safety
principles and practices are applied to foods from farm produce and livestock
production; manufactured and processed food products for consumers; and all raw
materials, ingredients, processing aids, food-contact packaging materials, and
food-contact surfaces that are used in the preparation of food and beverage
products.
The scope of food quality and food safety covers foods already in
the marketplace and new or modified foods. When new or modified foods are

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 developed for the marketplace, quality and safety must be considered at the
conception, design, and development stages.

 FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SAFETY

The diseases caused by food, or the foodborne diseases, are described as the
illnesses with which people are infected by the foods they eat. These diseases are
a widespread public health issue and are expensive to treat. Foodborne diseases
result from the consumption of contaminated foods and products. Contamination
of the food at any stage, from production to consumption, produces bacteria,
viruses, parasites, chemical agents and toxins, which eventually cause the
foodborne diseases.

The factors causing the contamination of the food may threaten the safe
consumption of it and thereby make the foods harmful to human health. For this
reason, it is necessary to utilize various resources to prevent the food from being
contaminated in all stages of the food chain, from harvest to consumption.
The factors that affect food safety include:-
1. Time pressure:- Time pressure caused by high volume of business or poor staffing
made it hard to do all seven safe food-handling practices.
2. Equipment and resources:- Equipment and resources were mentioned in
discussion of all practices.

 Easy-access sinks and enough soap and gloves helped hand washing and
glove use.
 Multiple color-coded cutting boards and separate work areas for different
foods helped prevent the spread of germs.
 Multiple thermometers helped with proper holding, reheating, and cooling.
 Well-maintained equipment helped with proper holding, reheating, and
cooling.

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3. Food-safety education and training:- Education and training are important to food
safety. Several workers said it was also important to teach workers why they
should engage in safe food practices.
4. Restaurant procedures:- Restaurant procedures helped food safety. These include
recording when workers wash their hands and take food temperatures.
5. Food hygiene:-The hygienic quality of the foods is negatively influenced by
purchasing low-quality or stale foods, storing food in inappropriate conditions,
cooking large amounts of food, more than is necessary, and letting it sit in
inappropriate environments, storing raw and cooked foods together and preparing,
cooking and storing food using incorrect methods .If foods are contaminated at any
stage, from production to consumption, the hygiene of the food is compromised,
depending on the temperature, humidity and pH values of the environment it is
stored in, and the food then becomes potentially harmful to human health.
Infections caused by microorganisms are largely the result of the poor hygiene of
the person responsible for preparing the food.
6. Personal Hygiene of Food Handlers:- The food processing stage is one of the most
important stages in the food chain, and those responsible for performing the duties
involved in this stage assume major responsibilities in the prevention of food
poisoning cases . The food processing staff should include healthy individuals who
do not have any diseases, and they should undergo regular medical check-ups. In
addition to being healthy, it is also important that the workers take particular care
for their personal hygiene and execute proper food handling behavior. This is
especially important because food handlers can cause cross-contamination
between raw and cooked foods, and they may jeopardize food hygiene by
improper preparation, cooking and storage of foods.
7. Kitchen hygiene:- The plan and interior design of the kitchen should be arranged
in such a way as to facilitate proper hygiene practices (e.g. protection against
cross-contamination) .
o The kitchen should be constructed with durable materials that are easy to
care for and clean.

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 o These materials should be free of any substances that can potentially
render the food unsuitable for consumption, such as parasites, pathogenic
microorganisms and toxins, or raw materials, food components and others
substances used in the production of processed products that have been
infected by foreign substances.
o The surfaces should be designed in such a way as to not accumulate dirt,
to prevent foreign substances from infecting foods and to not allow the
creation of dense liquids or mold.
o Pests should also be prevented from entering the workplace.
o Drainages should be easy to clean and prevent pests such as rodents from
entering and waste liquids from re-entering back into the kitchen
environment.
o There should be warnings written and hung on the walls of the workplace
about the rules the staff should obey and the best hygiene practices to be
performed.
o Ventilation systems should be capable of eliminating smoke, odors, soot
and evaporation, keeping heat inside and preventing dust, dirt and pests
from entering.
8. Equipment hygiene:- Equipment that comes into regular contact with foods should
be made of material able to be cleaned and disinfected, resistant to corrosion and
non-toxic.
 The equipment should be arranged in a way as to enable it and the area
around it to be cleaned sufficiently.
 When it is necessary that chemicals be used to clean the equipment, the
instructions governing the use of those chemicals should be followed.
 Calibration checks of the equipment and tools should be made regularly,
and these checks should be recorded.

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 HAZARDS & RISKS

 Food safety hazards

A food safety hazard refers to any agent with the potential to cause adverse health
consequences for consumers. Food safety hazards occur when food is exposed
to hazardous agents which result in contamination of that food.
 Food safety hazards
A food safety hazard refers to any agent with the potential to cause adverse health
consequences for consumers. Food safety hazards occur when food is exposed
to hazardous agents which result in contamination of that food.

1. BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

Biological hazards are characterized by the contamination of food by

microorganisms. Found in the air, food, water, animals, and in the human body,
these incredibly tiny organisms are not inherently unsafe – many provide
benefits to our anatomy. Despite this, foodborne illness can occur if harmful
microorganisms make their way into the food we eat. There are several types
of microorganisms, each of which can negatively impact health: bacteria,
viruses, and parasites.

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 There are a variety of factors that influence dangerous microorganism growth,
including temperature, pH levels, and moisture of the food. The United states
Department of Agriculture [USDA] has coined a term for the temperature range
that encourages bacterial growth: the Danger Zone. This temperature range,
40° F – 140° F, enables bacteria to grow most rapidly, nearly doubling its
number in 20 minutes. In addition, the pH level of a food, or its acidity, can
accelerate growth. Foods that are less acidic, such as milk, tend to foster
bacteria at higher rates than more acidic foods, like lemon juice. Microbes
prefer warmer, wetter environments, which make moist foods hotbeds for
microorganism growth.

LEVELS OF BIOHAZARD –

 Biohazard Level 1: Bacteria and viruses including Bacillus subtilis, canine

hepatitis, Escherichia coli, and varicella (chicken pox), as well as some cell
cultures and non-infectious bacteria. At this level precaution against the bio-

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 hazardous materials in question are minimal, most likely involving gloves and
some sort of facial protection.
 Biohazard Level 2: Bacteria and viruses that cause only mild disease to
humans, or are difficult to contract via aerosol in a lab setting, such as hepatitis
A, B, and C, some influenza A strains, Lyme disease, salmonella, mumps,
measles, scrapie, dengue fever, and HIV. Routine diagnostic work with clinical
specimens can be done safely at Biosafety Level 2, using Biosafety Level 2
practices and procedures.
 Biohazard Level 3: Bacteria and viruses that can cause severe to fatal disease
in humans, but for which vaccines or other treatments exist, such as anthrax,
West Nile virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, SARS virus, MERS
coronavirus, hantaviruses, tuberculosis, typhus, Rift Valley fever, Rocky
Mountain spotted fever, yellow fever, and malaria.
 Biohazard Level 4: Viruses that cause severe to fatal disease in humans, and
for which vaccines or other treatments are not available, such as Bolivian
hemorrhagic fever, Marburg virus, Ebola virus, Lassa fever virus, Crimean–
Congo hemorrhagic fever, and other hemorrhagic diseases.

Biological Hazard Examples

Biological
Commonly found in
Hazard

Eggs, poultry, meat, unpasteurized milk or juice, cheese, fruits

Salmonella
and vegetables, spices, and nuts

Norovirus Produce, shellfish, ready-to-eat foods

Campylobacter Raw and undercooked poultry, unpasteurized milk,

 Biological Hazard Prevention

The best way to prevent biological hazards from affecting customers is to

implement robust processing and storage strategies. Kill steps used prior to

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 packaging is necessary, such as cooking thoroughly or pasteurization of milk
and juices. Use of packaging technologies during processing like vacuum
sealing hinders bacterial growth. Proper temperature management for storage
can dramatically reduce microbe growth. Finally, effective sanitation practices
throughout the distribution chain will reduce cross-contamination of food
products.

2. CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Chemical hazards are identified by the presence of harmful substances that

can be found in food naturally, or unintentionally added during processing.
Some chemical hazards include naturally occurring chemicals, such as
mycotoxins, intentionally added chemicals, including the preservative sodium
nitrate, and unintentionally added chemicals, like pesticides.

Long-term exposure to chemicals such as silica dust, engine exhausts, tobacco

smoke, and lead (among others) have been shown to increase risk of heart
disease, stroke, and high blood pressure.

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 Some commonly used workplace chemical hazards include:
a) Acids.
b) Caustic substances.
c) Cleaning products such as toilet cleaners, disinfectants, mildew remover
and chlorine bleach.
d) Glues.
e) Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, cadmium, and aluminum.
f) Paint.
g) Pesticides.
h) Petroleum products.

Chemical Hazards Examples

Chemical
Examples
Hazard

Produced by fungi and can be toxic to humans and animals. They

Mycotoxins are formed by moulds which grow on crops and foods under certain
conditions.

Natural Biochemical compounds produced by plants in response to certain

Toxins conditions or stressors.

Decomposition or microscopic marine algae accumulated in fish and

Marine Toxins
shellfish.

 Chemical Hazards Prevention

Similar to preventing biological hazards, proper cleaning procedures and

sanitation requirements are the best methods of prevention. Training
employees to follow strict guidelines is essential in preventing a chemical
hazard. Additionally, limiting the use of chemicals to those Generally

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 Recognized as Safe (GRAS), and ensuring that chemicals are stored in
designated areas separated from food products.

3. PHYSICAL HAZARDS

Physical hazards are foreign objects that are found in food products. They are
either naturally found in the specific item, such as stems in fruit, or not normally
part of the food item, such as hair or plastic. Unnatural physical hazards are
generally more dangerous to health, whereas natural physical hazards can be
harmless.

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 Physical Hazards Examples

Physical
Examples
Hazard

Unnatural Insects, hair, metal fragments, pieces of plastic, wood chips, and glass

Stems in blueberries, microscopic airborne debris, dirt on potatoes, or

Natural
minute insect fragments in figs

 Physical Hazards Prevention

Prevention of physical hazards focus primarily on thorough inspection of food,

and strict adherence to food safety regulations, such as Hazard Analysis
Critical Control Point (HACCP) discussed below. Organizations can also take
proactive steps in eliminating the potential of a physical hazard. Light bulbs, for
instance, can be manufactured using different materials. Acrylic is both lighter
and stronger than glass, and tends to shatter into larger, blunter fragments than
glass.

 MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDS

NEED:

 Lack of the control of hazards can cause contamination resulting in risks to

consumer health or loss of product leading to significant financial loss.

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 Management of hazards are crucial to reducing the risk of food-borne illnesses that
may cause through biological hazards such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and
parasites, or chemical hazards or natural toxins.
 An effective food safety management system that is based on seven principles of
HACCP can help businesses to identify and control hazards before they threaten
the safety of your food and customers.
 Hence, complying food safety guidelines is essential to maintain the quality as well
as the shelf life of the food products.

 TEMPERATURE CONTROL:

What is temperature control?

Temperature control is a set of procedures, strategies, measurements, and

conditions established to meet and maintain the standards and specifications of a
given product and/or process regarding temperature. It is vital for food safety
assurance and is used:

o to process food products.

o to give desired quality characteristics (texture, color, aroma, etc.).
o as a key microbiological control parameter.

APPLICATIONS-

Temperature helps to ensure the safety and wholesomeness of food products

throughout all the stages of the food supply chain. It is a dominant food safety and
quality control parameter across the supply chain. It can be used in the following
stages:

1. Initial supply: harvesting, packing, or holding of raw agricultural commodities.

2. Manufacturing: manufacturing of value-added products from one or more
ingredients, and raw agricultural commodities, e.g., baking, boiling, canning,
cooking, cooling, drying/dehydrating, evaporating, extracting juices, freezing,
extruding, irradiating, packaging, pasteurizing, washing.

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3. Storage and distribution: receiving, holding, picking, loading, and
transportation.
4. Retail: sale of products exhibited on shelves.
5. Customer: e.g., home cooking, freezing, refrigeration of food leftovers.

Spoilage and pathogenic fungi and bacteria are major targets of temperature
control. Depending on their temperature tolerance and ability to survive and thrive,
different microorganisms can be classified as follows:

 Psychrophiles: minimum 14–41°F, optimum 54–65°F, range = 14–65°F

 Psychrotrophs: minimum 32–41°F, optimum 68–86°F, range = 32–86°F
 Mesophiles: minimum 41–50°F, optimum 86–104°F, range = 41–104°F
 Thermophiles: minimum 68–104°F, optimum 131–150°F, range = 68–150°F
 Hyperthermophile: minimum 176°F, optimum 194–212°F, range = 149–248°F

A remarkable example of a low-temperature-tolerant microorganism is the gram-

positive, non-spore-forming pathogenic bacteria known as Listeria
monocytogenes, which maintains the ability to grow even under refrigerated
conditions.

 Different temperatures can be obtained by either adding heat to the

products/processes, or removing heat from them (cooling/freezing):-

 Processing by application of heat, i.e., use of temperatures of 90–120°C (194

to 250°F) may act as a kill factor against microorganisms. Baking, roasting,
HTST sterilization, and extrusion are examples.
 Processing by removal of heat, i.e., use of freezing and refrigeration
temperatures (−20 to 4°C) (−4 to 39°F) may act as a growth inhibition
mechanism (virtually all chemical and biological reactions are stopped in this
temperature range).

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 FOOD STORAGE
Food storage refers to food which is kept it the fridge, freezer, pantry or in some
instances a warming receptacle. There are very specific rules regarding the
temperatures that food must be stored at, cooked to and reheated to and if not
followed, can result in becoming ill and increase the risk of contamination.

Proper food storage helps maintain food quality by retaining flavor, color, texture
and nutrients, while reducing the chance of contracting a food-borne illness. Foods
can be classified into three groups:

i. Perishable foods- Perishable foods are those likely to spoil, decay or

become unsafe to consume if not kept refrigerated at 40 F° (4.4 °C) or below
or frozen at 0 F° (-17.8 °C) or below.
Examples of foods that must be kept refrigerated for safety include meat,
poultry, fish, dairy products, and all cooked leftovers.
ii. Semi–perishable foods- Semi-perishable commodities are those that do
not require refrigeration, but still have a limited shelf life. They include things
like potatoes, onions, pumpkins and salamis.
iii. Non-perishable foods- Non-perishable foods, such as canned goods and
dried fruit, have a long shelf life and don't require refrigeration to keep them
from spoiling. Instead, they can be stored at room temperature, such as in
a pantry or cabinet.

TYPES OF FOOOD STORAGE:

1) Canning- Canning can be a cost-effective way to preserve the quality of food at

home. Commonly canned foods include vegetables, jams and jellies, and baby
purees.

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 The basic steps for proper canning include thoroughly washing the fresh produce
you’ll be using, peeling and hot packing if needed, adding acids like lemon juice or
vinegar if the food isn’t already sufficiently acidic, and using self-sealing containers
with lids. Canning jars are then processed by boiling water (for acidic fruits and
vegetables) or using a pressure canner (for low-acid fruits and vegetables) for the
appropriate amount of time. This helps prevent bacterial growth and kill any
pathogens to ensure safety.

2) Freezing- A great option for preserving most foods. You can freeze soups, baby
purees, oats, and coffee grounds to veggie burger patties, chopped fruit, and
blanched vegetables.
A properly maintained freezer will store food for long periods, after which you can
safely thaw (either in the fridge or by setting in cold water only) and cook it as
desired. Nutritionally, foods that you prepare at home and then freeze are almost
always better for you than frozen meals you’d find at the grocery store.

3) Drying or Dehydration- An excellent preservation method for fruits, vegetables,

and herbs. Drying food tends to increase its flavor, costs very little, and makes
storage easier by reducing its size.
Dehydration removes water from fresh food, which prevents bacterial growth. The
moisture content of home-dried food should be around 20% or less.
4) Fermentation- Fermenting foods is a great way to boost your intake of healthy
probiotics (good bacteria) that are great for your digestive system and immunity.
Fermenting starts with lacto-fermentation, which is a bacterial process that
preserves and boosts nutrients in food. The basic steps include chopping, grating,
or otherwise preparing your raw food, deciding on the culture you’ll use (typically
salt, whey, or a starter culture), preparing and adding brine, and placing everything
in an air-tight container in a cold environment.
5) Pickling- Fermenting foods is a great way to boost your intake of healthy
probiotics (good bacteria) that are great for your digestive system and immunity.
Fermenting starts with lacto-fermentation, which is a bacterial process that
preserves and boosts nutrients in food. The basic steps include chopping, grating,

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 or otherwise preparing your raw food, deciding on the culture you’ll use (typically
salt, whey, or a starter culture), preparing and adding brine, and placing everything
in an air-tight container in a cold environment.

 PRODUCT DESIGN
Product design takes a long time and a great deal of effort. It is important to target
the design programme to minimise time and costs and to plan for it to be
successfully completed within allocated resources. Time is very much of the
essence, the minimum compatible with optimal development.
In the design process, the product and process development are integrated so that
at the end of the design stage there is a product with the optimum qualities, and a
process to produce it.
A great deal of time is lost if a food product is designed under 'kitchen conditions'
and then has to be redesigned as the process is developed.

In food product design:

Important marketing factors are consumer acceptability, competitive positioning,
legal regulations, ethical requirements, environmental mandates and distributor
requirements;
Important technical factors are raw material availability, ease of processing,
cost, attainability and reliability of product quality, shelf life, equipment needs,
human knowledge and skills; and
Important financial factors are costs of manufacturing and distribution, costs of
further development and the investment needed. These are considered at various
parts of the design so that at the end of the product design and process
development they can all be included in the feasibility report for top management.

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 HYGIENE & SANITATION IN FOOD SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS

Introduction: Lack of basic infrastructure, poor knowledge of hygiene and practices

in food service establishments can contribute to outbreaks of foodborne illnesses.
The aims of this study were to investigate the food safety knowledge and practices
of food handlers and to assess the sanitary conditions of food service
establishments.
Sources of contamination:
o Lack of basic infrastructure, lack of knowledge of hygiene, absence of potable
water, lack of proper storage facility and unsuitable environments for food
operations (such as proximity to sewers and garbage dumps) can contribute to
poor microbial quality of foods.
o Inadequate facilities for garbage disposal posed further hazards. In addition
poor sanitary practices in food storage, handling, and preparation can create
an environment in which bacteria and other infectious agents are more easily
transmitted.
o Moreover, inadequate time and temperature control and cross contamination
are responsible for food poisoning outbreaks.
Control: Maintaining a clean work environment is critical in preventing foodborne
illness. Just because a work surface looks clean does not mean that it is sanitary.
Always ensure that you clean and sanitize a work area before starting to prepare
food.

a) Cleaning Procedures and Schedules

Cleaning with soap and other detergents is just one step of the cleaning
procedure. It is also necessary to sanitize. Cleaning will remove any dirt or
grease, but will not necessarily kill any bacteria or other pathogens. Only a
sanitizer will kill bacteria and ensure the area is safe for food preparation.

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 Leading sanitizers used in the food service industry are chlorine solutions
(bleach), quaternary solutions (quats), and iodine.

A sanitation plan is important in any food service preparation area. It ensures

that all surfaces are cleaned on a regular basis and reduces the risks of
transferring bacteria or other pathogens from an unclean surface to clean
equipment such as cutting boards or tools. A sanitation plan has two
components:-

1. A list of cleaning and sanitizing agents or supplies with instructions on

their safe use and storage.

2. A cleaning schedule, outlining how each item needs to be cleaned, who is

responsible, and how frequently it happens.

b) Dishwashing Procedures

Effective dishwashing ensures that all equipment is sanitary and ready for use
when required. Using soiled or dirty china is not only dangerous, but it will tell
customers that the operator as little or no regard for customer safety. All
equipment must be routinely cleaned and inspected.

c) Routine Equipment Maintenance

Most kitchen equipment is intended to be disassembled for cleaning. Refer to

the manufacturer’s instructions and training provided by your employer or
instructor on how to do this safely. Some equipment is intended to be cleaned
in place. This should be identified in your sanitation plan and cleaning schedule.

All equipment must be routinely cleaned and inspected.

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d) Importance of Personal Hygiene

It is imperative for safe food-handling outcomes for all workers to be familiar

with standard sanitation and hygiene practices.

Proper personal hygiene is critical in any food service premise. Personal

hygiene includes:

 Showering and bathing regularly.

 Keeping hair clean hair and covered or tied back.

 Keeping clean clothing and footwear that is used only at work.

 Hand washing regularly.

 Using clean utensils for tasting food.

 Using separate clothes for cleaning and wiping plates.

e) Hand washing

Proper and regular hand washing is a critical part of any food safety system.
You must always wash your hands after:

 Sneezing, coughing, or touching your mouth or nose

 Using the bathroom

 Smoking or using toothpicks

 Handling raw foods

 Cleaning and wiping tables, food preparation surfaces, or equipment

 Handling soiled objects, garbage, or money

The steps for proper hand washing are as follows:

1. Wet hands with warm water.

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 2. Apply liquid soap and lather for at least 20 to 30 seconds.

3. Scrub backs of hands, wrists, all fingers, and under nails.

4. Rinse under running water, pointing down toward the drain.

5. Dry with a paper towel.

6. Turn off taps and open bathroom door using the paper towel.

WASTE DISPOSAL

Removing and destroying or storing damaged, used or other unwanted domestic,

agricultural or industrial products and substances is called as waste
disposal. Disposal includes burning, burial at landfill sites or at sea, and recycling.

There are eight major groups of waste management methods, each of them
divided into numerous categories. Those groups include source reduction and
reuse, animal feeding, recycling, composting, fermentation, landfills, incineration
and land application.

 Food Safety Guidelines for Waste Storage & Disposal

 To keep foods and beverages safe, it is important that you manage your waste
according to regulations set by FSSAI.

 These guidelines ensure that waste does not come in contact with food, either
directly or indirectly, through flies and insects or through more serious
contaminants like effluents.

 Cross contamination from flies and insects that have come in contact with
waste and effluents could carry bacteria to the food from the waste.

 Disposal of Food Waste (in Food Areas)

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  Remove food waste and other waste materials from the areas where the food
is being handled cooked or manufactured in a routine manner.
 Provide refuse or dustbin of adequate size and with a cover in the premises for
collection of waste. A bin should have a mechanism for opening it without
having to touch it.
 Have the dustbin emptied and washed daily with disinfectant and dried before
next use.
 Separate liquid and solid waste at the time of placing them in the bins.
 Locate your garbage cans in such a manner that it does not lead to
contamination of the
i. food process
ii. food storage area
iii. Environment inside and outside your premises.
 Keep all waste in covered containers, get it removed at regular intervals as per
local law.
 Internal garbage bins should be all collected together daily at an assigned
collection point where they can be emptied into a public garbage collection
system.
 Place the bins in a sufficient distance to prevent contamination.
 Dispose food waste in such a way that it does not attract dogs, cats, birds,
rodents and flies. Garbage cans must have covers.
 Follow the rules and regulations including those for plastics and other non-
environment friendly materials.

 Storage of Waste and Inedible Material

o Provide enough storage facility for storing of waste and inedible material prior
to removable from the premises.
o Ensure there is no pest and rodent access to waste of inedible material.
o Ensure that stored and inedible material does not contaminate.

1. potable water

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 2. equipment used for food preparation
3. building / premises.

PEST AND RODENT CONTROL

Pest management is a critical component of food safety programs worldwide.

Production facilities, as well as food retail facilities and restaurants, are all at risk
for attracting such pests as rodents, cockroaches, ants and birds, due in large part
to the very nature of their business. These facilities provide the ideal conditions
many pests need to thrive: food, water and shelter.

Although they can be magnets for pests, food facilities must be vigilant in their fight
against infestation, as rodents and insects can carry harmful bacteria that can
contaminate food and result in widespread illness outbreaks.

 Common Pests in the Food Industry

The types of pests found in food handling, processing or manufacturing

facilities differ on the basis of food, environment and geography. Hence, pest
control in food industry demands proper identification of the species so that the
relevant treatment methods can be employed for effective results. Some of the
most common pests found across the food industry worldwide are:

A. Cockroaches
B. Rodents
C. Flies
D. Birds.
 Why Pest Control Is Crucial for the Food Industry?

When it comes to the food industry, pests pose major threats. Some of these
are listed below:

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  Spreading diseases through a transfer of pathogens
 Property and equipment damage
 Contamination of food products and work stations
 Bad reputation and loss of credit
 Prosecution and closure.

 Control measures for pests and rodents

- Exclusion and sanitation are two of the most basic yet most effective preventive
measures the food industry can take when it comes to keeping their premises
pest-free. This essentially helps prevent infestation and leads to a more safe,
efficient and organized workplace.
- Eliminate incorrect garbage disposal. Follow a specific system to ensure that
the premises of your food facility within and outside remain clean and free from
any type of unnecessary clutter and debris.
- Seal all potential pest entry points such as cracks and crevices in areas around
the pipes, loading docks, foundations etc.
- Perform regular inspections of areas prone to pest infestation.
- Having a rock or gravel perimeter around the facility will discourage the growth
of vegetation which could harbor pests.

PERSONNEL PRACTICES

 Personal hygiene: In order to protect against contamination of products, food

plant employees are required to maintain satisfactory personal grooming and
cleanliness and to practice good personal hygiene habits during all food handling
operations. This includes general cleanliness of clothing and body, including hair
and fingernails. Employees should refrain from placing fingers in mouth, nose or
ears, and from eating, chewing, spitting, and smoking during food handling
operations, and avoid coughing and sneezing over unprotected products, food-
contact surfaces, or food processing equipment.

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 Hand-washing: In order to protect hands from being a source of contamination of
products, food plant employees should wash, sanitize if necessary, and dry their
hands at the designated hand-washing stations when their hands become dirty.
Employees should wash hands before start of work, when re-entering their work
area, after a visit to the toilet, after coughing or sneezing into their hands, or after
handling raw materials, equipment, waste or waste containers, or after any other
situation that will cause the hands to become dirty and be a source of
contamination or cross-contamination.
 Eating, drinking and smoking: Employees should eat, drink, and if permitted,
smoke only in the designated lunchrooms and break-rooms or other authorized
areas.
 Garments and work-wear: Employees should wear the uniforms or outer
garments provided for their work. Uniforms and garments should be clean at the
start of work and should be changed when they become dirty or according to the
required change frequency. If gloves are required to be worn during work, they
should always be clean and sanitary, and should be changed if they become torn.
Hair and beard restraints should be worn to completely cover hair and beard.
 Personal items: Employees should not wear jewelry, hairpins, wrist watches or
other personal items such as false eyelashes, false fingernails and nail polish
during food handling operations. In addition, during work, employees should refrain
from keeping in their possession any personal items which could be a potential
source of contamination.

FOOD SAFETY MEASURES

The five keys to safer food are:
a) Keep clean.
b) Separate raw and cooked.
c) Cook thoroughly.
d) Keep food at safe temperatures; and
e) Use safe water and raw materials.

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 KEEP CLEAN
 Wash your hands before handling food and often during food preparation.
 Wash your hands after going to the toilet.
 Wash and sanitize all surfaces and equipment used for food preparation.
 Protect kitchen areas and food from insects, pests and other animals.

 SEPARATE RAW AND COOKED

 Separate raw meat, poultry and seafood from other foods.
 Use separate equipment & utensils such as knives and cutting boards for handling
raw foods.
 Store food in containers to avoid contact between raw & prepared foods.

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 COOK THOROUGHLY
 Cook food thoroughly especially meat, poultry, eggs & seafood.
 Bring foods like soups and stews to boiling to make sure that they have reached
70˚C.
 Reheat cooked food thoroughly.

 KEEP FOOD AT SAFE TEMPERATURES

 Do not leave cooked food at room temperature for more than 2 hours.
 Refrigerate promptly all cooked & perishable food (preferably below 5˚C.
 Keep cooked food piping hot (more than 60˚C) prior to serving.
 Do not store food too long even in the refrigerator.

 USE SAFE WATER & RAW MATERIALS

 Use safe water or treat it to make it safe.

27
  Select fresh & wholesome fruits.
 Wash fruits and vegetables especially if eaten raw.
 Do not use food beyond its expiry date.
 Choose foods processed for safety such as pasteurized milk.

FOOD SAFETY MANAGEMENT TOOLS

All consumers have the right to expect and demand safe, good quality food.
Successful domestic and international trade in food and a sustainable agriculture-based
development depend on safe food supplies that meet buyers’ quality requirements.
Food businesses meet their food safety and quality responsibilities by implementing
quality assurance systems along the food production chain.
A Food safety management system is a systematic approach to controlling food
safety hazards within a food business in order to ensure that food is safe to eat.
A safety management system for food can ensure regulatory compliance to ISO
standards by actively controlling risks and hazards throughout the food process.
Significant biological, chemical or physical hazards are identified at specific points. Once

28
identified, these hazards can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to safe levels. Record
keeping and documentation will help maintain your plan.

 PRE-REQUISITE PROGRAMS [PRPs]

There are the conditions that must be established throughout the food chain and
the activities and practices that must be performed in order to establish and
maintain a hygienic environment. PRPs must be suitable and be capable of
providing food that is safe for human consumption. PRPs are also referred to as
good hygienic practices, good agricultural practices, good production practices,
good manufacturing practices, good distribution practices and good trading
practices.

Operational pre-requisite programs (OPRPs)

These are pre-requisite programs (PRPs) that are essential. They are essential
because a hazard analysis has shown that they are necessary in order to control
specific food safety hazards. OPRPs are used to reduce the likelihood that
products will be exposed to hazards, that they will be contaminated and that
hazards will proliferate. PRPs are also used to reduce the likelihood that the
processing environment will be exposed to hazards.

 GOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES [GHPs]

GHP compliance covers the minimum sanitary and hygiene practices for food
processors, such as hotels and restaurants, to ensure that food is safe and suitable
for human consumption.
 OBJECTIVES OF GHP:
o To identify essential principles of food hygiene - throughout the food chain;
o Recommend a HACCP-based approach as a means to enhance food safety;
o Indicate how to implement those principles; and
o Provide guidance for specific codes which may be needed for - sectors of the food
chain; processes; or commodities; to amplify the hygiene requirements.
 SCOPE & USE

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o Protect consumers from illness/injury caused by food.
o Polices need to consider the vulnerability of different groups within the population.
o Provide assurance that food is suitable for human consumption.
o Provide health education programs which effectively communicate the principles
of food hygiene to industry and consumer.
 ELEMENTS OF GHP
o Primary production.
o Establishment design facilities.
o Control of operation.
o Establishment personal and hygiene.
o Transportation.
o Product information consumer awareness.
o Training.

 GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES [GMPs]

Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) are the basic operational and
environmental conditions required to produce safe foods. They ensure that
ingredients, products and packaging materials are handled safely and that food
products are processed in a suitable environment.

- A GMP is a system for ensuring that products are consistently produced and
controlled according to quality standards.
- GMP covers all aspects of production from the starting materials, premises and
equipment to the training and personal hygiene of staff.
- GMP contains ten principles:
1. Writing procedures
2. Following written procedures
3. Documenting for traceability
4. Validating works
5. Designing facilities and equipment
6. Maintaining facilities and equipment

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 7. Job competence
8. Cleanliness
9. Component control
10. Auditing for compliance.

 GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES IN FOOD INDUSTRY:

 Environmental control (premises): location, design and construction of the
building and its interior, equipment, water supply.
 Personnel practices: personal hygiene, hand washing, clothing / footwear /
headwear, injuries and wounds, evidence of illness, access and traffic patterns,
chemical use.
 Shipping, receiving, handling, storage: inspection procedures for transport
vehicles; loading, unloading and storage practices; inspection procedures for
incoming products; shipping conditions; returned and defective products; allergen
control; chemical storage; waste management.
 Pest control: monitoring procedures for the exterior and interior of the building
(ex: surveillance, fumigation) and the use of pesticides.
 Sanitation: cleaning and sanitizing procedures and pre-operational assessment
 Equipment maintenance: procedures describing preventive maintenance and
calibration of all the equipment and instruments that can affect food safety (ex:
thermometers, thermocouples, metal detectors, scales, pH meters).
 Recall and traceability: procedures that ensure final products are coded and
labelled properly; incoming materials; in-process and outgoing materials are
traceable; recall system is in place and tested for effectiveness (ex: procedures for
mock recalls)
 Water safety: water safety monitoring procedures for water, ice and steam, and
water treatment procedures that ensure it is potable for use in food processing.

 SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES (SSOPs)

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 A Sanitation Standard Operating Procedure (SSOP) is a written document of
procedures or programs used to maintain equipment and the environment in a
sanitary condition for food processing. It is a step-by-step description of cleaning
and sanitizing procedures and specifies -

o what is to be cleaned
o how it is to be cleaned,
o how often it is to be cleaned, and what records are used to monitor the
procedures.

An SSOP is a fundamental part of a Food Safety Plan. It may be a stand-along

procedure or may be a Prerequisite Program (PRP). It shall be updated whenever
there is a change in processes or chemicals used. It should be reviewed annually
with the Food Safety Plan. An SSOP may written for -

o a piece of equipment,

o several pieces of equipment in a process,

o an environmental area, as a Master Sanitation Plan for the whole facility.

 HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT [HACCP]

HACCP is a system that relies on process controls to minimize food safety risks in
the food processing industry. It is useful to think of HACCP as a preventative food
safety system and not a traditional quality control inspection system. HACCP is an
international food safety system that deals with the control of factors affecting the
ingredients, product and processing of food. It is widely recognized by scientific
authorities and international organizations as the most effective approach
available for producing safe food. The goal of HACCP is to identify biological,
chemical and physical hazards and to include preventive measures throughout the
process which would stop these hazards before they begin. These measures
would, in turn, prevent unsafe food from reaching the consumer. Significant

32
 hazards for a particular food product are identified after a review of all the
processing steps and use of scientific information. Thus, HACCP provides a
structure for assessing risks or what could go wrong and for putting the controls in
place to minimize such risks.

 PRINCIPLES OF HACCP:
 Conduct Hazard Analysis
 Determine the Critical Control Points
 Establish Critical Limits
 Establish Monitoring Systems
 Establish Corrective Actions
 Establish Verification Procedures
 Establish Documentation.

 CONDUCT HAZARD ANALYSIS

- The HACCP team conducts a hazard analysis and lists all the biological,
chemical and physical hazards that may be reasonably expected to occur at
each step from primary production, processing, manufacture and distribution
until the point of consumption.
- When conducting the hazard analysis, consideration must be given to the
impact of raw materials, ingredients, manufacturing practices, role of
manufacturing processes to control hazards, likely end-use of the product,
consumer populations at risk and epidemiological evidence related to food
safety.
- The team must then consider what preventive measures, if any, exist which
can be applied for each hazard. Preventive measures are those action and
activities that are required to eliminate hazards or reduce their impact or
occurrence to acceptable levels.
- More than one preventive measure may be required to control a specific
hazard(s) and more than one hazard may be controlled by a specified
preventive measure.

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 DETERMINE CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS [CCP]
- A critical control point is a point/procedure where a food safety hazard can be
prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels.
- The identification of a CCP in the HACCP system is facilitated by the
application of a decision tree.
- All hazards that may be reasonably expected to occur, at each step, should be
considered.
- If a hazard has been identified at a step where control is necessary for safety
and no preventive measure exists at that step, or any other, then the product
or process should be modified at that step, or at any earlier or later stage, to
include a preventive measure.
- Application of the decision tree determines whether the step is a CCP for the
identified hazard.

 ESTABLISH CRITICAL LIMITS FOR EACH CCP

- Since the critical control points define the boundaries between safe and unsafe
products, it is vital that they are specified at the correct levels and validated at
each criterion.
- The HACCP team should therefore fully understand the criteria governing
safety at each CCP in order to set the appropriate critical limits.
- Critical limits much be specified for each preventive measure. In some cases
more than one critical limit will be elaborated at a particular step.
- Criteria often used include measurements of temperature, time, moisture level,
pH, and available chlorine and sensory parameters such as visual appearance
and texture.

 ESTABLISH MONITORING SYSTEMS

- Monitoring is one of the most important aspects of the HACCP system. It is the
scheduled measurement of a CCP relative to its critical limits.

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- The monitoring procedures must be able to detect loss of control at the CCP
and provide information in time for corrective action to regain control of the
process.
- Data derived from monitoring must be evaluated by a designated person with
knowledge and authority to carry out corrective actions when indicated.
- Most monitoring procedures for CCPs will need to be done rapidly because
they relate to on line processes and there will not be time for lengthy analytical
testing.
- Physical and chemical measurements are often preferred to microbiological
testing because they may be done rapidly and can often indicate the
microbiological control of the product.
- All records and documents associated with monitoring CCPs must be signed
by the person(s) doing the monitoring and by a responsible reviewing official of
the company.

 ESTABLISH CORRECTIVE ACTIONS

- Specific corrective actions must be developed for each CCP in the HACCP
system in order to deal with deviations when they occur.
- The actions must ensure that the CCP has been brought under control. Actions
taken must also include proper disposition of the non-conforming product.
Deviation and product disposition procedures must be documented in the
HACCP record keeping.
- Corrective action should also be taken when monitoring results indicate a trend
towards loss of control at a CCP.
- Action should be taken to bring the process back into control before the
deviation leads to a safety hazard.

 ESTABLISH VERIFICATION PROCEDURES

The HACCP system should include verification procedures to provide
assurance that HACCP system is being complied with on day to day basis.

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 This can be done most effectively by using audit method. Monitoring and
auditing methods, procedures and tests, including random sampling and
analysis, can be used to determine if the HACCP system is working correctly.
The frequency of verification should be sufficient to confirm that the HACCP
system is working effectively. For examples of verification activities include:
Review of the HACCP system and its records,
Review of deviations and product dispositions,
Confirmation if CCPs are under control,
Validation of established critical limits.

 ESTABLISH RECORD KEEPING & DOCUMENTATION

- Efficient and accurate record keeping is essential to the application of a HACCP
system. Records need to be kept of all areas which are critical to product safety
to demonstrate that the HACCP system is in compliance with the documented
system.
- Documentation of HACCP operation at all steps should be included and
assembled in a HACCP plan.
- Records are useful in providing a basis for analysis of trends as well as for
internal investigation of any food safety incidents which may occur.
- It is extremely useful to allocate a unique reference number to each HACCP
record. The types of records that might be retained are as follows:
 HACCP plan,
 Modification to HACCP plan,
 CCP monitoring records,
 Deviations and associated corrective action,
 Training records,
 Audit records,
 HACCP system.

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 GOOD AGRICULTURE PRACTICES [GAPs]
Good agricultural practices are "practices that address environmental, economic and
social sustainability for on-farm processes, and result in safe and quality food and non-
food agricultural products."

BENEFITS OF GAPs
- Food quality and safety improvement,
- Facilitation of market access,
- Reduction in non-compliance risks regarding permitted pesticides, MRLs and other
contamination hazards.

CHALLENGES OF GAPs
- An increase in production costs,
- Record keeping,
- Residue testing and certification, and
- Inadequate access to information and support services.

PRINCIPLES FOR GAPs

 SOIL
The physical and chemical structure, and biological activity of the soil, are
fundamental to sustaining agricultural productivity and determine, in their
complexity, soil fertility. Soil management shall maintain and improve soil fertility
by minimizing losses of soil, nutrients, and agrochemicals through erosion, runoff
and leaching into surface or ground water. Soil management also seeks to
enhance the biological activity of the soil and protect surrounding natural
vegetation and wildlife. Good agricultural practice will:
Establish a detailed knowledge of the nature, properties, distribution, and
potential uses of soils of the farm.
Avoid mechanical soil tillage to the extent possible.
Maintain or improve soil organic matter through the use of soil building crop
rotations.
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 Maintain soil cover to minimize erosion loss by wind and/or water.
Avoid contamination with agrochemicals, organic and inorganic fertilizers
and other contaminants by adapting quantities, application methods and
timing to the agronomic and environmental requirements.
Maintain a history of the annual use, inputs and outputs of each individual
land- management unit.

 WATER
Agricultural land use carries a high responsibility for the management of water
reserves in quantitative and qualitative terms. Careful management of water
resources and efficient use of water within agriculture - for rainfed crop and pasture
production, for irrigation where applicable, and for livestock - are criteria for good
agricultural practice. They include maximizing the infiltration of rain water on
agricultural land and covering the soil as often as possible in order to avoid surface
run-off while minimizing leaching to water tables. Efficient irrigation methods and
technologies minimize losses in the supply and distribution of irrigation water by
adapting the quantity and timing to the agronomic necessities and avoiding
leaching and salinization. Water tables should thus be managed to prevent
excessive rise or fall. Good agricultural practice will:
Maximize water infiltration and minimise unproductive efflux of surface waters
from watersheds.
Manage ground and soil water by proper use or avoidance of drainage where
required and by build-up of soil structure and soil organic matter.
Avoid the contamination of water resources with production inputs, waste or
recycling products of organic, inorganic and synthetic nature caused directly by
inadequate handling practices and technologies and indirectly by erosion and
leaching.
Adopt techniques to monitor crop and soil water status and prevent soil
salinization.
Manage water tables to prevent excessive extraction or accumulation.
Provide adequate, safe, clean watering points for livestock.

38
 Increase soil organic matter levels to maximize moisture retention and root
penetration.

 CROP AND FODDER PRODUCTION

Individual annual and perennial crops, cultivars and varieties are chosen for their
suitability to the site and their role within the crop rotation for the management of
soil fertility, pests and diseases, available inputs, and local consumer and market
needs. Perennial crops are used to provide long-term production options and
opportunities for intercropping. Annual crops are grown in sequence, including
those with pasture, to maximize the biological benefits of interactions between
species and to maintain productivity. Rangelands are managed to maintain plant
cover, productivity and species diversity. Good agricultural practice will:
Select cultivars or varieties on an understanding of their characteristics, including
response to sowing or planting time, productivity, quality, market acceptability,
disease and stress resistance, edaphic and climatic adaptability, and response to
fertilizers and agrochemicals.
Devise crop sequences to optimize use of labour and equipment and maximize the
biological benefits of weed control by competition, mechanical, biological and
herbicide options, provision of non-host crops to minimize disease and, where
appropriate, inclusion of legumes to provide a biological source of nitrogen.
Apply fertilizers, organic and inorganic, in a balanced fashion, with appropriate
methods and equipment and at adequate intervals to replace nutrients extracted
by harvest or lost during production.
Maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by re-cycling crop and other
organic residues.
Integrate livestock into crop rotations and utilize the nutrient cycling provided by
grazing or housed livestock to benefit the fertility of the entire farm.
Rotate livestock on pastures to allow for healthy re-growth of pasture plants.

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 CROP PROTECTION
Maintenance of crop health is essential for successful farming for both yield and
quality of produce. This requires long-term strategies to manage risks by the use of
disease- and pest-resistant crops, crop and pasture rotations, disease breaks for
susceptible crops, and the minimal use of agrochemicals to control weeds, pests, and
diseases following the principles of Integrated Pest Management. Any measure for
crop protection, but particularly those involving substances that are harmful for
humans or the environment, has to be carried out with state of the art knowledge and
equipment. Good agricultural practice will:
Use resistant cultivars and varieties, crop sequences, associations, and cultural
practices that maximize biological prevention of pests and diseases.
Maintain regular and quantitative assessment of the balance status between pests
and diseases and beneficial organisms of all crops.
Apply pest and disease forecasting techniques where available.
Store and use agrochemicals according to legal requirements, e.g. registration for
individual crops, rates, timings, and pre-harvest intervals.
Assure that agrochemicals are only applied by specially trained and
knowledgeable persons.
 ANIMAL PRODUCTION
Livestock require adequate space, feed and water to ensure animal welfare and
productivity. Record keeping of livestock and of breeding programs will ensure
traceability of type and origin. Stocking rates are adjusted and supplements
provided as needed to livestock grazing pasture or rangeland. Chemical and
biological contaminants in livestock feeds are avoided to prevent their entry into
the food chain. Manure management avoids nutrient losses, minimizes negative,
and stimulates positive effects on the environment. Land requirements of livestock
production are evaluated to ensure sufficient land for feed production and waste
disposal. Good agricultural practice will:
Site livestock units appropriately to avoid negative effects on the landscape,
environment, and animal welfare.

40
 Avoid biological, chemical and physical contamination of pasture, feed, water and
the atmosphere.
Frequently monitor the condition of stock and adjust stocking rates and feeding
accordingly.
Provide adequate, clean water.
Ensure staff are properly trained in the handling and treatment of animals.

 ANIMAL HEALTH
Successful animal production requires attention to health. The health of livestock is
maintained by proper management and housing, by preventive treatments such as
vaccination and by regular inspection, identification, and treatment of ailments, using
veterinary advice as required. Good agricultural practice will:
Minimize risk of infection and disease by good pasture management, safe feeding,
appropriate stocking rates and good housing conditions.
Keep livestock, buildings and feed facilities clean and provide adequate, clean
bedding under housed conditions.
Seek appropriate veterinary advice to avoid disease and health problems.
Ensure good hygiene standards in housing by proper cleansing and disinfection.

 ANIMAL WELFARE
Farm animals are sentient beings and as such their welfare must be considered. Good
animal welfare is recognized as freedom from hunger and thirst; freedom from
discomfort; freedom from pain, injury or disease; freedom to express normal behaviour
and freedom from fear and distress. Good agricultural practice will:
Provide adequate and appropriate feed and clean water at all times.
Avoid non-therapeutic mutilations, surgical or invasive procedures, such as tail
docking and de-beaking.
Minimize transport of live animals (by foot, rail or road) and the use of livestock
markets.

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 HARVEST AND ON-FARM PROCESSING AND STORAGE
Product quality depends upon implementation of acceptable protocols for harvesting,
storage, and where appropriate, processing of farm products. Harvesting must
conform to regulations relating to pre-harvest intervals for agrochemicals and with-
holding periods for veterinary medicines. Food produce should be stored under
appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity in space designed and reserved
for that purpose. Operations involving animals, such as shearing and slaughter, must
adhere to animal health and welfare standards. Good agricultural practice will:
Harvest food products following relevant pre-harvest intervals and with-holding
periods.
Process produce hygienically, e.g. for washing, use recommended detergents and
clean water.
Store food products under hygienic and appropriate environmental conditions.
Pack food produce for transport from the farm in clean and appropriate containers.
Maintain accurate records regarding harvest, storage and processing.

 ENERGY AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Farms require fuel to drive machinery for cultural operations, for processing, and for
transport. The objective is to perform operations in a timely fashion, reduce the
drudgery of human labour, improve efficiency, diversify energy sources, and reduce
energy use. Farming produces by-products, some of which are potential pollutants of
soil, water, or air. The production of these by-products should be minimized while
others are resources that can be reused or re-cycled. Good agricultural practice will:
Establish input-output plans for farm energy, nutrients, and agrochemicals so as
to ensure efficient use and safe disposal.
Adopt energy saving practices in building design, machinery size, maintenance,
and use (e.g. zero or minimum tillage).
Investigate alternative energy sources to fossil fuels (wind, solar, biofuels), and
adopt them where feasible.
Identify and recycle most organic wastes and inorganic materials, where possible.
Minimize non-usable wastes and dispose of them responsibly.

42
 Store fertilizers and agrochemicals securely and in accordance with legislation.
Maintain accurate records of energy use, and of storage and disposal.
Establish emergency action procedures to minimize the risk of pollution from
accidents.

 HUMAN WELFARE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY

Farming must be economically viable to be sustainable. The social and economic
welfare of farmers, farm workers, and their local communities depends upon it. Health
and safety are also important concerns for those involved in farming operations. Due
care and diligence is required at all times. Good agricultural practice will:
Direct all farming practices to achieve an optimum balance between economic,
environmental, and social goals.
Provide adequate household income and food security.
Establish and adhere to safe work procedures with acceptable working hours and
allowance for rest periods.
Instruct workers in the safe and efficient use of tools and machinery.
Pay reasonable wages and not exploit workers, especially women and children.
Buy inputs and other services from local merchants if possible.

 WILDLIFE AND LANDSCAPE

Agricultural land accommodates a diverse range of animals, birds, insects, and plants.
Much public concern about modern farming is directed at the loss of some of these
species from the countryside because their habitats have been destroyed. The
challenge is to manage and enhance these wildlife habitats while keeping the farm
business economically viable. Good agricultural practice will:
Identify and conserve wildlife habitats and landscape features, such as isolated
trees, on the farm.
Create, as far as possible, a diverse cropping pattern on the farm.
Minimize the impact of operations such as tillage and agrochemical use on wildlife.
Manage field margins to reduce noxious weeds and to encourage a diverse flora
and fauna with beneficial species.

43
 Manage water courses and wetlands to encourage wildlife and to prevent pollution.

ISO SERIES

ISO 9000 is defined as a set of international standards on quality management and quality
assurance developed to help companies effectively document the quality system
elements needed to maintain an efficient quality system. They are not specific to any one
industry and can be applied to organizations of any size.

ISO 9000 can help a company satisfy its customers, meet regulatory requirements, and
achieve continual improvement. It should be considered to be a first step or the base level
of a quality system.

 PRINCIPLES OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN ISO 9000 SERIES

The ISO 9000 series are based on seven quality management principles (QMP) [34]

The seven quality management principles are:

 QMP 1 – Customer focus

 QMP 2 – Leadership
 QMP 3 – Engagement of people
 QMP 4 – Process approach
 QMP 5 – Improvement
 QMP 6 – Evidence-based decision making
 QMP 7 – Relationship management

Principle 1 – Customer focus

Organizations depend on their customers and therefore should understand current and
future customer needs, should meet customer requirements and strive to exceed
customer expectations.

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Principle 2 – Leadership

Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction of the organization. They should create
and maintain the internal environment in which people can become fully involved in
achieving the organization's objectives.

Principle 3 – Engagement of people

People at all levels are the essence of an organization and their full involvement enables
their abilities to be used for the organization's benefit.

Principle 4 – Process approach

A desired result is achieved more efficiently when activities and related resources are
managed as a process.

Principle 5 – Improvement

Improvement of the organization's overall performance should be a permanent objective

of the organization.

Principle 6 – Evidence-based decision making

Effective decisions are based on the analysis of data and information.

Principle 7 – Relationship management

An organization and its external providers (suppliers, contractors, service providers) are
interdependent and a mutually beneficial relationship enhances the ability of both to
create value.

 ISO STANDARDS
There are 10 ISO standards which are as follows:-
o ISO 9000 - Quality Management
- Quality is critical to remaining competitive in any industry. The ISO 9000 family is
the quality management standard, and comprises of some of ISO’s best-known
standards.

45
- ISO quality standards guide companies and equip them with the necessary tools
to continuously improve quality and ensure that customer demands are always
met.
- ISO 9001:2015 is the only standard in the category that you can be certified to,
and lays down the criteria for a quality management system.
- There are over one million organizations in over 170 countries that are certified to
ISO 9001.

o ISO / IEC 27000 - Information Security Management Systems

- Information security is at the fore of global attention, with rapid increases in cyber
threats.
- The 27000 category of standards ensures the safety of information assets.
- These standards help organisations manage the security of assets such as
intellectual property, financial and employee data, and information held in trust for
third parties.
- ISO/IEC 27001 is the most popular standard in this category, and stipulates the
specifications for the implementation of an Information Security Management
System (ISMS).
- There are 33,290 certificates issued for this certification.

o ISO 14000 – Environmental Management

- This is a family of standards that provides the necessary tools and guidelines for
companies to manage their environmental responsibilities.
- ISO 14001 and all other standards in this category lay emphasis on environmental
systems.
- These standards use tools such as audits, communications, life-cycle analysis and
environmental challenges. This standard can be used by any organization
regardless of the industry.
- More than 300,000 ISO 14001 certifications have been issued in 171 countries.

o ISO 31000: 2018 - Risk Management

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- Today’s business world is riddled with uncertainty. Risks facing companies have a
direct impact on the economic performance, reputation, as well as safety and
environmental outcomes.
- ISO 31000 cannot be used for certification purposes, but it provides a framework
for managing risks. It offers guidance to organizations for internal and external
audit programs and enables organizations to achieve objectives in an uncertain
environment by facilitating the identification of opportunities and threats.
- Organizations are able to benchmark with internationally recognized practices for
effective management and corporate governance.
- Risk assessment template.

o ISO 50001: 2018 - Energy Management

- ISO 50001: 2018 provides guidance for companies in implementing an Energy
Management System (EnMS) that aims at improving efficiency in the use of
energy.
- This aims to reduce an organization’s energy footprint by minimizing greenhouse
gas emissions. ISO 50001 is not obligatory, and many organizations implement it
solely to comply with stakeholder expectations. Over 20,000 certifications have
been issued for this standard with a 69% increase from 2015.

o ISO 26000: 2010 - Social Responsibility

- Though organizations cannot be certified to ISO 26000, the standard provides
guidance on how organizations can embrace social responsibility.
- It clarifies what social responsibility entails for organizations to lay a framework
for effective action.

o ISO 28000: 2007 – Specifications for Security Management Systems for the
Supply Chain
- This standard stipulates the requirements for a security management system in
respect to a supply chain. It is applicable to all types of organizations and provides
guidance on all activities controlled by companies that affect supply chain security.

47
- It is crucial in the management of supply chains in manufacturing, service, storage,
and transportation and so far there are 356 certifications.

o ISO 37001: 2016 Anti-Bribery Management Systems

- Bribery is a menace in today’s business world. This standard stipulates the
requirements and provides guidance in establishing, implementing and continuous
improvement of an anti-bribery management system.
- It can be a stand-alone system or can be implemented into the overall
management system.
- This standard is applicable to all types of organizations with respect to bribery and
helps prevent, detect and respond to bribery and comply with anti-bribery laws.

o ISO 45001 – Occupational Health and Safety

- Occupational injuries and diseases impact the economy negatively due to poor
health, early retirement and high insurance premiums.
- To manage this problem, ISO has developed ISO 45001. That has replaced or
taken into account international standards like OHSAs 18001 and IL-OSH
guidelines.
- It provides a framework for employee safety, reducing workplace hazards and
provide safer working environments.

o ISO 22000 – Food Management Systems

- This standard facilitates the development and implementation of a food safety
management system.
- It incorporates a wide array of standards, including 22002 for food manufacturing
and 22001 for food and drink.
- This standard is widely used by food manufacturers, restaurants, and food
transportation services.
- So far more than 30,000 certificates have been issued.
- The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is the largest publisher of
standards in the world.

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- These standards are critical for regulating business practices, manufacturing, and
quality.
- When businesses around the world conform to the same standards, management
techniques, business processes and production controls, quality, products and
services all become standardized.
- ISO has published more than 21,584 standards and has members in 162
countries, and 788 technical bodies for standard development.
- The organization continued to record an increases in certification in 2018.

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

A core definition of total quality management (TQM) describes a management

approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. In a TQM effort, all
members of an organization participate in improving processes, products, services,
and the culture in which they work.

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management framework based on the belief

that an organization can build long-term success by having all its members, from low-
level workers to its highest ranking executives, focus on it.

 BASIC CONCEPTS OF TQM

a. Quality: The totality of features and characteristics of product or service that bears
on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs of a customer.
b. Quality Policy: The overall quality intentions and directions of an organization as
regards quality formally expressed by top management. The quality policy forms
an element of the corporate policy and is authorized by top management.
c. Quality Management: The aspect of the overall management function that
determines and implements quality policy. Quality management includes strategic
planning, allocation of resources and other systematic activities for quality such as
operations and evaluations.
d. Quality Assurance: Quality assurance are all those planned and systematic
actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will

49
 satisfy requirements of a customer. Unless the requirements of customer are fully
reflected in the product or service, quality assurance will not be complete. Quality
assurance serves as a management tool to provide confidence in
supplier/manufacture in contractual situation.

While taking a broad view of quality control, we come across different words such
as limits, tolerance, allowance, fit etc. These words are described in terms of below
limits. Limits for a dimension or other unit of measurement are the two extreme
permissible measurements for that dimension or unit.

e. Quality Control: Quality controls are operational techniques and activities that are
used to fulfill requirements for quality. Quality control techniques and activities aim
both, at monitoring a process and at eliminating causes of unsatisfactory
performance at relevant stages of the production in order to achieve economic
effectiveness of an organization.
f. Conformity: An affirmative indication or judgment that the supplier/manufacturer
of a product or service has met the requirements of the relevant specifications,
contact or regulations and also the state of meeting requirements, is the real test
of quality.
g. Quality Circle [QC]: QC is a process that stimulates everyone to achieve greater
satisfaction in the work environment. It is based on mutual trust and cooperation.
It also includes group participation, information sharing and decision making. Its
primary aim is to provide a better quality of working life to workmen at all levels in
an organization. "QC is a small group of employees in the same work. Work area
or doing a similar type of work who voluntarily meet regularly for about an hour
every week to identify, analyze and resolve wok-related problems, leading to
improvement in their total performance and enrichment of their work life".

 PRINCIPLES OF TQM

TQM is based on following five types of principles:

1. Management commitments
 Plan (drive and direct)

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  Do (deploy, support, participate)
 Check (review)
 Act (recognize, communicate, revise)
2. Employees empowerment
 Training
 Suggestion scheme
 Measurement and recognition
 Excellence teams
3. Fact based decision making
 Statistical Process Control (SPC)
 Design of Experiments (DOE)
 Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA)
4. Continuous improvement
 Systematic measurement and focus on quality
 Excellence teams
 Cross functional process management
 To attain, maintain and improve standards
5. Customer focus
 Suppliers partnership
 Service relationship with internal customers
 No compromise with quality
 Customer driven standards
 ELEMENTS OF TQM

When we say Total Quality Management we mean a new approach to improve

product Quality and increase customer satisfaction on a continuous basis by
restructuring traditional management practices. To sum up, the elements of total
quality management are as follows:

1. Customer Satisfaction.

2. Employees involvement.

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 3. Morable of employees.

4. Quality control circles and suggestion system.

5. Higher revenue.

6. Lower cost.

7. Quality control.

8. Control of production.

9. Quality planning.

10. Quality improvement.

11. Quality implementation.

12. Quality assurance system.

13. Vendor control and quality in procurement.

14. Customer relationship management.

15. Total organization involvement.

16. Measurement information analysis.

17. Quality education and training.

18. Strategic quality management.

19. Leadership.

 IMPLEMENTATION OF TQM

The implementation of TQM requires the help of following eight key elements viz.
Ethics, Integrity, Trust, Training, Team work, Leadership, Communication and
Recognition. The main function of these key elements for implementation of TQM
is illustrated below:

 Ethics - Foundation
 Integrity - Foundation

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  Trust - Foundation
 Leadership – Building bricks
 Team work – Building bricks
 Training – Building bricks
 Communication – Binding Mortar
 Recognition – Roof.

 COMPONENTS OF TQM: -

The four main components of quality are Quality Planning, Quality Assurance,
Quality Control, and Continuous Improvement.

Quality Planning – determines which quality standards are necessary and

provides guidance to stakeholders on how quality management will be performed
on the project. It will include:

- Stakeholder expectations – this section should document specifically what the

customer expects in terms of project quality. Including whether they have specified
any external quality standards and what their priorities are in terms of the areas
affected by quality.
- Success criteria (as defined in the business case) in addition to the defined
success criteria this section should also define acceptable tolerances for the
achievement of those objectives.

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- Standards applicable (internal and external) – the project environment may require
that the Quality Plan incorporates the requirements of external standards. These
could range from the Company’s own quality standards to ISO 9000 or Health and
Safety at Work Legislation.
- Roles and responsibilities concerned with quality – these may include quality
assurance testing, supervision, and management roles.
- The process that will be followed – these will be documented in a systematic way
and will govern the mechanisms for the product of the product specifications and
testing procedures.
- How continuous improvement will be auctioned – this may include making
adjustments to processes where they are proven to be unsatisfactory strong.
Project assurance techniques –

This section will describe how assurance will be performed and who is responsible.
It will define policies of quality reviews and audits of the management process.

Quality Assurance – Quality reviews are a key tool for quality assurance but could
also be used for quality control. The way they will be conducted will be set out in
the Quality Plan. Four overall objectives for review:

1. Provide assurance that the project is proceeding according to agreed

plans/processes.

2. Measure the effectiveness of agreed plans/processes

3. Capture lessons learned

4. Identify areas of non-compliance and opportunities for improvement

Quality Assurance covers the whole project lifecycle and is not concentrated on
any particular phase. It ensures that the other processes (mainly Planning and
Control) are being adequately performed and that the project is adhering to any
corporate standards that are relevant to the project.

Quality Assurance involves pre-planned, regular reviews and independent audits

to verify that work is being carried out consistently in accordance with defined

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 procedures and to provide confidence to stakeholders the project will satisfy
relevant quality requirements and standards.

Quality Control - Quality control consists of inspection, testing and quality

measurement verifies that the deliverables of the project conform to the
specification, is fit for purpose and meet stakeholder’s expectations. Quality control
techniques are varied and the technique used should be driven by the nature of
the project. The most obvious example of quality control is the inspections and
tests that are done to check whether a product meets the specification.

Quality Improvement – There may be opportunities to improve management

processes during the life of the project or information that assists the management
of future projects. continual systematic approaches to quality improvements such
as adherence to Total Quality Management (TQM), ISO 9000, Six Sigma or any
external industry standards, can be used.

This is part of corporate governance – if there is a variance on a project then it

must be corrected, however, the root cause of the problem must be understood to
ensure that the same problem does not occur on further projects. A continuous
systematic approach to Quality Management creates steady growth and
improvement to keep a company focused on its goals and priorities.

 KAIZEN:-

Kaizen is a Japanese word. It is basically composed of two words “KAI” means

change and “ZEN” means better. In other words, it means change for betterment
or improvement.

Kaizen is a philosophy that defines management’s role in continuously

encouraging and implementing small improvements involving everyone. It is the
process of continuous improvement in small increments that make the process
more efficient, effective, under control, and adaptable.

Improvements are usually accomplished at little or no expense, without

sophisticated techniques or expensive equipment.

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It focuses on simplification by breaking down complex processes into their sub-
processes and then improving them.

The Kaizen improvement focuses on the use of:

1. Value-added and non-value-added work activities.

2. Muda, which refers to seven classes of waste-overproduction, delay,
transportation, processing, inventory, wasted motion, and defective parts.
3. Principles of motion study and use of cell technology.
4. Principles of material handling and use of one-piece flow.
5. Documentation of standard operating procedures.
6. The five S’s for workplace organization. (Already explained in Lean Production
Post)
7. Visual management by means of visual displays that everyone in the plant can
use for better communications.
8. Just-in-time principles to produce only the units in the right quantities, at the
right time, and with right resources.
9. Poka-yoke to prevent or detect errors.
10. Team dynamics, which include problem solving, communication skills, and
conflict resolution.
11. Kaizen relies heavily on a culture that encourages suggestions by operators
who continually try to incrementally improve their job or process.

5S PHASES OF KAIZEN-

There are five 5S phases. They can be translated from the Japanese as "sort",
"set in order", "shine", "standardize", and "sustain". Other translations are possible.

1. Sort (seiri )
1S – a red tag area containing items waiting for removal.
Seiri is sorting through all items in a location and removing all unnecessary
items from the location.

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Goals:

 Reduce time loss looking for an item by reducing the number of items.
 Reduce the chance of distraction by unnecessary items.
 Simplify inspection.
 Increase the amount of available, useful space.
 Increase safety by eliminating obstacles.

Implementation:

 Check all items in a location and evaluate whether or not their presence at the
location is useful or necessary.
 Remove unnecessary items as soon as possible. Place those that cannot be
removed immediately in a 'red tag area' so that they are easy to remove later on.
 Keep the working floor clear of materials except for those that are in use to
production.

2. Set in order (seiton)

2S – simple floor marking (Sometimes shown as Straighten)
Seiton is putting all necessary items in the optimal place for fulfilling their function
in the workplace.

Goal:

 Make the workflow smooth and easy.

Implementation:

 Arrange work stations in such a way that all tooling / equipment is in close
proximity, in an easy to reach spot and in a logical order adapted to the work
performed. Place components according to their uses, with the frequently used
components being nearest to the workplace.
 Arrange all necessary items so that they can be easily selected for use. Make it
easy to find and pick up necessary items.

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 Assign fixed locations for items. Use clear labels, marks or hints so that items are
easy to return to the correct location and so that it is easy to spot missing items.

3. Shine (seiso)
3S – cleanliness point with cleaning tools and resources.
Seiso is sweeping or cleaning and inspecting the workplace, tools and
machinery on a regular basis.

Goals:

 Improves the production process efficiency and safety, reduces waste, prevents
errors and defects.
 Keep the workplace safe and easy to work in.
 Keep the workplace clean and pleasing to work in.
 When in place, anyone not familiar to the environment must be able to detect any
problems within 50 feet in 5 sec.

Implementation:

 Clean the workplace and equipment on a daily basis, or at another appropriate

(high frequency) cleaning interval.
 Inspect the workplace and equipment while cleaning.

4. Standardize (seiketsu)
Seiketsu is to standardize the processes used to sort, order and clean the
workplace.

Goal:

 Establish procedures and schedules to ensure the repetition of the first three ‘S’
practices.

Implementation:

 Develop a work structure that will support the new practices and make it part of the
daily routine.
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 Ensure everyone knows their responsibilities of performing the sorting, organizing
and cleaning.
 Use photos and visual controls to help keep everything as it should be.
 Review the status of 5S implementation regularly using audit checklists.

5. Sustain/self-discipline (shitsuke)
Shadow Board (with tools' outline) and worker's movement that is being used in
Production floor.
Shitsuke or sustain the developed processes by self-discipline of the workers.
Also translates as "do without being told".

Goal:

 Ensure that the 5S approach is followed.

Implementation:

 Organize training sessions.

 Perform regular audits to ensure that all defined standards are being implemented
and followed.
 Implement improvements whenever possible. Worker inputs can be very valuable
for identifying improvements.
 When issues arise, identify their cause and implement the changes necessary to
avoid recurrence.

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 ACCREDITATION AND AUDITING
Accreditation is the process of validation and verification conducted by a globally
accredited body. As a status, accreditation provides public notification that an institute
or program meets the standards of quality set forth by an accrediting body. As a
process, accreditation reflects the fact that in achieving recognition by the accrediting
body, the institute or program is committed to self-study and external review in seeking
to meet the standard requirements and enhancing the quality of education and training
provided.

Certification bodies, such as Intertek, are third party organizations who have been
accredited by recognized accreditation bodies for their competence to audit and issue
certifications which confirm that businesses along the food supply chain meet the
standard requirements. It is the responsibility of the certification body to:

 Meet international certification management standards

 Be licensed by the scheme owner
 Provide impartial sustainable and compliant certification processes,
procedures and practices
 Provide competent auditors who are approved by the scheme owner
 Have independent decision-making on issuing certification (and have a process
separate from the auditor to ensure consistency within the scheme)
 Have defined regular competence reviews of all auditors and support staff
 Have an independent advisory board.

Food Safety Best Practice

There is a broad range of standards considered worldwide benchmarks for best

practice in the food industry. This includes GFSI endorsed schemes such as
International Featured Standards (IFS), British Retail Consortium (BRC), Safe
Quality Food (SQF) and Food Safety System Certification (FSSC22000). You need
to work with a reputable third party certification organization who will guide you
through the entire certification process.

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Whether you're aiming to establish sustainability credentials, or you need to
demonstrate the safety and quality of your production processes; food safety
accreditation and certification will help to enhance your brand image, build
consumer confidence and open the way to new market opportunities.

FOOD SAFETY AUDITING

A food safety audit usually is centred on the defined requirements set out in food
safety standards, legislation and internal standards of operation. It focuses
specifically on those requirements, criteria, procedures, activities and data relating
to the safe production and supply of food products.

Food safety auditing is a massive subject area. Unlike other compliance audit
programs such as those covering financial, governance or management; food
safety requires knowledge of a number of very different fields which need to be
combined to effectively audit or assess the risk and status of a food production,
processing or distribution operation. For example a typical food safety audit,
depending on the defined scope of the program, requires a detailed and working
knowledge of management processes, hygiene, risk assessment, monitoring,
human resources, health and safety, microbiology, chemistry, toxicology,
engineering and so on.

As food safety becomes a daily issue in many global markets those responsible
for its management and control e.g. processors, retailers and regulatory agencies
are increasingly turning to auditing to effectively ensure both compliance and
improvement in standards. If this emerging policy is to be effective, it must be
underpinned by a body of auditors who not only possess the experience, education
and knowledge of the above disciplines, but they must also have skills in
conducting auditing in a systematic, objective and professional way.

There are numerous reasons why organizations conduct food safety audits. For
instance, auditing is a required component of becoming certified to a standard.
Some other reasons to conduct audits include:
 Evaluation of the management system or management priorities

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 Commercial objectives
 Supplier evaluations or customer requirements
 Incidents at other facilities
 Regulatory or contractual requirements.

STANDARDS-BASED FOOD SAFETY AUDITS

With supply chains becoming increasingly globalized and complex, the need for
standardized, internationally accepted food safety plans grew. In response to this
need, the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI), an international committee formed
in May 2000 and coordinated by The Consumer Goods Forum, created a system
whereby certain food safety schemes are benchmarked against specific criteria.
Certification to a GFSI-recognized global standard, such as FSSC
22000, SQF or BRC, gives assurance to customers that specific food safety and
quality guidelines are routinely attained, imparting a beneficial stance in the
marketplace as a trusted source.

FOOD SAFETY AUDIT STRUCTURE

Audits can be classified in 3 ways based on the auditor/auditee relationship:
 First Party: This type of audit is a self-assessment, to internally verify that
procedures and management strategies reflect the requirements of a
standard and reflect business objectives.
 Second Party: Also known as proprietary audits, a primary organization
evaluates the performance of a supplier or contractor.
 Third Party: Independent auditors from outside the organization conduct
audits, often for purposes of certification.

Food Safety Audits Process, Regardless Of Whether It Is Conducted By A 1st, 2nd

Or 3rd Party, Is Generally Comprised Of Five Steps:
1. Planning
2. Execution
3. Corrective and Preventive Action

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 4. Verification
5. Audit Evaluation

 PLANNING
Planning and preparation of on‐site auditing activities should be carried out by the
auditors. These activities may include the preparation of an audit plan or a review of
the documented food safety program of the company, to confirm that it is in
compliance with the requirements of the standard against which the audit will be held.
In the case of large and complex companies, an audit team is required. An audit plan
should assist in ensuring that the audit team members are properly organized and
also give the company an idea of timings for the audit. Prior to an on‐site assessment,
the auditor should review the company's documented food safety program to confirm
that it is in compliance with the requirements of the standard against which the
assessment will be made. This can be an indication of whether an on‐site audit should
follow.

 EXECUTION
The actual conduction of the audit is the collection of data that starts with arrival at the
audit location and ends with the exit meeting. An on‐site audit involves on‐site audit‐
management, a meeting with the representatives of the company, gaining an
understanding of the process and system control measures, verification that these
measures work effectively and communication of results and observations among
team members and with the auditee. A process audit is carried out through performing
a review of procedures and documentation, and interviewing members of the
personnel directly involved in the process being subjected to audit.

 CORRECTIVE AND PREVENTIVE ACTION

The preventive action process commonly involves the establishment of proactive
measures to prevent a potential nonconformity from occurring, and the conduction of
thorough process and system analysis in order to determine what actions are required
and what controls should be in place to prevent a nonconformity (for example, using

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 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis [FMEA] to determine risks and possible
deficiencies and define priorities for improving the current system).

 VERIFICATION
The verification stage of an audit involves the conduction of an assessment that aims
at evaluating how effective the corrective and preventative actions are in achieving
their purpose, as detailed in the management strategy. The individual responsible for
conducting the food safety audit should not be the same individual who determined
the corrective action, to add a degree of impartiality and a 2nd viewpoint. Further
verification can be possible through the review of all collective outputs of a given
action, as well as by following up with mini‐audits and short confirmatory interviews.

 AUDIT EVALUATION
It is always imperative that the audit processes used are reviewed and improved at
frequent intervals. Furthermore, third‐party audits, being only 1 performance indicator,
usually need to be supported by microbial testing, second‐party audits of suppliers
and the organization's ability to analyze the results and outcomes of audits and
inspections. None of the raw product suppliers should be excluded from the audit
scope. Audit systems incorporating unannounced visits in combination with supporting
information are more effective and cover internal audits‐records, regulatory
compliance, laboratory results, and raw material certifications.

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 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

Water Quality can be defined as the chemical, physical and biological characteristics
of water, usually in respect to its suitability for a designated use. Water can be used for
recreation, drinking, fisheries, agriculture or industry. Each of these designated uses
has different defined chemical, physical and biological standards necessary to
support that use. For example, there are stringent standards for water to be used for
drinking or swimming compared to that used in agriculture or industry.

 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

After many years of research, water quality standards are put in place to ensure
the suitability of efficient use of water for a designated purpose.
“Water quality analysis is to measure the required parameters of water, following
standard methods, to check whether they are in accordance with the standard.”

 Why Water Quality Analysis is required?

Water quality analysis is required mainly for monitoring purpose. Some importance
of such assessment includes:

1. To check whether the water quality is in compliance with the standards, and
hence, suitable or not for the designated use.
2. To monitor the efficiency of a system, working for water quality maintenance.
3. To check whether up-gradation / change of an existing system is required and
to decide what changes should take place.
4. To monitor whether water quality is in compliance with rules and regulations. Water
quality analysis is of extremely necessary in the sectors of:
o Public Health (especially for drinking water)
o Industrial Use.

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 PROCEDURE OF WATER ANALYSIS

Selection of Parameters
The parameters of water quality are selected entirely according to the need for a
specific use of that water. Some examples are:
- Drinking: As per WHO/CPCB Standards
- Irrigation: pH, Conductivity, Sodium & Potassium, Nutrients, Specific
compounds
- Industries: As per specific requirement
- Domestic Consumption: As per BIS Standards
- Water Bodies: As per CPCB guidelines

Selection of methods
The methods of water quality analysis are selected according to the requirement. The
factors playing key role for the selection of methods are:
- Volume and number of sample to be analyzed
- Cost of analysis
- Precision required
- Promptness of the analysis as required.

Precision and Accuracy of Method Selected as Per Requirement

What precision and accuracy to be maintained against a particular method is
selected according to the need. The factors influencing this decision includes:
- Cost
- Parameter
- Use

Chain–of–Custody Procedures
Properly designed and executed chain-of-custody forms will ensure sample integrity
from collection to data reporting. This includes the ability to trace possession and
handling of the sample from the time of collection through analysis and final
disposition. This process is referred to as “chain-of-custody.”

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Proper Sampling
Proper sampling is a vital condition for correct measurement of water quality
parameters. Even if advanced techniques and sophisticated tools are used, the
parameters can give an incorrect image of the actual scenario due to improper
sampling.

Proper Labeling

Proper labelling prevents sample misidentification and ensures the responsibility

and accountability of the collector. The sample container should be labelled
properly, preferably by attaching an appropriately inscribed tag or label.
Alternatively, the bottle can be labelled directly with a water-proof marker. Barcode
labels are also available nowadays.

Information on the sample container or the tag should include at least:

 Sample code number (identifying location)

 Date and time of sampling
 Source and type of sample
 Pre-treatment or preservation carried out on the sample
 Any special notes for the analyst incorrect image of the actual scenario due to
improper sampling.

Preservation

There is usually a delay between the collection and analysis of a sample. The
nature of the sample can be changed during this period. Therefore proper
preservation is required in the way to laboratory after collection, and in the
laboratory upto when analysis starts.

Analysis The samples, after reaching laboratory, are analyzed, according to the
requisite parameters, following standard methods and protocols. Reporting The
ultimate procedure of water analysis is to prepare a proper repost against the
submitted requisition. The repost must be authenticated before handing over the

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 authority, submitted the samples for testing. All date should be kept in the laboratory
log and preferably in laboratory database. An alternative way to present the overall
quality of water is to express it in the form of Water Quality Index (WQI).

SURFACE SANITATION

A sanitation plan is important in any food service preparation area. It ensures that
all surfaces are cleaned on a regular basis and reduces the risks of transferring bacteria
or other pathogens from an unclean surface to clean equipment such as cutting boards
or tools.

Why it is important?

Sanitation is important for all, helping to maintain health and increase life-spans.
However, it is especially important for children. Around the world, over 800 children
under age five die every day from preventable diarrhea-related diseases caused by
lack of access to water, sanitation and hygiene.

PRINCIPLE OF SURFACE SANITATION

The primary tenet of food-service sanitation is absolute cleanliness. It begins with

personal hygiene, the safe handling of foods during preparation, and clean utensils,
equipment, appliances, storage facilities, kitchen and dining room.

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 STEPS TO CLEAN AND SANITIZE SURFACE

1. Step 1 – Preparation- Remove loose dirt and food particles.

2. Step 2 – Cleaning- Wash with hot water (60 °C) and detergent.
3. Step 3 – Sanitizing (bacteria killing stage)- Treat with very hot, clean, potable water
(75 °C) for at least 2 minutes. ...
4. Step 4 – Air drying.

THREE METHODS OF SANITIZING

There are three methods of using heat to sanitize surfaces – steam, hot water, and
hot air. Hot water is the most common method used in restaurants. If hot water is used
in the third compartment of a three-compartment sink, it must be at least 171˚F (77˚C).

Here are three commonly used methods of sanitation: Thermal, radiation, and
chemical. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates sanitizers for all
applications, from health care to food manufacturing. To be an EPA-registered
sanitizer (whether thermal, radiation, or chemical) for a food contact surface, test
results for a product must show a bacterial reduction of at least 99.999 percent over
the parallel control count within 30 seconds for the bacteria E. coli and S. aureus.

KITCHEN SAFETY AND SANITATION

Wash hands and exposed portions of arms before any food preparation or packaging.
Minimize bare hand by using utensils, single-use gloves, bakery papers or tongs,
especially when preparing/packaging ready-to-eat foods.

Why sanitation is important in the kitchen?

Sanitation plan is important in any food service preparation area. It ensures that all
surfaces are cleaned on a regular basis and reduces the risks of transferring bacteria

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or other pathogens from an unclean surface to clean equipment such as cutting
boards or tools.

Importance of sanitation in Food Industry:

 Pre-operational hygiene
 Operational hygiene
 Pest management.
 Storage and distribution In addition to hygienic practices.

There are five key food safety principles and practices that must be followed according
to WHO:

 Use clean water and raw materials.

 Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent cross-contamination.
 Prevent contaminating food with pathogens that may spread from people, pets,
and pests.
 Cook food at the appropriate length of time and temperature to kill pathogen • Store
food at the right temperature.

Elements of Cleaning and Sanitizing:

There are many different ways to clean and sanitize equipment. These include the
use of clean-in-place (CIP) systems, foaming, clean-out-of-place (COP), spraying,
high pressure and manual systems. Manual is the old-fashioned route that usually
involved scrubbing of some sort. But no matter which kind of cleaning and sanitizing

70
is selected, there are basic issues that must be considered. These are summarized
using the acronym ‘TACT WINS.’

T – Time W – Water I – Individual N – Nature S – Surface

A – Action

C – Concentration

T – Temperature

Cleaning is a necessary first step because one cannot sanitize a dirty surface. An
example that is seen all too often in some plants and by consumers is the use of
chlorine as a cleaner. It is not a cleaner but a sanitizing agent. Let’s look at the eight
elements making up TACT WINS.

 Time: The time required to properly clean depends on many factors including, but
not limited to, the method of cleaning, the soil and the type of equipment. If too
little or too much time is used, the surface will be dirty. Too much time might seem
to be a misstatement, but it is not. A company that utilizes foam cleaning must
rinse the foam from the surface within a set period of time. If the foam is allowed
to remain on the surface for too long, the foam and soil will begin to redeposit on
the surface, dirtying it. Time is one reason that companies manufacturing foods
containing allergens establish production schedules to minimize the number of
allergen cleanings required.

 Action: This is the energy required to properly clean a surface. Action brings the
cleaning compounds into contact with the soil and enhances their removal.
Examples of action would be the activity of a foam cleaner, the flow through pipes
in a CIP system, the moving water in a COP tank, or the use of brushes or white
pads when doing manual cleaning. Please note the reference to white pads. When
cleaning one should never use green pads. They are too abrasive and actually
damage or score the surface being cleaned.

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 Concentration: To properly clean surfaces, the processor must use the correct
cleaning compound at the proper concentration. There are a wide range of
cleaning compounds available to the industry. What is needed depends upon
factors such as the nature of the soil, water hardness and the surface being
cleaned. Cleaning compounds have many functions, including saponification,
wetting (surfactancy), emulsification, water softening, foaming or lack thereof, and
rinsability.

 Temperature: The temperature at which cleaners are used affects their efficacy.
The rule of thumb is that cleaning efficacy doubles (up to a point) for every 10°C
increase in temperature. Each cleaner has an optimum temperature range at which
it should be used. When developing procedures for cleaning, it is imperative that
the temperature range at which the product is used be clearly specified.
Temperature is especially important when cleaning fatty products. Heat will melt
fats, allowing them to be removed.

 Water: Water is the universal solvent. The first step in cleaning is a rinse with
water to remove gross soil from the surface and away from the equipment. Water
is also used to convey the detergents to the surface and to carry away the soil.
The use of surfactants in cleaners enhances the ability of water to react with the
soils. When selecting a cleaning compound, the hardness of the water is an
integral part of the equation. When working with a supplier of cleaning compounds,
the supplier should collect water samples from the plant. The type of compound
that the supplier will suggest will be based on water hardness. If a processor uses
water from multiple sources, the business must provide water from each source.

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 FOOD LAWS AND STANDARDS

 INTRODUCTION
Food is the basic need of all living organisms & hence, its quality should be given top
priority. Food processing involves number of unit operations for material handling &
there are always chances that the food may be contaminated or adulterated. So, it is
essential to set the minimum limits of the desirable characteristics required & the
maximum limits of the undesirable components that the food should contain. This
helps to set common standards for commodities & to prevent confusion among the
consumers.

 QUALITY STANDARDS
Quality standards in relation to any food article of food mean the standards notified by
the Food Authority. Governmental or Private bodies that establish standards may be
the subjects of a certification program.

Food quality standards are the body of rules directly concerning food stuffs, whether
they take the form of official, semi-official or factory form, and whatever the aspect
treated, from food ingredients to retail marketing. There are four standards which are
commonly used for the maintenance of product quality are as follows:

1. Legal Standards – These are established by federal, central, state or municipal

agencies & are generally mandatory. These are setup by law or through regulation.
They are generally concerned with freedom from adulteration by insects, mold,
yeasts & pesticides.

2. Company or voluntary Standards – These are established by various segments

of food industry. These standards generally represent consumer image & become
symbol of product quality. These are used by private firms or supermarkets.

3. Industry Standards – These standards are established by an organizational

group to maintain the quality of the given commodity. These standards become
effective by pressure where other legal standards are not involved.

73
 4. Consumer or Grade Standards – These standards represent consumer’s
requirements of the product & generally based on the experience of the industry
for consumers.

Out of these, the legal standards are more important. It is therefore government
empowerment agencies which promulgated a no. of acts & orders to contract the
menace. Several agencies & institutions have also been created to lay down
standards for the quality of foods. The manner in which the food is processed &
packaged is also covered by a no. of regulations. Several types of standards apply
for evaluation, testing & monitoring dietary supplements. The food standards &
their regulations are used for the assurance of the food safety & consumer health.
Different countries have different standards based on the type of product being
manufactured, environmental & cultural practices, raw material, etc. So, in India,
food manufacturer follow Indian standard to sell their products in the domestic
markets & international standard to export the products out of country.

 NEED OF FOOD STANDARDS –

 The contamination of food can affect a large no. of populations at a time & hazards
may occur. So standards are needed to prevent the transmission of the diseases.
 The processors may add any prohibited preservative or permitted preservative in
excess of the prescribed limits. So standards are needed to check such
malpractices.
 To set common standards for commodities & prevents confusion among
consumers.
 To simplify the marketing of products.
 To prevent adulterations of food products.

 NEED OF FOOD LAWS –

 To maintain the quality of food produced in the country.
 To prevent exploitation of consumers by the sellers.
 To safeguard the health of consumers.
 To establish criteria for the quality of food products.

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 INDIAN STANDARDS/ LAWS AND REGULATIONS –
Government of India is fully aware of the possibilities of food being adulterated.
Therefore, several agencies, acts, standards & orders were formed to formulate
standards, implement them, check the adulteration & protect the consumers.

Indian Food Industry can be categorized in Organized (25%),

Small Scale industries (33%) & Unorganized (42%). Each country has its own set of
rules for its food products, which are necessary to protect the right & health of the
consumers & ensure fair practices in food trade. In India, different Government
Ministries are upholding different necessary & voluntary regulatory acts.

 Prevention of food adulteration act [1954] & rules [1955]

One of the early acts to be promulgated in this connection was the Prevention of Food
Adulteration Act of 1954, which has been in force since June 1, 1955. The objective
of this act was to ensure that food articles sold to the customers are pure and
wholesome. It also intended to prevent fraud or deception and encourages fair trade
practices. The act was amended in 1964, 1968, 1973 & 1976 and again in 2004 in the
light of experience gained, to plug loopholes of escape in the Act and to insure
stringent punishment for those indulging in malpractices.

The Act prohibits the manufacture, sale and distribution of not only adulterated foods
but also foods contaminated with toxicants and misbranded foods. A Central Food
Laboratory located at Calcutta and the Central Food Technological Research Institute,
Mysore has also been recognized for testing of adulterated foods. "A central
committee for food standards" has been constituted under the Act and has been
charged with the function of advising the Central Government on matters relating to
the Food standards. The Food & Health Authority (FHA) appointed at state level is
responsible for the good quality & standards of food available.

 Essential commodities act, 1955

This Act has since been used by the Government to regulate the production, supply
and distribution of a whole host of commodities it declares ‘essential’ in order to make
them available to consumers at fair prices. Additionally, the government can also fix

75
 the maximum retail price (MRP) of any packaged product that it declares an “essential
commodity”.
Numbers of orders has been listed in the provision of the act.
1. Meat food product order (MPO), 1973.
2. Solvent extracted oils, de-oiled meal & edible flour control order, 1967.
3. Vegetable oil products (regulation) order, 1998.
4. Sugar (control) order, 1966.
5. Milk & milk products order, 1992.
6. The coffee act, 1942.
7. The tea act, 1953 & the tea (distribution & export) control order, 1957.
8. Plant food & seeds order, 1989 (amendment 1992).
9. The edible oils packing (regulation) order, 1998.
10. Consumer protection act, 1986.
11. Environments protection act, 1986.
12. The insecticide act, 1968.
13. Export (quality control & inspection) act, 1963.
14. Fruit product order, 1955.

 Bureau of Indian standards [BIS]

BIS is the National Standards Organization established as society in 1947 as Indian
Standards Institution (ISI) & subsequently made its statutory body as BIS under
Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986. It comprises of members representing Industry,
Consumer Organizations, Scientific & Research Institutions, Central ministries, State
Govt. & Members of Parliament. The act is mandatory for milk powders, sweetened
condensed milk, infant formula, etc. It also ensures the quality to the consumers by
certification.

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 Plant quarantine order, 2003
India introduced the Plant Quarantine Order in 2003 to prohibit & regulate the import
of agricultural articles. Orders include:
 A ban on the import of certain plants & planting materials from designated
countries.
 A restriction on the import of other plants & plant materials to authorized
institutions.
 A requirement for additional declarations & special conditions for further
positive list of plants & plant materials.

 Food safety & standards act, 2006

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is an autonomous body
established under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India. The
FSSAI has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which
is a consolidating statute related to food safety and regulation in India. FSSAI is
responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and
supervision of food safety.
The FSSAI has its headquarters at New Delhi. The authority also has 6 regional offices
located in Delhi, Guwahati, Mumbai, Kolkata, Cochin & Chennai.

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 Agricultural produce [grading & marketing] act, 1937
It is popularly known as ‘AGMARK’. AGMARK is a certification mark employed on
agricultural products in India, assuring that they conform to a set of standards
approved by the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection an attached Office of the
Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare under Ministry of
Agricultural & Farmers Welfare an agency of the Government of India. The AGMARK
Head Office at Faridabad (Haryana) is legally enforced in India by the Agricultural
Produce (Grading and Marking) Act of 1937 (and amended in 1986). The
present AGMARK standards cover quality guidelines for 222 different commodities
spanning a variety of pulses, cereals, essential oils, vegetable oils, fruits and
vegetables and semi-processed products like vermicelli.

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  INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS

Quality of the food is the major concern worldwide now a day. So, each country
has formulated its own standards & created agencies for strict quality control
measures of the food products. Some of them are internationally accepted
standards. International standards may apply to a certain region of the world or
any trade between parties of different countries. Setting up of international
standards for food safety depends upon the following agreements:

 Agreement on Agriculture (AoA).

 Agreement on the Application of Sanitary & Phyto-sanitary measures (SPS
Agreement).
 Agreement on Technical barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement).
 International Health Regulation (2005).

 International standards organization [ISO]

The International Organization for Standardization is an independent, non-
governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of
the 164 member countries. It is the world's largest developer of voluntary international
standards and it facilitates world trade by providing common standards among
nations. More than twenty thousand standards have been set, covering everything
from manufactured products and technology to food safety, agriculture, and
healthcare.
Use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe,
reliable, and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity
while minimizing errors and waste. By enabling products from different markets to be
directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the
development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard
consumers and the end-users of products and services, ensuring that certified
products conform to the minimum standards set internationally.

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 Codex Alimentarius Commission [CAC]
The term Codex Alimentarius is taken from Latin and means food code. Its texts are
developed and maintained by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a body that
was established in early November 1961 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO), was joined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in
June 1962, and held its first session in Rome in October 1963. The Commission's
main goals are to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the
international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the World Trade
Organization as an international reference point for the resolution of
disputes concerning food safety and consumer protection.
As of 2012, there were 186 members of the Codex Alimentarius Commission: 186
member countries and one member organization, the European Union (EU).

SCOPE - The Codex Alimentarius covers all foods, whether processed, semi-
processed or raw. In addition to standards for specific foods, the Codex Alimentarius
contains general standards covering matters such as food labeling, food hygiene, food
additives and pesticide residues, and procedures for assessing the safety of foods
derived from modern biotechnology. It also contains guidelines for the management
of official i.e. governmental import and export inspection and certification systems for
foods.

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 Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO]

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is

a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to
defeat hunger and improve nutrition and food security. Its Latin motto, fiat panis,
translates to "let there be bread". Founded in October 1945, the FAO is the oldest
existing agency of the U.N.

The FAO is headquartered in Rome, Italy and maintains regional and field offices
around the world, operating in over 130 countries. It helps governments and
development agencies coordinate their activities to improve and develop agriculture,
forestry, fisheries, and land and water resources. It also conducts research, provides
technical assistance to projects, operates educational and training programs, and
collects data on agricultural output, production, and development.

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 World Trade Organization [WTO]

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that is

concerned with the regulation of international trade between nations. The WTO
officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by
123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. It is the largest international economic
organization in the world.

The WTO deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and intellectual property
between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade
agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants'
adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member
governments and ratified by their parliaments.

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 NEWER APPROACHES TO FOOD SAFETY
Let us first get an overall idea of frequently used additives / preservatives, where they are
used and their effect on health if consumed beyond certain limits.

: TOP 10 ADDITIVES :
I. Aspartame (E951) more popularly known as Nutrasweet and equal :

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Sugar free sweetener Diet foods, sugar frees. Erodes intelligence, affect short
Sugar free sodas/colas, term memory, Parkinson’s,
desserts, sugar free Alzheimer’s, brain tumor, diseases
gum, drink mixes, like lymphoma, diabetes, chronic
cereals, Ice tea. fatigue emotional disorders etc.

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 II. HIGH FRUCTOSE CORN SUGAR (HFCS) :

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Highly refined artificial Most processed foods, Increases your LDL (“bad”)
sweetener breads, candy, flavored cholesterol levels,
yogurts, salad dressing, contributes to diabetes and
cereals, canned tissue damage
vegetables etc.

III. MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE (MSG/E621):

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Flavor enhancer Soups, salad dressing, Depression, disorientation,

chips, frozen entrees, many eye damage, fatigue,
restaurant foods, Chinese headaches and obesity,
foods, many snacks, affects the neurological
cookies, seasonings. pathway of the brain.

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IV. TRANSFAT :

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Fat Deep fried fast foods, Increases LDL (“bad”)

certain processed foods cholesterol levels &
made with margarine or decreases HDL (“good”)
partially hydrogenated cholesterol, increases the
vegetable oils, chips and risk of heart diseases and
crackers. strokes, contributes to
diabetes.

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 V. BLUE #1 AND BLUE #2 (E133), RED DYE #3 (ALSO RED #40) (E124),
YELLOW #6(E110) AND YELLOW TARTRAZINE (E102) –
BANNED IN SOME COUNTRIES :

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Food colors BLUE: Candy, cereals, soft BLUE: May cause

drinks, sports drinks. chromosomal damage
RED: Fruit cocktail, cherry pie RED: Thyroid cancer and
mix, ice cream, candy, bakery chromosomal damage
products and more. YELLOW: May cause
YELLOW: Cheese, macaroni chromosomal damage,
and cheese, candy and kidney and adrenal gland
carbonated beverages, tumors.
lemonade.

VI. SODIUM SULFITE (E221) :

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Preservative Wine and dried fruits 1% of people are sensitive to sulfites

in food, sulfite sensitive people may
experience headache, rashes and
breathing problems.

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 VII. SODIUM NITRATE (E251)/SODIUM NITRITE

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Preservative, coloring Processed meat Highly carcinogenic,

and flavoring affects internal organs-
liver and pancreas in
particular.

VIII. BHA AND BHT (E320):

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Preservatives. Maintain Cereals, chewing gum, Neurological system of the

color and flavor potato chips, and vegetable brain, alter behavior and
oils etc. has potential to cause
cancer.

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 IX. SULFUR DIOXIDE (E220):

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Toxic additive Beer, soft drinks, dried Bronchial problems particularly

fruits, juices, cordials, in those prone to asthma, low
wine, vinegar and potato blood pressure, flushing tingling
products. sensations or anaphylactic
shock.

X. POTASSIUM BROMATE:

CATEGORY USED IN EFFECTS

Additive to increase the Breads and rolls. Causes cancer.

volume.

 While there are Govt. regulations on food safety in India, awareness and
adherence is not adequate.
 Therefore, considering the quantum of ADDITIVES, PRESERVATIVES &
CONTAMINATIONS in our food, one has to be cautious in the approach to food
safety.

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 APPROACHES TO FOOD SAFETY :

I. KNOW ABOUT THE MANUFACTURE :

a. Understand manufacturer’s quality standards.
b. Certification on food safety standards.
c. Other quality certification.
d. Their reputation.

II. KNOW THE INGREDIENTS :

a. In all the food items, READ the ingredients including all the additives and
nutrition data.
b. Avoid food with confusing/generic statements in ingredients.

III. LOOK FOR ADDITIVES :

a. Understand completely the additives and preservatives in the food.
b. Understand the possible contaminations in the food.

IV. LOOK FOR FAT CONTENT :

a. Saturated fat (not good)
b. Un-saturated fat (good)
c. Trans fat (very bad) And choose considering your cholesterol level.
V. LIMIT CONSUMPTION OF FOOD WITH ADDITIVES:
a. Class II preservatives.
b. Chemical color additives.
c. Chemical flavoring agents.
d. Chemical taste enhancers.
e. Trans fat.

VI. AVOID CONTENT THAT ARE RESTRICTED ON HEALTH GROUNDS:

a. These contents are to be avoided due to your diet restrictions on medical
grounds as advised by your doctor.

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 OTHER APPROACHES TO FOOD SAFETY

APPROACH TO TESTING

The performance of a HACCP system depends on the effectiveness of PRPs

& the degree of commitment
Testing in a processing plant is carried out at various locations:
Incoming materials
Along the process
Processing environments
End of manufacture
Durability assessment

OBTAINING SAFE FOODS

Safe food is obtained through preventive control, i.e.

Verified PRPs
Validated control measures
HACCP
Lot-by-lot testing is not an effective tool to provide nor document safe foods.
Product testing can be useful to assist in verifying the continuous
performance of the food safety control system.

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 FOOD ADULTERATION

Adulteration of food stuffs is commonly practised in India by the trade. The consumers
like to get maximum quantity for a price as low as possible. The sellers must meet the
needs of the buyers, to be able to exist. This is a vicious cycle. When the price of the food
production is higher than the price which the consumer is prepared to pay, seller is
compelled to supply a food product of inferior quality. Thus adulteration occurs.

International addition, substitution or abstraction or substances which adversely affect

the purity and quality of foods.
Incidental contamination of foods with deleterious substances such as toxins and
insecticides due to ignorance or lack of proper storage facilities.
Contamination of food with harmful insect, microorganism like bacteria, fungus, molds,
etc. during production, storage and handling.

Food which are commonly adulterated are:

1. Milk and milk products
2. Edible oils and fats
3. Cereals and pulses
4. Prepared food , sweets , sweeteners
5. Spices
6. Beverages
7. Other products.

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 TYPES OF ADULTERANTS
Adulteration may be intentional and unintentional. The former is a wilful at on the part
of the adulterator intended to increase the margin of profit. Incidental contamination is
usually due to ignorance, negligence or lack of proper facilities.

 INTENTIONAL ADULTERANTS

Intentional adulterants are sand, marble chips, stones mud, chalk powder, water,
mineral oil and coal tar, dyes. These adulterants cause harmful effects on the body.

INTENTIONAL ADULTERANTS AND METHODS OF DETECTION

Name of food Adulterant Simple method for detection of

article adulterant
Asafoetida Soap stone or other Shake with water, soap stone or other
earthy matter earthy matter will settle to the bottom.
Starch Same test as in the case of milk.

Bajra Infected with ergot Long irregular black grain indicates

ergot. In 2 per cent salt solution ergot
floats.
Bengal gram flour Yellow maize flour Rubbing with fingers and roughness
indicates presence of maize flour.
Black pepper Light berries Light berries or papaya seeds float on
spirit or carbon tetrachloride.

Cinnamon Cassia bark Cinnamon bark are very thin and can
be rolled. Cassia barks are thick and
stiff.

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Coriander powder Common salt To 5ml of sample add a few drops of
silver nitrate. White precipitate
indicates adulteration.
Cumin seeds Grass seed coloured Rub the cumin seeds on palms. If
with charcoal dust palms turn black adulteration is
indicated.
Edible oils Argemone oil Add concentrate nitric acid to a sample
and shake carefully. Red to reddish
brown colour in acid layer indicates the
presence of Argemone oil.
Ghee or butter Mashed potato, sweet Add a drop of iodine solution. Iodine
potato and other which is brownish in colour dissolving
starches. 2.5g of iodic crystals and 3g potassium
iodine in water to make solution of
100ml.
Honey molasses A cotton wick dipped in pure honey
when lighted with a match stick burns.
If the adulterated the presence of water
will not allow them to burn.
Sago Sand or talcum On burning leaves no ash. Adulterated
sago will leave behind appreciable
quantity of ash.
Sugar Chalk powder Dissolve in a glass of water, chalk will
settle down at the bottom.
Supari Colour and saccharin Colour dissolve in water. Saccharin
gives excessive and lingering sweet
taste.
Tea leaves Exhausted tea and black Tea leaves sprinkled on wet filter paper
or bengal gram dal husk would immediately release added
with colour or any colour.
artificial colour

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milk Water\defaulted milk The lactometer reading should not
ordinarily be less than 1.028.
rice Marble or other stones A simple test is to place a small
quantity of rice on the palm of the hand
and gradually immerse the same in
water. The stone chips will sink.
saffron Dyed tendrils of maize Genuine saffron will not break easily
cob like artificial one. The colour dissolves
in water if artificially coloured. Pure
saffron when allowed to dissolve in
water will continue to give its saffron
colour so long as its lasts.
Wheat flour Maida When dough is prepared from resulted
wheat flour, more water has to be used
and Chapatis prepared out of this will
blow out.
Edible oils Argemone oil Add concentrated nitric acid to a
sample and shake carefully. Red to
reddish brown colour in acid layer
indicates the presence of argemone
oil.
turmeric Yellow clay Mix powder with water and allow to
stand for some time. The yellow clay
will settle down at the bottom leaving
turmeric on the top.

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INCIDENTAL ADULTERANTS

Contamination of foods with harmful micro-organisms

Raw foods such as meat, fish, milk and vegetables grown on sewage are likely to be
contaminated with harmful micro-organisms. These are genetically destroyed during
cooking or processing of food some of the micro-organisms may survive due to
inadequate heat processing. Further, some of the foods, if consumed in the row state,
may cause food poisoning. Recent studies have shown that food grains, legumes and oil
seeds when stored in humid atmosphere are infected by pathogenic fungus which can
cause serious illness.

METALLIC CONTAMINATION

Lead is a toxic element and contamination of food with lead can cause toxic symptoms.
The common signs of lead poisoning are nausea, abdominal with mercuric salts contain
large amount of mercury. The toxic effects of methyl mercury are neurological, when the
brain is affected, the subject become blind, deaf and paralysis of the various mussels
make him a cripple.

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Contamination beings when farmer used pesticides to protect crops. The health department sprays
pesticides to control malaria-causing Mosquitoes.

Residues remain long after spraying. Cattle fodder and chicken feed are affected. Ground water is
poisoned, meat, fish, milk and egg get toxic.

More spraying is undertaking to prevent fungus and rodents from attacking stored grain.

Sellers dip vegetables in pesticides to make them look fresh as well as to preserve them. Oils and
sweets are adulterated with prohibited substances.

Washing vegetables and other foodstuffs helps. But cooking rarely destroyed toxic residues. When
ingested, pesticides are absorbed by the small intestine.

The fatty tissues distributed throughout the body store these pesticides. These can damage vital
organs like the heart, brain, kidney and liver.

THE POISON CHAIN SEQUENCE OF INCIDENTAL ADULTERANTS IN FOODS

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NEW ADULTERANTS

- The newer adulterants include the legumes such as imported toxic lentils marketed as
local lentils, local legume like Subabul seeds, flours made from moldy wheat,
Strychnos potatorum, a forest product in Arecanut.
- The Lathyrus sativus, Lens culinaris, Andvicia sativa are three closely related species
containing usual amino acid.
- Ginger is used widely in culinary practised in India in the fresh and dry states. It is an
inorganic pigment used as laundry whitener.

FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
● Food Microbiology :
- Food microbiology is specifically concerned with the desirable and undesirable
effects microbes can have on the quality and safety of food products.
 Microbiologists study bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, including their
interactions with humans, animals, plants, and the environment.
 Microbe (any microscopic entity that exhibits the properties of life) to collectively
refer to any of these biologically active and microscopic entities.
 There is an infectious agent responsible for numerous neurodegenerative
diseases found in animals and humans known as “prions”, which will be covered
in this module.
 Microbes are involved in food spoilage, food preservation, and foodborne illness.
We will conclude by considering the sources of microbes and prions and the ways
in which both may be controlled in food processing environments.

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● Types of Microbes :-

1. Bacteria:- Bacteria are small, single-celled organisms that occur in almost any
natural environment .
● Viewed under a microscope, different kinds of bacteria will have different
shapes or forms.
● A spherical shaped bacterium (singular) is called a Coccus.
● A group of spherical-shaped bacteria (plural) are called Cocci.
● A rod shaped bacterium is called a Bacillus.
● A group of rod-shaped bacteria are called Bacilli.
● Some species of bacteria appear as individual cells microscopically. Other
bacterial species may combine to form pairs (e.g., diplococci), groups of four
(tetrads), grape-like clusters (e.g., staphylococci), and chains (e.g.,
streptococci or streptobacilli).
● Many bacteria have projections from their cell walls called Fimbriae (or
attachment pili).
● Certain bacteria (e.g., Clostridia spp.) have the capacity to sporulate or form
spores, also called Endospores.
● A spore-forming bacterium encapsulates its vital structures in a tough outer
coat when environmental conditions become harsh. Spores are resistant to
heat, chemicals, and other environmental conditions.

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2. Fungi:- The fungi consist of two major groups of microbes, molds and yeasts.
● Molds are multi-cellular organisms.
● Yeasts are single-celled organisms.
● Both molds and yeasts are widely distributed in nature, both in the soil and in
dust carried by air.
● Molds have a branching filamentous structure, and can develop into colonies
visible as a colorful, furry or downy coating on food or surfaces.
● They reproduce by producing small spores, which are not related to bacterial
spores mentioned above.
● Mold spores can be picked up and spread by air currents. If mold spores settle
on suitable surfaces, they will begin to germinate and produce new mold
growth.
● Yeasts are usually egg-shaped, and tend to be smaller than molds.
● Yeasts can be spread via air currents.
● They reproduce by a process known as Budding.
● Visible colonies of yeast are generally slimy in appearance and creamy white.

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3. Parasites:
- Parasites are living organisms that derive nourishment and protection from other
living organisms called Hosts.
● These organisms live and reproduce within the tissues and organs of infected
human and animal hosts.
● There are different types of parasites, and they range in size from single-celled
protozoa to multi-cellular worms.
● The respective lifecycle of different parasites also varies. While some parasites
use a permanent host, others go through a series of developmental phases
using different animals or human hosts.
● They may be transmitted from host to host through consumption of
contaminated food and water. Several parasites have emerged as significant
causes of foodborne and waterborne illness.

4. Viruses:
- Viruses are much smaller than bacteria. They are too small to be seen with a
standard light microscope.
● An electron microscope is necessary to see viruses.
● They are composed of genetic material—either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
or ribonucleic acid (RNA)—enclosed in a protein coat.

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 ● Once inside the host cell, the viral genetic material directs the host cell’s
“machinery” to make more virus particles, which interferes with normal host
cell function and may result in destruction of the host cell.

 Microbial Growth:- If favorable environmental conditions exist, bacterial

growth occurs.

○ Bacteria reproduce by dividing, a process called binary fission.

○ The cocci shapes become oval while rod shapes stretch to nearly twice their
length.

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 ○ Theoretical growth patterns can be represented by a graph of bacterial
numbers over time and broken down into four different stages or phases.
○ The first phase is called the lag phase.
○ The lag phase occurs when a bacterial population first enters a nutrient rich
environment.
○ The rate of growth is very slow because the bacterial cells are adjusting to
their new environment.
○ After some hours or days, depending on environmental conditions and
characteristics of the particular bacterial species, the bacterial cells begin to
rapidly multiply. This phase is called the log phase because growth occurs
exponentially and is depicted on a logarithmic scale on the vertical axis of
the growth curve.
○ This doubling time can vary among species of bacteria, but for most is
between 10 to 30 minutes under optimal conditions for growth.
○ The third phase is the stationary phase.
○ In this phase the rate of bacterial growth is the same as the rate of bacterial
death, because the population of bacteria has reached its maximum due to
limitations in the availability of nutrients and an increase in bacterial waste
products.
○ The fourth phase is the death phase.
○ In this phase, more bacterial cells are dying than those that are dividing.

● Factors Affecting Mirobial Growth :-

There are six basic environmental factors that impact bacterial growth. An easy
way to remember these conditions is to use the memory device FAT TOM.

Food composition Acidity Temperature

Time Oxygen Moisture

1. Food Composition :- A suitable supply of nutrients is the most important condition

affecting growth of bacteria.

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● These include solutions of sugars or other carbohydrates, proteins, and small
amounts of other materials such as phosphates, chlorides and calcium.
● If the nutrient supply is removed, bacteria will not multiply.

2. Acidity :- Each species of microbe grows within an optimal range of pH values.

● Most microbes thrive when the pH is near neutral or slightly acidic, but there are
exceptions.
● Most bacteria will not grow at pH levels below 4.6 because the environment is too
acidic.
● On the basis of pH, food products are often grouped as high-acid foods (pH below
4.6) and low-acid foods (pH 4.6 and above).
● Spoilage microbes are more active in the pH range of 6.0 to 6.4.

3. Temperature :-All bacteria, molds, and yeasts have an optimum, maximum, and
minimum temperature for growth.
● Environmental temperature not only impacts the rate of growth of microbes but can
determine which microbial species thrive.
● A temperature difference of only a few degrees may favor the growth of an entirely
different population of microbes.
● Below approximately 41°F proliferation of spoilage microbes is slow, and growth of
most pathogenic microbes stops.
● Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), a bacterial pathogen of concern in many ready-to-eat
products, is a notable exception.
In food processing, the temperature range of 41 – 140°F is commonly referred to as
the danger zone, because the optimum, maximum, and minimum temperature for
growth of most microbes will fall somewhere within that range.

4. Time:
 Permitting sufficient time for microbes to adapt to their environment (lag phase) is
necessary before they can enter the rapid growth phase (log phase).
 The doubling time for most bacterial species is between 10-30 minutes under optimal
conditions for growth.

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5. Oxygen: Similar to temperature, oxygen availability can determine which microbes
will be active.

● Those that require the total absence of oxygen are called obligate anaerobes.
● Microbes that have an absolute requirement for oxygen are called obligate aerobes.
● Some microbes are called facultative anaerobes, because they can grow in the
presence or absence of oxygen.
● Molds require oxygen for growth. Yeasts grow best under aerobic conditions, but
some can grow slowly under anaerobic conditions.
● The kinds of bacteria that cause food spoilage tend to be aerobes, but those that
cause foodborne illness are anaerobes or facultative anaerobes.

6. Moisture: The availability of water in a food (referred to as water activity, or a w) is an

important factor for microbial growth.

● Generally, bacteria have the highest aw requirements, molds have the lowest, and
yeasts are intermediate.
● Most moist food products will have greater water availability to support microbial
growth than dryer food products, but there are exceptions.

 Microbes and Food Safety:- Certain microbes associated with food can also be
harmful. We refer to these as foodborne pathogens.
o The most important bacterial pathogens include Salmonella, Campylobacter,
Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens,
Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, and the Shiga toxin-producing E. coli
(STEC; includes E. coli O157:H7, O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, and O145
serogroups).
o Salmonella and STEC are two of the most common causes of large outbreaks.
o Molds and yeasts do not appear to be responsible for any meat- or poultry-related
foodborne illnesses, maybe because significant mold or yeast growth is easily

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 recognized and the food discarded. Some molds do produce toxins (e.g., aflatoxin
produced by Aspergillus spp.), but food-related illness appears to be associated
with nuts and grains not meat and poultry.
o Also, some molds on food products may cause allergic reactions and respiratory
problems in sensitive individuals exposed to the mold.
o Important foodborne parasites are Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium parvum,
Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spiralis, Taenia saginata
(beef tapeworm), and Taenia solium (pork tapeworm).
o Trichinosis (or trichinellosis), caused by Trichinella spiralis, was historically an
important foodborne illness resulting from the consumption of undercooked pork
products.

● Prevention of Contamination:- Contamination can be minimized or avoided

altogether by following appropriate sanitation procedures, good manufacturing
procedures (GMPs), and procedures for employee hygiene. Good sanitary
dressing process control measures in slaughter processes not only minimize
contamination of carcasses, but also reduce the level of processing environment
contamination.

● Sanitation:– Microbes can be found in processing environments, which

emphasizes the need for effective sanitation procedures for equipment and floors.
Adequate cleaning and sanitizing procedures will help to ensure that little organic
matter is available to support microbial growth. Altering the pH of a microbe’s
environment may involve the use (and rotation) of acid and alkaline sanitizing
agents. Moisture control in the processing environment is an important means of
protecting against microbial proliferation. This may occur through measures
designed to keep the environment dry, adequate ventilation, or adequate plumbing
to properly convey liquid waste out of the processing area. Employee hygiene,
airflow, and traffic flow of people and equipment between areas are also important
to protect against cross-contamination.

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● Temperature:– Temperature controls are important in all classes of product.
Maintaining products under refrigeration is one of the most important ways to
inhibit microbial growth. Cooking product to temperatures adequate enough to
eliminate pathogens of concern is another way to control microbes. Many
pathogens are fairly easily destroyed with relatively mild cooking. Bacterial spores
and toxins, though, can be very heat resistant. Inactivation of spores and some
toxins requires thermal processing to high temperatures under pressure as in
canning operations. The time it takes for products to reach a particular temperature
is also important in inhibiting microbial growth. Chilling raw, heat-treated, and fully-
cooked products as rapidly as possible helps to ensure products do not linger in
the “danger zone” for too long, which could result in the outgrowth of bacteria,
including spore-forming bacteria and toxin-producing bacteria.

● Acidity:– Product pH can also be manipulated, though, to inhibit certain microbes

in certain products. For example acidifying agents (acidulants) may be added to
certain products to reduce pH. Similarly, some products are naturally acidified by
the addition of fermentative microbes. Some bacteria can survive in acidic
conditions, so fermentation alone cannot be relied upon to completely eliminate all
harmful bacteria.

● Salting and Drying:– Certain production processes involve steps to reduce the
water available for microbial growth through the addition of high concentrations of
salt or actual drying of the product. Salt and low water activity in a product can be
very effective in controlling the growth of some harmful bacteria, but some
organisms (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus) can survive in high salt environments.

 Vacuum Packaging:– Reducing the oxygen level through vacuum packaging

processes is a common method of enhancing the shelf life of food products.
However, vacuum packaging reduces the growth of mainly spoilage microbes.
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 Pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium botulinum and Listeria monocytogenes
can still grow in vacuum packaged products. Given the enhanced shelf life, it is
important for processors to consider other measures necessary to protect
consumers from pathogens in vacuum packaged products.

NUTRITIONAL LABELLING

Nutrition labels describe the nutrient content of a food and are intended to guide the
consumer in food selection. The nutrition information provided must be selected on the

basis of consistency with dietary recommendations. Selection of the specific nutrients or

food components to be listed should further take into account label space, the analytical

feasibility of measuring the particular nutritional component within the food matrix, and
the relative costs of such analyses. Nutrition information provided on labels should be

truthful and not mislead consumers. At the same time, labelling regulations should
provide incentives to manufacturers to develop products that promote public health and
assist consumers in following dietary recommendations. It is likely that in many countries,
there would be some segments of the population that would benefit from information

about the composition of foods. In these cases, countries should consider the need to
provide for appropriate labelling and its presentation relative to existing guidelines and
approaches. As nutrition-labelling efforts have evolved, different approaches and legal

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requirements have been established. These create difficulties in developing and

harmonizing nutrition information listings, which have broad international applications.

For these reasons, the Codex Guidelines on Nutrition Labeling play an important role to

provide guidance to member countries when they want to develop or update their
national regulations and to encourage harmonization of national standards with

international standards. These Guidelines are based on the principle that no food should
be described or presented in a manner that is false, misleading or deceptive. The

Guidelines include provisions for voluntary nutrient declaration, calculation and

presentation of nutrient information. The Guidelines on Claims establish general

principles to be followed and leave the definition of specific claims to national regulations.
Definitions are provided for a number of claims (nutrient content, comparative claims,

nutrient function claims) as well as general requirements concerning consumer

information in relation with claims. Nutrition labelling by itself cannot solve nutrition

problems. It should be seen as one of the elements of nutrition policy and should be
envisaged in the larger perspective of consumer education, which in its turn is part of an

overall development policy. Exchange of information at the regional and sub-regional

level is important, as each country can learn from the experience of others and regional

co-ordination and co-operation can be developed.

PRODUCT LABELLING

 Product labelling is a part of the packaging of a product. Labelling is the

written information on the packages. These written labels on the package
cover important information which needs to be communicated to a
customer. Product labelling is different from packaging. A product
packaging might have the brand colours, the logo and the material as well
as the shape of the package etc. The product is the informational / written
part.

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  Example – A food product like Maggi noodles might have the ingredients
of the product as well as the instructions on how to make the product
written and illustrated on the package. These instructions are nothing else
but product labelling by the brand.

 Product labelling can be as less as simple one or two lines on the back
of the product. Or it can be as much as the whole back end of the product
being full of written information.

 All these labelling requirements come from the regulatory body. There
are numerous regulatory bodies for all products. So, the regulatory and
governing body for the food product is the food and drugs administration
(FDA). Even for cosmetics, FDA can decide the labelling requirements.
 All these labelling requirements come from the regulatory body. There
are numerous regulatory bodies for all products. So, the regulatory and
governing body for the food product is the food and drugs administration
(FDA).

Importance of labelling a product

1) Brand and Product Identity

The label on the product is the primary product identity. The name of the product and the
brand itself is considered as part of product labelling and these product labels form the
brand identity.

Example – HUL generally mentions its own parent brand on all its products because it
wants to remind customers that their products are under the umbrella branding of HUL
and are not independent. Furthermore, it might be a legal requirement to publish the
parent brand along with the sub-brand.

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2) Grade and type

Every Sunsilk shampoo has different types. Besides changing the design and packaging
style of the product, they also change the label on the shampoo. Some of them will say
that the shampoo is Anti-dandruff shampoo whereas the other will say smooth silk. Thus,
product labelling can be used to differentiate between the various grades and type of the
product.

If you were to buy beer, then the beer does mention whether it is strong or mild. This is
the grade of beer or drinks you are buying. Similarly, even packaged food industry
commonly uses various grades to differentiate their products.

3) Requirement by law

As mentioned above, there are numerous labelling requirements which might be specified
by a regulatory body. Some of them which are very common include Ingredients,
manufacturing plant, batch number, expiry date, MRP, safety instructions etc. Thus, a
company has to consider all legal requirements before deciding on the product labelling.

4) Description

By law, a product might not be required to print usage instructions on the package of the
product. Some products use a manual to communicate the same whereas others imbibe
usage instructions on the packaging itself.

If you buy Knorr soup, the package will tell you and give you specific instructions on how
to make the soup. If you buy Kellogg’s corn flakes, the package will, in fact, give you
specific diet instructions besides showing the normal ingredients and calorific value. Thus,
in a description, we generally use instructions such as How to use, how to store etc.

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 FOOD PACKAGING

Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides

protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs. It
may bear a nutrition facts label and other information about food being offered for sale.

Packaging and Food Safety

While food packaging is an integral component of food industry and helps to store food
and beverages in hygienic manner, it can at times be a cause of concern for food safety.
Some packaging materials such as certain types of plastic, polythenes, and styrofoam
can release toxins when they are heated and can be dangerous to consumers. Packaging
materials which are irradiated (along with food) can transfer unsafe nonfood substances
into the food. Food packaging makes use of a variety of substances, including dyes for
printing colorful labels, and glues and adhesives for keeping packaging closed. In order
to protect consumers effectively, the relevant authority individually certifies each of these
food packaging materials subjecting them to rigorous testing protocols.

Most materials used for packaging foods belong to the following classes: metals, glass,
paper and polymers. Some packaging media consist of a combination of two or more
materials of the classes listed above. Enameled (lacquered) metal and laminates formed
by binding together layers of polymer, paper and aluminum foil are common examples of
such composite materials.
The chemical composition and physical properties of packaging materials determine their
ability to fulfill the various functions expected from the package. The most important
properties to be considered in this context are transport properties, optical properties,
mechanical properties and chemical reactivity.

Food packaging contaminants are organic or inorganic chemicals that originate from the
food packaging. They are intentionally added substances with a technical function,
manufacturing byproducts, impurities of starting materials, or contaminants that are
present due to packaging or material recycling.

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Food packaging contaminants can originate either from the direct food contact material
itself or from adhesives, printing inks, and secondary packaging. In the United States of
America (USA), food packaging contaminants are also known as indirect food
additives and as such not considered to be food contaminants.

FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS

Metals
Metal containers offer the advantage of superior mechanical strength, impermeability to
mass transfer and to light, good thermal conductivity, and resistance to relatively high
temperature. The latter two properties make metal packages particularly suitable for in-
package thermal processing
Glass
The glass used for making containers (bottles, jars) for food packaging is soda-lime glass,
containing typically 68–73% SiO2, 12–15% Na2O, 10–13% CaO and other oxides in lesser
proportions (Robertson, 1993). The advantages of glass as a packaging material are
transparence, inertness, impermeability, rigidity, thermal resistance (when properly
heated), and general consumer appeal. Its disadvantages are fragility and weight. Glass
containers are standardized to a much lesser degree than metal cans.
Paper
Paper products are widely used as food packages. In fact, paper, in one form or another,
must have been one of the earliest food packaging materials. The main advantages of
paper as a packaging material are its low cost, wide availability, low weight, printability
and mechanical strength. Its most serious shortcoming is its sensitivity to moisture.
Polymers
This is, quantitatively as well as qualitatively, the most important class of packaging
materials, both for food and for non-food applications. The reasons for their success and
rapidly increasing share in packaging technology are numerous. Polymeric materials are
fairly varied and versatile. They can be flexible or rigid, transparent or opaque,
thermosetting or thermoplastic (heat-sealable), fairly crystalline or practically amorphous.
They can be produced as films or as containers of many shapes and sizes.

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 GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS
INTRODUCTION:

In July 2011, a group of protesters from Greenpeace, a non-governmental, environmental

organization, broke into an experimental farm of the Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), an Australian federal government agency for
scientific research, and destroyed the entire crop of genetically modified wheat. In August
2013, a research field of Golden Rice managed by the Philippine Government’s
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), and other public sector partners was
attacked by anti-GMO (Genetically-Modified Organisms) activists. “Golden Rice”
expresses high levels of beta-carotene (a precursor of vitamin A) thanks to its modified
genetic properties. After 25 years’ bench work in the laboratory, Golden Rice, designed
as a cheap and effective way to deliver dietary source of vitamin A for developing areas
of the world, had finally reached the point where field trials were practical.

Although different in many ways from the 2011 CSIRO break-in, the 2013 incident
triggered strong condemnation by the scientific community, though that reaction failed to
achieve consensus among public voices. The fundamental reason for the failure is the
continuing lack of comprehensive understanding of current agricultural problems and the
nature of GMO. In this review, starting with the history of GMO, we address the motivation
for GMO (including GM foods), their benefits and risks, as well as the impact of recent
technology developments on GMO/GM foods.

GMOs and GM food:

Genetic modification is a biological technique that effects alterations in the genetic

machinery of all kinds of living organisms. GMO is defined as follows by WHO (World
Health Organization): “Organisms (i.e. plants, animals or microorganisms) in which the
genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating
and/or natural recombination”.

The definition seeks to distinguish the direct manipulation of genetic material from the
millennial-old practice of improvement in the genetic stock of plants and animals by
selective breeding. With DNA recombinant technology, genes from one organism can be

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transferred into another, usually unrelated, organism. Similarly, the FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and the European Commission define a
GMO as a product “not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination”.

“GM foods” refer to foods produced from genetically modified plants or animals. However,
Oliver pointed out the aforementioned definitions are somewhat imperfect, giving Triticale
as an example. Triticale is a grain widely used in bread and pasta. It was developed the
19th century by crossing wheat with rye (a conventional, selective breeding approach).
However, the resulting hybrid is sterile, and in the 1930s, the chemical colchicine was
used to generate polyploid embryo cells, which are fertile. Triticale would seem
unambiguously to fit the definition of a GMO, even if the genetic modification is somewhat
primitive by current molecularly biological standards. Thus, Oliver suggests
“biotechnologically modified organism” as a closer definition for GMO.

History of GM foods:

The genesis of DNA modification technology can be traced back to 1944, when scientists
discovered that genetic material can be transferred between different species [4]. Several
hallmark papers paved the way to the modern science of molecular biology. In 1954,
Watson and Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA, and the “central dogma”
– DNA transcribed to messenger RNA, translated to protein – was established. Nobel
Laureate Marshall Nirenberg and others had deciphered the genetic code by 1963. In
1973, Cohen et al. developed DNA recombination technology, showing that genetically
engineered DNA molecules can be transferred among different species. The history really
begins with Charles Darwin’s notions of species variation and selection. IT presents a
sort of time capsule of the seminal discoveries that are crucial to modern genomics. The
first genetically modified plants – antibiotic resistant tobacco and petunias – were
produced by three independent research groups in 1983. Scientists in China first
commercialized genetically modified tobacco in early 1990s. In 1994 the US market saw
the first genetically modified species of tomato with the property of delayed ripening
approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Since then, several transgenic
crops have received FDA approvals, including “Canola” with modified oil composition,

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cotton and soybeans resistant to herbicides, etc. GM foods that are available in the market
include potatoes, eggplants, strawberries, carrots, and many more are in pipeline.

Need of GM food:

Before starting discussing the merits and demerits of GM foods, it is important to set forth
why there is such great effort to develop them. There are three major challenges we are
facing that motivate our resort to the new technology for help.

1. Expansion of population

The current global human population is approximately 7.35 billion (United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division World Population
Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables). Fig. 1A shows the
distribution of population around the world (upper panel). Although growth rate of the
world population has slowed in recent years (1.24% per year 10 years ago versus 1.18%
per year in recent years), an annual addition of 83 million people is expected. The
estimated global population will be 8.5 billion in 2030, and 9.7 billion in 2050 (Fig. 1B).
The expansion of population is one of the major contributors to undernourishment around
the world. In 2016, the U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) reported that 795
million people in the world were undernourished, among which 780 million people in
developing regions. Therefore the eradication of hunger should be a priority of policy-
making. Arguably the most realistic solution for matching increased global demand for
crops is to boost the crop yields on currently cultivated land. Currently, the rate of increase
in crop-yield is less than 1.7% whereas the annual increase in yield needs to be 2.4% to
meet the demands of population growth, improved nutritional standards and decreasing
arability (see below). This is a daunting task, which seems only achievable by means of
optimization of crop genetics coupled with quantitative improvements in management of
the agricultural system.

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2. Decrease in arable

land FAO predicted that the finite amount of arable land available for food production per
person will decrease from the current 0.242 ha to 0.18 ha by 2050. This problem
confounds those of population growth and malnutrition. Yet our ability to bring additional
acreage under cultivation seems limited. The alternative is greater yield per acre, which
in turn must come from greater agriculture inputs, such as fertilizer, water, pest and weed
control – and/or genetic improvement. This scenario is compounded by several
complicating factors: (1) the increased demand for biofuel and feedstock production; (2)
accelerated urbanization; (3) land desertification, salinization, and degradation; (4)
altered land use from staple foods to pasture, driven by socioeconomic considerations;
(5) climate change; (6) water resource limitation.

3. Bottleneck of conventional and modern breeding

Conventional breeding relies on sexual crossing of one parental line with another parental
line, in hopes of expressing some desired property (e.g. disease resistance). To select
for the desired trait and to dilute irrelevant or undesired traits, breeders choose the best
progeny and back-cross it to one of its parents (plant or animal). The process usually
takes several years (depending on generational time, e.g. 10–15 years for wheat) before
actual expression of the desired trait that can be assessed, and further expanded by
conventional breeding to commercially useful numbers. Besides the inherently long
generation times, the following facts limit the development of conventional breeding:
Prerequisite to breeding strategies is the existence of genetic variation that is, existence
of an available gene-pool manifesting the desired traits, and sexual compatibility of
organisms with those traits. In fact, nowadays genetic variety has dwindled (probably as
a result of past efforts at optimization), thus we operate in a restricted space for
improvement. Modern methodologies can increase this space by utilizing chemicals or
radiation to introduce new mutational variation. However, these are blunt instruments that
result in improved traits only by random chance and sparse luck. Indeed, the non-
selectivity of these methods probably extend the breeding timeline. Taking these facts
into account, the emergence of biological technologies and the development of GM foods

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promise to reduce dramatically production timelines to new strains, and to provide us with
optional strategies to achieve sustainable global food security

Generation of GM crops:

In order to generate GM foods, researchers need to introduce the gene(s) coding for
certain traits into a plant cell, and then regenerate a plant through tissue culture. When
and where the transferred gene is expressed is usually inherent in the scheme to optimize
the property of the product. Generally speaking, there are three ways to modify genes in
the cells.

1. Directly transfer DNA

The most widely used technique for delivering exogenous DNA is microparticle
bombardment. The technique was developed in the late 1980s by Sanford. Naked,
engineered DNA is coated on gold or tungsten microparticles, which, in turn, are
delivered at high velocity into targeted tissues, such as embryonic tissues from the
seed or meristems, propelled by pressurized helium. There are other ways to deliver
DNA into plant cells, including electroporation (letting the negatively charged DNA
move down an electric potential gradient) into protoplasts, microinjection, chloroplast
transformation, silicon-carbide slivers, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, etc.However,
particle bombardment remains more effective at transferring large DNA fragments –
even whole chromosomes – simultaneously.
2. Indirectly using bacterial vehicle
The use of Agrobacterium tumefaciens opened a new era for inserting exogenous
genes into plant cells. The soil bacterium A. tumefaciensinfects plants, forming a gall
at the crown. The bacteria actually alter the genome of the plant, not only causing
proliferation of the plant cells, but also enabling the plant to produce modified amino
acids as a specialized food source for themselves. The bacteria possess a tumor-
inducing plasmid (“Ti-plasmid”), which enable them to accomplish gene-insertion;
researchers hijack the plasmid by inserting “designer gene’s” into the T-DNA (transfer
DNA) section of the Ti-plasmid.
3. Direct editing of genomic DNA

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In 2012, the “CRISPR-Cas9” system was developed. It constitutes a revolutionary
genome editing tool, and provides another method to alter genes in various type of
cells. This technique dramatically increases the efficiency of genetic engineering,
making the work with plants much easier. Cas9 is a DNA endonuclease originally
found in bacteria, where it protects the host bacteria from invading DNA molecules
(e.g. viruses). The endonuclease is guided to the invading/targeting DNA by a special
“guide RNA” (gRNA), whose sequence is complementary to the invading sequence
to be expunged. Thus guided by the offensive, Cas9 utilizes its two active sites to
cleave both strands of the double-stranded DNA. The newly formed DNA double-
stranded breaks (DSBs) are then repaired by two different mechanisms inside cells:
The “non-homologous end joining” (NHEJ) mechanism can cause a small deletion or
random DNA insertion, leading to a truncated gene or knockout, while the
“homologous recombination” (HR) mechanism allows the addition of a donor DNA
into the endogenous gene at the break site (Fig. 2). The rapid development of these
cutting-edge biotechnologies has also challenged the food regulation law. The US
Department of Agriculture (USDA) has determined that the current regulations are not
suitable for several genome-edited crops, therefore, on November 18th, 2015, the
USDA released provisional plans to revise its guidelines for GM crops. GM foods
produced in the U.S.

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 Process :

Creating genetically modified food is a multi-step process. The first step is to identify a
useful gene from another organism that you would like to add. The gene can be taken
from a cell or artificially synthesized and then combined with other genetic elements,
including a promoter and terminator region and a selectable marker] Then the genetic
elements are inserted into the targets genome. DNA is generally inserted into animal cells
using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly
into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors. In plants the DNA is often inserted
using Agro bacterium-mediated recombination ballistics ‘or electro oration. As only a
single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from
that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture In animals it is
necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells Further
testing using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm
that an organism contains the new gene.

Traditionally the new genetic material was inserted randomly within the host
genome. Gene targeting techniques, which creates double-stranded breaks and takes
advantage on the cells natural homologous recombination repair systems, have been
developed to target insertion to exact locations. Genome editing uses artificially
engineered nucleases that create breaks at specific points. There are four families of
engineered nucleases: mega nucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like
effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from
CRISPR). TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own
advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design
and more efficient.

 Crops

Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are genetically modified plants that are used
in agriculture. The first crops developed were used for animal or human food and provide

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resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, spoilage or chemical
treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide). The second generation of crops aimed to
improve the quality, often by altering the nutrient profile. Third generation genetically
modified crops could be used for non-food purposes, including the production
of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as
for bioremediation. GM crops have been produced to improve harvests through reducing
insect pressure, increase nutrient value and tolerate different abiotic stresses. As of 2018,
the commercialised crops are limited mostly to cash crops like cotton, soybean, maize
and canola and the vast majority of the introduced traits provide either herbicide tolerance
or insect resistance.

The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides,

usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one. Genetically modified crops engineered to
resist herbicides are now more available than conventionally bred resistant varieties. Most
currently available genes used to engineer insect resistance come from the Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) bacterium and code for delta endotoxins. A few use the genes that
encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins. The only gene commercially used to provide
insect protection that does not originate from B. thuringiensis is the Cowpea trypsin
inhibitor (CpTI). CpTI was first approved for use cotton in 1999 and is currently undergoing
trials in rice. Less than one percent of GM crops contained other traits, which include
providing virus resistance, delaying senescence and altering the plants composition.

Adoption by farmers has been rapid, between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of
land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100. Geographically though the
spread has been uneven, with strong growth in the Americas and parts of Asia and little
in Europe and Africa. Its socioeconomic spread has been more even, with approximately
54% of worldwide GM crops grown in developing countries in 2013. Although doubts have
been raised, most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers
through decreased pesticide use as well as increased crop yield and farm profit.

 Fruits and vegetables

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Three views of a papaya, cultivar "Sunset", which was genetically modified to create the
cultivar 'Sunup', which is resistant to Papaya ring spot virus.

Papaya was genetically modified to resist the ring spot virus (PSRV). "Sunup" is a
transgenic red-fleshed Sunset papaya cultivar that is homozygous for the coat protein
gene PRSV; "Rainbow" is a yellow-fleshed F1 hybrid developed by crossing 'Sunup' and
no transgenic yellow-fleshed "Kapoho". The GM cultivar was approved in 1998 and by
2010 80% of Hawaiian papaya was genetically engineered. The New York Times stated,
"without it, the state's papaya industry would have collapsed". In China, a transgenic
PRSV-resistant papaya was developed by South China Agricultural University and was
first approved for commercial planting in 2006; as of 2012 95% of the papaya grown
in Guangdong province and 40% of the papaya grown in Hainan province was genetically
modified. In Hong Kong, where there is an exemption on growing and releasing any
varieties of GM papaya, more than 80% of grown and imported papayas were transgenic.

The New Leaf potato, a GM food developed using Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), was made
to provide in-plant protection from the yield-robbing Colorado potato beetle. The New
Leaf potato, brought to market by Monsanto in the late 1990s, was developed for the fast
food market. It was withdrawn in 2001 after retailers rejected it and food processors ran
into export problems. In 2011, BASF requested the European Food Safety Authority's
approval for cultivation and marketing of its Fortuna potato as feed and food. The potato
was made resistant to late blight by adding resistant genes blb1 and blb2 that originate
from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum. In February 2013, BASF

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withdrew its application. In 2014, the USDA approved a genetically modified
potato developed by J. R. Simplot Company that contained ten genetic modifications that
prevent bruising and produce less acryl amide when fried. The modifications eliminate
specific proteins from the potatoes, via RNA interference, rather than introducing novel
proteins.

As of 2005, about 13% of the Zucchini (a form of squash) grown in the US was genetically
modified to resist three viruses; that strain is also grown in Canada.

Plums genetically engineered for resistance to plum pox, a disease carried by aphids

In 2013, the USDA approved the import of a GM pineapple that is pink in color and that
"over expresses" a gene derived from tangerines and suppress other genes, increasing
production of lycopene. The plant's flowering cycle was changed to provide for more
uniform growth and quality. The fruit "does not have the ability to propagate and persist
in the environment once they have been harvested", according to USDA APHIS.
According to Del Monte's submission, the pineapples are commercially grown in a
"monoculture" that prevents seed production, as the plant's flowers aren't exposed to
compatible pollen sources. Importation into Hawaii is banned for "plant sanitation"
reasons.

In February 2015 Arctic Apples were approved by the USDA, becoming the first
genetically modified apple approved for sale in the US. Gene silencing is used to reduce
the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing the fruit from browning.

 Corn

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Corn used for food and ethanol has been genetically modified to tolerate
various herbicides and to express a protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that kills
certain insects. About 90% of the corn grown in the US was genetically modified in 2010.
In the US in 2015, 81% of corn acreage contained the Bt trait and 89% of corn acreage
contained the glyphosate-tolerant trait. Corn can be processed into grits, meal and flour
as an ingredient in pancakes, muffins, doughnuts, breadings and batters, as well as baby
foods, meat products, cereals and some fermented products. Corn-based masa flour and
masa dough are used in the production of taco shells, corn chips and tortillas.

 Soy

Soybeans accounted for half of all genetically modified crops planted in 2014. Genetically
modified soybean has been modified to tolerate herbicides and produce healthier oils. In
2015, 94% of soybean acreage in the U.S. was genetically modified to be glyphosate-
tolerant.

 Rice

Golden rice is the most well known GM crop that is aimed at increasing nutrient value. It
has been engineered with three genes that biosynthesise beta-carotene, a precursor
of vitamin A, in the edible parts of rice. It is intended to produce a fortified food to be grown
and consumed in areas with a shortage of dietary vitamin A, a deficiency which each year
is estimated to kill 670,000 children under the age of 5 and cause an additional 500,000
cases of irreversible childhood blindness. The original golden rice produced 1.6μg/g of
the carotenoids, with further development increasing this 23 times. In 2018 it gained its
first approvals for use as food.

 Wheat

As of December 2017, genetically modified wheat has been evaluated in field trials, but
has not been released commercially.

 Derivative products
 Corn starch and starch sugars, including syrups

Starch or amylum is a polysaccharide produced by all green plants as an energy store.

Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odourless powder. It consists of two types of

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molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin. Depending on
the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by
weight.

Starch can be further modified to create modified starch for specific purposes, including
creation of many of the sugars in processed foods. They include:

 Malt dextrin, a lightly hydrolyzed starch product used as a bland-tasting filler and
thickener.
 Various glucose syrups, also called corn syrups in the US, viscous solutions used as
sweeteners and thickeners in many kinds of processed foods.
 Dextrose, commercial glucose, prepared by the complete hydrolysis of starch.
 High fructose syrup, made by treating dextrose solutions with the enzyme glucose
isomers, until a substantial fraction of the glucose has been converted to fructose.
 Sugar alcohols, such as maltitol, erythritol, sorbitol, mannitol and hydrogenated starch
hydrolysate, are sweeteners made by reducing sugars.

 Lecithin

Lecithin is a naturally occurring lipid. It can be found in egg yolks and oil-producing plants.
It is an emulsifier and thus is used in many foods. Corn, soy and safflower oil are sources
of lecithin, though the majority of lecithin commercially available is derived from soy.
Sufficiently processed lecithin is often undetectable with standard testing
practices. According to the FDA, no evidence shows or suggests hazard to the public
when lecithin is used at common levels. Lecithin added to foods amounts to only 2 to 10
percent of the 1 to 5 g of phosphoglycerides consumed daily on average. Nonetheless,
consumer concerns about GM food extend to such products. This concern led to policy
and regulatory changes in Europe in 2000, when Regulation (EC) 50/2000 was
passed which required labelling of food containing additives derived from GMOs,
including lecithin. Because of the difficulty of detecting the origin of derivatives like lecithin
with current testing practices, European regulations require those who wish to sell lecithin
in Europe to employ a comprehensive system of Identity preservation (IP).

 Sugar

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The US imports 10% of its sugar, while the remaining 90% is extracted from sugar
beet and sugarcane. After deregulation in 2005, glyphosate-resistant sugar beet was
extensively adopted in the United States. 95% of beet acres in the US were planted with
glyphosate-resistant seed in 2011. GM sugar beets are approved for cultivation in the US,
Canada and Japan; the vast majority are grown in the US. GM beets are approved for
import and consumption in Australia, Canada, Colombia, EU, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New
Zealand, Philippines, the Russian Federation and Singapore. Pulp from the refining
process is used as animal feed. The sugar produced from GM sugar beets contains no
DNA or protein – it is just sucrose that is chemically indistinguishable from sugar produced
from non-GM sugar beets. Independent analyses conducted by internationally recognized
laboratories found that sugar from Roundup Ready sugar beets is identical to the sugar
from comparably grown conventional (non-Roundup Ready) sugar beets.

 Vegetable oil

Most vegetable oil used in the US is produced from GM

crops canola, corn, cotton and soybeans. Vegetable oil is sold directly to consumers
as cooking oil, shortening and margarine and is used in prepared foods. There is a
vanishingly small amount of protein or DNA from the original crop in vegetable
oil. Vegetable oil is made of triglycerides extracted from plants or seeds and then refined
and may be further processed via hydrogenation to turn liquid oils into solids. The refining
process removes all, or nearly all non-triglyceride ingredients. Medium-chain
triglycerides (MCTs) offer an alternative to conventional fats and oils. The length of a fatty
acid influences its fat absorption during the digestive process. Fatty acids in the middle
position on the glycerol molecules appear to be absorbed more easily and influence
metabolism more than fatty acids on the end positions. Unlike ordinary fats, MCTs are
metabolized like carbohydrates. They have exceptional oxidative stability, and prevent
foods from turning rancid readily.

 Other uses
 Animal feed

Livestock and poultry are raised on animal feed, much of which is composed of the
leftovers from processing crops, including GM crops. For example, approximately 43% of

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a canola seed is oil. What remains after oil extraction is a meal that becomes an ingredient
in animal feed and contains canola protein. Likewise, the bulk of the soybean crop is
grown for oil and meal. The high-protein defatted and toasted soy meal becomes livestock
feed and dog food. 98% of the US soybean crop goes for livestock feed. In 2011, 49%
of the US maize harvest was used for livestock feed (including the percentage of waste
from distillers grains). "Despite methods that are becoming more and more sensitive, tests
have not yet been able to establish a difference in the meat, milk, or eggs of animals
depending on the type of feed they are fed. It is impossible to tell if an animal was fed GM
soy just by looking at the resulting meat, dairy, or egg products. The only way to verify
the presence of GMOs in animal feed is to analyze the origin of the feed itself."

A 2012 literature review of studies evaluating the effect of GM feed on the health of
animals did not find evidence that animals were adversely affected, although small
biological differences were occasionally found. The studies included in the review ranged
from 90 days to two years, with several of the longer studies considering reproductive
and intergenerational effects.

Enzymes produced by genetically modified microorganisms are also integrated into

animal feed to enhance availability of nutrients and overall digestion. These enzymes may
also provide benefit to the gut microbiome of an animal, as well
as hydrolyse antinutritional factors present in the feed.

 Proteins

Rennet is a mixture of enzymes used to coagulate milk into cheese. Originally it was
available only from the fourth stomach of calves, and was scarce and expensive, or was
available from microbial sources, which often produced unpleasant tastes. Genetic
engineering made it possible to extract rennet-producing genes from animal stomachs
and insert them into bacteria, fungi or yeasts to make them produce chymosin, the key
enzyme. The modified microorganism is killed after fermentation. Chymosin is isolated
from the fermentation broth, so that the Fermentation-Produced Chymosin (FPC) used
by cheese producers has an amino acid sequence that is identical to bovine rennet. The

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majority of the applied chymosin is retained in the whey. Trace quantities of chymosin
may remain in cheese.

FPC was the first artificially produced enzyme to be approved by the US Food and Drug
Administration. FPC products have been on the market since 1990 and as of 2015 had
yet to be surpassed in commercial markets. In 1999, about 60% of US hard cheese was
made with FPC. Its global market share approached 80%. By 2008, approximately 80%
to 90% of commercially made cheeses in the US and Britain were made using FPC.

In some countries, recombinant (GM) bovine somatotropin (also called rBST, or bovine
growth hormone or BGH) is approved for administration to increase milk production. rBST
may be present in milk from rBST treated cows, but it is destroyed in the digestive system
and even if directly injected into the human bloodstream, has no observable effect on
humans. The FDA, World Health Organization, American Medical Association, American
Dietetic Association and the National Institutes of Health have independently stated that
dairy products and meat from rBST-treated cows are safe for human
consumption. However, on 30 September 2010, the United States Court of Appeals, Sixth
Circuit, analyzing submitted evidence, found a "compositional difference" between milk
from rBGH-treated cows and milk from untreated cows. The court stated that milk from
rBGH-treated cows has: increased levels of the hormone Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-
1); higher fat content and lower protein content when produced at certain points in the
cow's lactation cycle; and more somatic cell counts, which may "make the milk turn sour
more quickly".

 Livestock

Genetically modified livestock are organisms from the group of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats,
birds, horses and fish kept for human consumption, whose genetic material (DNA) has
been altered using genetic engineering techniques. In some cases, the aim is to introduce
a new trait to the animals which does not occur naturally in the species, i.e. transgenesis.

A 2003 review published on behalf of Food Standards Australia New Zealand examined
transgenic experimentation on terrestrial livestock species as well as aquatic species

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such as fish and shellfish. The review examined the molecular techniques used for
experimentation as well as techniques for tracing the transgenes in animals and products
as well as issues regarding transgene stability.

Some mammals typically used for food production have been modified to produce non-
food products, a practice sometimes called Pharming.

Salmon

A GM salmon, awaiting regulatory approval since 1997, was approved for human
consumption by the American FDA in November 2015, to be raised in specific land-based
hatcheries in Canada and Panama.

 Benefits of GM foods
1. Agronomic benefits
1996–2012 saw an increase of more than 370 million tons of food crops. One-
seventh of the increased yield is attributed to GM crops in the U.S. To achieve an
equal increase in yield as delivered by GM crops, it is estimated that an addition of
more than 300 million acres of conventional crops would have been needed. These
additional 300 million acres would necessarily be lands requiring more fertilizer or
irrigation, or carved out tropical forests. Such conversion of land would generate
serious ecological and environmental stress to the world. A report from Graham
Brookes and Peter Barfoot (17) arrived as similar conclusions: for the period 1996–
2013 they estimate that biotechnology was responsible for additional global
production of 138 million tons of soybeans, 274 million tons of corn, 21.7 million tons
of cotton lint, and 8 million tons of canola. If those biotechnologies had not been
available, to maintain equivalent production levels would have required an increment
of 11% of the arable land in the US, or 32% of the cereal area in the EU.
2. Economic benefits
From 2006 to 2012, the global increase in farm income from GM food had reached
$116 billion, almost triple that of previous 10 years. According to the estimation from
James and Brookes, about 42% of the economic gain was from the increased yield

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 due to advanced genetics and resistance to pests and weeds. The decreased costs
of production (e.g. from reduced pesticide and herbicide usage) contributed the
remaining 58%.

3. Modification of the chemical composition in food

Some genetic modification is specifically targeted to enrich certain nutrients or
substances having high therapeutic and prohealth value, including vitamins A, C, E,
unsaturated fatty acids, alimentary cellulose and probiotics. The aforementioned
“Golden Rice” is a significant example. It ameliorates malnutrition in an effective and
economic way. Similarly, using this biotechnology, researchers can also alter the
amino acid composition of proteins as well as the content of carbohydrates. The
former is exemplified by sweet lupine, of which the content of methionine is enriched.
The generation of Amflora, a modified potato variety, is a good example for the latter
scenario. Enhanced nutritional value in transgenic products has been obtained by
manipulating their composition of carbohydrates. Let us consider further the example
of Amflora. The bulk of polysaccharides in the potato-bulb is formed by two types of
starch: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is useful only as food starch, while
amylopectin is widely used in the production of non-food starch, paper, and in textile
processing. The synthesis of starch requires various enzymes, which include a
granule-bound starch synthase (GSBB), the primary function of which involves the
production of amylose. In the absence of GSBB, amylopectin is produced exclusively.
Exploiting this knowledge has led to methods to modify the composition of potato
starch. The transgenic process involves the introduction into potato bulbs of an
additional copy of the GSBB-coding gene. Counter intuitively, the extra gene in fact
suppressed expression of GSBB, by a process know as “co-suppression”, a.k.a.
“gene silencing”. The resultant Amflora potato is with decreased amylose, but rich in
amylopectin.

4. Improvement in food processing

The GM technology can also be employed to facilitate food processing. A notable
achievement is “Flavr Savr” tomatoes. They were produced by the California

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 company, Calgene, in 1992. The genetic alteration consists of introduction of an
antisense gene, which suppresses the enzyme polygalacturonase; the consequence
is to slow down the ripening of tomatoes and thus allow longer shelf life for the fruits.
The composition in potato bulbs has also been altered by gene editing. For instance,
using a cyclodextrin glycosyltransferases gene from bacteria, potatoes exhibit greater
stability of brightness factors and, thus, a more attractive appearance. Genetic
modification is not limited to plants, but is also applied to animal products. Some
researchers are exploring transgenic fish with a view to enhancing the generation of
growth hormones to accelerate growth and body mass. Very recently the FDA (the
US Food and Drug Administration) has approved the first genetically engineered
animal, “AquAdvantagea” salmon–afast-growing salmon – for human consumption in
the United States. The decision was made after two decades of regulatory limbo.
Because the fish grow to full size in 18 months, rather than 3 years, and with less
demand for food resources per kilogram of harvested fish, farming “AquaAdvantagea”
may ease pressure caused by heavy fishing of wild populations. Meanwhile, quite a
few attempts have been made to generate milk with decreased content of lactose or
humanized bovine milk.

5. Products for therapeutic purposes

Genetic engineering techniques enable the expression of viral or bacterial antigens
in the edible portion of plant cells. In theory, thus, transgenic foods could serve as
oral vaccines, capable of stimulating the immune system, via mucosal immunity, to
produce antibodies. A variety of crops (e.g. rice, maize, soybean and potatoes) are
under study as potential bearers of edible vaccines against different infections,
including Escherichia coli toxins, rabies virus, Helicobacter pylori bacteria, and type
B viral hepatitis.

6. Potential risks of GM foods

The debates over GM foods focus mostly on uncertainties concerning the potential
adverse effects of GM foods on human health and environmental safety. The anxiety
among consumers can be attributed to four sources: the difficulty of the scientific

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community in explaining concisely to the lay public the biological techniques involved;
concerns about the improper dissemination of GM foods; and the ethical principles
inherent in traditional food processing; the misgivings with regards to the adequacy
of evaluation of the GM foods.

1. Health risks associated with GM foods

Three major health risks potentially associated with GM foods are: toxicity,
allergenicity and genetic hazards. These arise from three potential sources, the
inserted gene and their expressed proteins per se, secondary or pleiotropic effects
of the products of gene expression, and the possible disruption of natural genes
in the manipulated organism . “Starlink” maize provides an example of a food
hazard caused directly by the expression of the inserted gene. The modified plant
was engineered with genetic information from Bacillus thuringinesis in order to
endow the plant with resistance to certain insects. The inserted gene encodes a
protein, called Cry9c, with pesticidal properties, but with an unintended, strong
allergenicity. Several cases have been reported of allergic reaction in consumers
after consuming the “Starlink” maize. Modification on the expression level of
natural components of the manipulated organism can also exacerbate allergy.
One example is the production of soybeans enriched in the amino 122 C. Zhang
et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 5 (2016) 116–123 acid methionine.
The enhanced synthesis of this amino acid is the result of a gene isolated from
Brazil nuts. As a consequence, some consumers allergenically sensitized to these
nuts have allergic reactions to the transgenic soybean. Secondary and pleiotropic
effects are much less straightforward to recognize than direct effects of the gene
or its products. The modified gene may encode an enzyme involved in otherwise
natural metabolic pathways of the modified organisms. Such changes might alter
the levels of other metabolites, including toxic ones, at some “metabolic distance”
from actual metabolic perturbation. Connecting the causative dots presupposes
an intimate understanding of the biochemical and regulatory pathways – which
may be beyond current comprehension. Another scenario of potential risk is that
the inserted gene might disrupt the integrity of existing genomic information in the

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plant, leading to inactivation, or other modulation, of endogenous genes. Again,
such a disruption might be envisioned to activate (or deactivate) metabolic
processes involving product or toxins, or their detoxification – in any case by
events far removed from the known and intended effect of the inserted gene, and
thus confounding our ability to draw a causal connection between the inserted
gene and the alleged effect.

2. Ecological risks associated with GM food

2.1. Selection of resistance Currently
the majority of GM foods are aimed at endowing the altered plant two desirable
properties – pest-resistance or herbicide-resistance. Insect-resistant crops are
typically designed to express insecticidal crystal proteins (CRY), naturally
produced by the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Herbicide-tolerant crops
are designed to express enzymes that protect against herbicides (primarily the
glyphosate RoundupTM), often by their ability to degrade the herbicide. The
strategy is clever: the human-applied herbicide kills the weeds, but does not harm
the crop-plant. The use of these two technologies greatly reduces immediate input
costs incurred by farmers – the battle against weeds becomes much less labor-
intensive, and the battle again insects requires much less expensive and toxic
pesticides. But, in the long-term, can these strategies really out-fox Nature, in her
ineluctable progress toward selecting better-adapted species? When heartier
weeds and insects evolve, what then? It seems almost inevitable that, in a few
years, insects and weeds will respond to the human-made pressures in their
habitats by evolving ways to nullify our clever design of transgenic crops .

2.2. Disruption of the food web

Another issue is the possibility that the insect-resistant plants might increase the
number of minor pests while reducing the major type of pest. The scenario here is
that the pest population might shift from those put-off by the engineered plants to
other, undaunted species. This shift, in turn, might unleash a pervasive disruption
of the entire food chain, with new predators of the new insect species, and so on

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 up to the top of the chain . Or the disruption might work in the other direction,
whereby residues of herbicide or insect resistant plants might generate negative
effects on organisms (e.g. bacteria, fungi, etc.) found in surrounding soil .

2.3. Resistance to antibiotics

Development of resistance to antibiotics is a scourge well known to medical
science, and is traceable to the over-use of therapeutic antibiotics in medicine and
agriculture. In the processes of genetic modification, antibiotics are also frequently
employed, typically as selection markers, to distinguish successfully transformed
bacteria from those in which the transfecting genes did not take hold. Thus, the
machinations to genetically modify an organism carries the risk of transferring the
genes of antibiotics resistance into the benign bacteria comprising the microflora
of human and animal gastrointestinal tracts, or, worse yet, to pathogenic bacteria
harbored by the consumer of GM a food, because bacteria, good and bad, are
quite capable of shuttling useful genes – like those that protect them from nasty
antibiotics

TRACKING AND RECLAIM PRODUCT:

INTRODUCTION:

According to the ISO (International Organization for Standardization), it is the “ability to

trace the history, application, or location of that which is under consideration.” This
definition is quite broad. It does not specify a standard measurement for “that which is
under consideration” (a grain of wheat or a truckload), a standard area estimate (field,
farm, or district), a rundown of procedures that must be distinguished (pesticide
applications or creature welfare), or a standard recognizable proof innovation. It doesn’t
determine that a ground meat be traceable to the animal or that the wheat in loaf of bread
be traceable to the wheat field. It doesn’t determine which sort of framework is important
for saving the personality of tofu-quality soybeans; controlling the nature of grain utilized

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 as a part of a specific oat; or ensuring right installments to farmers for various evaluations
of apples. The meaning of traceability is essentially expansive in light of the fact that food
is an unpredictable item and traceability is an instrument for accomplishing various
distinctive goals. Accordingly, no traceability framework is finished. Indeed, even a
theoretical framework for following hamburger-in which purchasers examine their bundle
of meat on the checkout stage and get entry to the creature’s locality and date of origin,
heredity, immunization records, and using of mammalian protein supplements-is
fragmented. This plan doesn’t furnish traceability regarding bacterial level management
within the outbuilding, usage of hereditarily built sustain, or creature well-being traits like
more time at field and play time. A plan for following every single instruction and
procedure to affect every single objective will be tremendous and costly. Thus, firms over
the nourishment giving plan have been created changing sums and varieties of
traceability. Firms make a decision essential broadness, profundity, and accuracy in their
traceability plans relying upon qualities of their creation procedure and their traceability
goals.

TRACABILITY:

Traceability refers to the functions that trace the flow of foods throughout the production,
processing and distribution stages. With traceability, it’s possible to locate a product at
any stage of the food chain and within the supply chain. Traceability is the ability to track
any food through all stages of production, processing and distribution (including
importation and at retail). Traceability should mean that movements can be traced one
step backwards and one step forward at any point in the supply chain.

For food processing businesses, traceability should extend to being able to identify the
source of all food inputs such as:

 raw materials
 additives
 other ingredients
 Packaging.

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IMPORTANCES OF TRACEABILITY:

 If a product quality problem occurs, the manufacturer of the product must take
effective measures promptly.
 A slow or ineffective response from the manufacturer will create a sense of distrust
among consumers or business partners, which may even endanger the existence
of the company.
 In addition, as laws to protect consumers have been implemented, the number of
companies required to quickly recall their products due to problems has been
increasing every year.
 Traceability has long been aggressively promoted in the automotive industry. It is
widely utilized for preventing recall problems, minimizing damages, and
extracting/improving management challenges as well as ensuring quality
management.
 It is, however, difficult to check the data from manufacturing through disposal of all
components numbering several tens of thousands, and to observe laws and
regulations that change with the times.
 Globalization is progressing, while cost and delivery-time competition are
intensifying in recent years, so the importance of traceability keeps increasing.
There is an urgent need for building a history management system from a global
perspective that covers both inside and outside of the plant. For details, refer
to automotive industry in the section describing the standards, laws and
regulations concerning traceability.
 Traceability enables corrective actions (such as a product recall) to be
implemented quickly and effectively when something goes wrong. When a
potential food safety problem is identified, whether by a food business or a
government agency, an effective traceability system can help isolate and prevent
contaminated products from reaching consumers.
 Traceability allows food businesses to target the product(s) affected by a food
safety problem, minimizing disruption to trade and any potential public health risks.

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 It is important for all food businesses (including retailers and importers) to be able
to trace products.

Types of traceability:

Implementing a traceability system within a supply chain requires all parties involved to
link the physical flow of products with the flow of information about them. Adopting uniform
industry requirements for traceability processes ensures agreement about identification
of the traceable items between parties. This supports transparency and continuity of
information across the supply chain.

1. Chain Traceability

The general concept of traceability in the world applies to chain traceability. Chain
traceability means that the history from procurement of raw materials and parts to
machining, distribution, and sales can be traced forward or backward. Manufacturers can
monitor “to where their products have been delivered (= can trace forward)” while
companies and consumers in the downstream can understand “from where the products
in their hands have come (= can trace back)”.
This provides manufacturers with the benefit of easier cause investigation and product
recall when unexpected problems occur with their products. Consumers can also use this
as a benchmark to select highly reliable products, without worries such as mislabeling.

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 2. Internal Traceability

Internal traceability means to monitor the movement of parts/products within a limited

specific area in a whole supply chain, such as a single company or plant.
For example, an engine assembly plant procures engine parts such as camshafts and
pistons from suppliers and assembles them.
Management and utilization of the manufacturing history and inspection results of these
parts by the plant can also be regarded as internal traceability.

Traceability tools and technology solutions:

Automated data collection removes much of the time and expenses required for data
processing and maintenance. Gathering information described in the previous section for
large operations manually is time consuming, because workers must first record the
information at the point of activity and then relay this information either manually or
transcribe and enter the data into the computer system. This can lead to risks of recording
the information incorrectly. For example, errors occur in 36% of consumer packaged
goods orders according to a study by the Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA) in

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the United States . Such errors lead to inventory inaccuracies, and stock ruptures.
Therefore, most traceability initiatives rely on technologies to provide efficient, accurate
ways to track and trace products and their movement across the supply chain. This
includes technology for product identification, information capture, analysis, storage and
transmission of data as well as overall systems integration. Such systems include
hardware such as measuring/sensing equipment, identification tags and labels, with
software. Data collection using tools such as bar code and RFID is exceptionally accurate
(>99%). These tools scan, record product codes, lot numbers, invoice data, order
numbers, and other information in less than a second.

1. Barcodes

A barcode is an optical machine-readable representation of data relating to the object to

which it is attached. Barcodes systematically represent data by varying the widths and
spacing of parallel lines (1D) or rectangles, dots, hexagons and other geometric patterns
in two dimensions (2D). Barcodes originally were scanned by special optical scanners
called barcode readers. Later, scanners and interpretive software became available on
devices including desktop printers and smartphones. Product traceability initiatives use a
Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) to achieve traceability. A GTIN includes a GS1
company prefix and a unique item reference number compatible with Universal Product
Code bar codes, and RFID (see following section) or human readable codes. GS1 is a
neutral, not-for-profit, international organization that develops and maintains standards
for supply and demand chains across multiple sectors. GS1 works with communities of
trading partners, industry organizations, governments and technology providers and
responds to their business needs through the adoption and implementation of global
standards.

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2. Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID)

RFID is technology which inserts a chip capable of being identified through the frequency
of radio waves emitted. Certain RFID devices even have a memory function (that stores
data) which enables greater information transmission. RFID devices are either active (can
send electronic waves) or passive (can only reflect electronic waves from a RFID reader).
In many cases, apart from using paper tags or brands on cattle, RFID tags can also be
used for the purpose of their automatic identification. The paper tags, brands and RFID
tags all function as an identifier in such systems. The function of a traceability system is
to catch and identify such identifiers across the supply chain. Traceability system can
identify which is/was/had been the location of specific item and what course such item
follows/followed/had followed automatically. To realize such a function, tracking systems
collect data strategically. 8.4 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) A wireless sensor network
(WSN) is a spatially distributed autonomous network of sensors to collect and monitor
data from physical or environmental conditions such as temperature, sound, pressure,
etc. and to cooperatively pass their data through the network to a main location. The more
modern networks are bi-directional, also enabling control of sensor activity. Additionally,
more advanced technologies may also be used, such as Geographic Information System,
Global Positioning System, Remote Sensing, etc.

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3. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a spatially distributed autonomous network of

sensors to collect and monitor data from physical or environmental conditions such as
temperature, sound, pressure, etc. and to cooperatively pass their data through the
network to a main location. The more modern networks are bi-directional, also enabling
control of sensor activity. Additionally, more advanced technologies may also be used,
such as Geographic Information System, Global Positioning System, Remote Sensing,
etc.

Factors affecting traceability Major factors affecting the effectiveness of traceability are
as follows: x Supply chain structure and organization: - degree of collaboration between
actors of the supply chain; - number of actors of the supply chain that achieve internal
and external traceability - ability of actors of the supply chain to identify product origin; -
ability of actors to manage traceability systems; - compatibility between actors. x
Destination of a product; x Identification of traceable lot unit; x Time needed to trace a
product; x Credibility of traceability method; x Data identification methods and data
standardization x Extent to which a traceability system is incorporated in an already
existent and functional information management system and/or a quality/safety
assurance system; x Legislation on traceability.

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 RECLAIM PRODUCT:

INTRODUCTION:

Reclaim & recovery services are designed to minimise the environmental impact of used
refrigerants. Recovery services avoid the release of used refrigerant into the atmosphere,
while reclaim services allow the re-use of existing refrigerants, thereby avoiding the need
to manufacture new refrigerant molecules. Most countries now have some form
of environmental protection legislation to regulate emissions, and many have specific
requirements concerning the recovery of refrigerants.

DEFINATION:

Recall can be defined as an action to remove food products from market at any stage of
the food chain, including that possessed by consumer, which may pose a threat to the
public health or food that violate the Act, or the rules or regulations made there under.

A food recall is action taken by a food business to remove unsafe food from distribution,
sale and consumption. All food businesses must be able to quickly remove food from the
marketplace to protect public health and safety. FSANZ coordinates and monitors food
recalls in Australia. In New Zealand, food recalls are coordinated by the Ministry for
Primary Industries. FSANZ cannot order or force a recall because it has no enforcement
powers. These powers rest with the jurisdictions. However most recalls are initiated by
food businesses.

Types of food recalls:

Food recalls can be at the trade or consumer level.

 A consumer recall is the most extensive type, recovering the food from all points in the
production and distribution chain, including from consumers.

 A trade recall recovers food that has not been sold directly to consumers. It involves
ecovering the product from distribution centres and wholesalers, and may also include
hospitals, restaurants or other catering establishments.

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 Recall procedure:

A written recall procedure should be developed to ensure that if a food which is known
to present an actual or potential unacceptable health risk to the consumer has entered
the food distribution and retail chain, the food can be retrieved quickly and completely.
The recall procedure must meet the requirements or guidelines for recall issued by
government regulatory agencies, it should describe a precise and well-coordinated
set of activities that can be executed very quickly and efficiently. The recall procedure
should be tested periodically to determine its effectiveness and should be based on
identification records and the traceability program. The procedure should include, as
a minimum, the following information:
 The people, including their alternates if they cannot be contacted who will be
responsible for conducting the recall, and the people.
 The details for contacting the appropriate senior management or other personnel
with assigned responsibilities, including contact information for these individuals
during periods outside of regular working hours.
 The details for contacting and communicating with the approved government
regulatory agency, with all customers who would have received.
The person designated to be the liaison with officials from a government regulatory
agency.
The records and other information that should be retrieved during a food recall. The
required information includes all identification information related to the food, including its
common and brand names, item number, lot number, batch number, best before or
expiration date, product code, UPC code, packaging materials and packaging format,
packaging container size a list of all locations, with addresses, telephone numbers and
contact information, to which the food has been shipped, including all warehouses for its
storage, all customers, including distributors, retailers, food service institutions and
restaurants, identification of all raw materials, ingredients, processing aids, packaging
materials, and processing and storage equipment used for the manufacture of the food,
and the processing conditions and storage conditions used for the food.

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The procedure to be followed to determine which production lots or batches of the food
are affected to ensure that the scope of the recall targets all the affected food, but only
the affected food.

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