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ENVIRONMENT 

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECOSYSTEM 

GENERAL STUDIES 1  GENERAL STUDIES 2 
Environment- Meaning, Components 
Scope of Environmental Science3
GENERAL STUDIES GENERAL STUDIES 4 

Importance of Environmental Science
Components of Environment
Biosphere, Habitat, Biome 
Biosphere
Organizational Structure of Biosphere
Importance of Biosphere
Biome
Types of Biomes
Ecosystem-Types, Components
Ecology, Levels of Organisation, Principles of Ecology
Ecotone, Ecological Niche
Functions of Ecosystem
Energy Flow
Trophic Level, Food Chain, Food Web
Ecological Pyramid- Meaning ,Types
Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification
Biotic Interaction
Nutrient Cycling- Gaseous and Sedimentary Cycles
 Ecological Succession
UNIQUE ECOSYSTEMS- DEGRADATION AND MANAGEMENT 
Wetland Ecosystem
Mangrove Ecosystem 
Adaptation Mechanism of Mangroves
Distribution of Mangroves
Importance of Mangroves
THREATS TO MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
Need for Conserving Mangroves
Conservation of Mangroves
Mangroves Conservation and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Coral Ecosystem 
Coral reef ecosystems
Types of coral reefs
Coral characteristics
DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEF
Threats to coral reef ecosystems
Benefits of coral reef ecosystems
Coral bleaching
Ozone Depletion and Protection
BIODIVERSITY 
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
MEASUREMENT OF BIODIVERSITY
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Reasons for loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity Hotspots – 2 Main Qualifying Criteria
Biodiversity hotspot in India
Objectives and advantages of biodiversity conservation
Ex situ conservation
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Agrobiodiversity conservation
Biosphere Reserve (BR)
Convention of Biological Diversity
Projects to save threatened species
ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION AND CONTROL 
Environment Pollution- Introduction, Types and Sources
Air Pollution 
What Is Pollution?
Source of Air Pollution
 EFFECTS ON VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
Various Reports on Effect of Air Pollution
Control devices
Water Pollution 
Water Pollution and Associated Issues
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CLIMATE CHANGE AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES

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ISSUES

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES

 

What is climate change?

Climate change includes both global warming driven by human-induced emissions of

greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns.

Though there have been previous periods of climatic change, since the mid-20th century
humans have had an unprecedented impact on Earth’s climate system and caused change
on a global scale

Climate Change is a periodic modification of Earth’s climate brought about due

to the changes in the atmosphere as well as the interactions between the
atmosphere and various other geological, chemical, biological and geographical
factors within the Earth’s system.

Climate change can make weather patterns less predictable. These unforeseen
weather patterns can make it difficult to maintain and grow crops, making
agriculture-dependent countries like India vulnerable.

It is also causing damaging weather events like more frequent and intense
 hurricanes, floods, cyclones, flooding etc.

Due to the rising temperature caused by climate change, the ice in the polar
regions is melting at an accelerated rate, causing sea levels to rise. This is
damaging the coastlines due to the increased flooding and erosion.

The cause of the current rapid climate change is due to human activities and
threatening the very survival of humankind.

The largest driver of warming is the emission of gases that create a greenhouse
effect, of which more than 90% are carbon dioxide (CO2) and methan

Fossil fuel burning (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy consumption is the main
source of these emissions, with additional contributions from agriculture,
deforestation, and manufacturing.

Temperature rise is accelerated or tempered by climate feedbacks, such as loss of

sunlight-reflecting snow and ice cover, increased water vapour (a greenhouse gas
itself), and changes to land and ocean carbon sinks.

Temperature rise on land is about twice the global average increase, leading to
desert expansion and more common heat waves and wildfires.

Temperature rise is also amplified in the Arctic, where it has contributed to

melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss.

Warmer temperatures are increasing rates of evaporation, causing more intense

storms and weather extremes.

Impacts on ecosystems include the relocation or extinction of many species as

their environment changes, most immediately in coral reefs, mountains, and the
Arctic.

Climate change threatens people with food insecurity, water scarcity, flooding,
infectious diseases, extreme heat, economic losses, and displacement.

These human impacts have led the World Health Organization to call climate
change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century.

Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will
continue for centuries, including rising sea levels, rising ocean temperatures, and
ocean acidification.

 
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has issued a series of reports
that project significant increases in these impacts as warming continues to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F)
and beyond. Additional warming also increases the risk of triggering critical thresholds
called tipping points.

Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming “well
under 2.0 °C (3.6 °F)” through mitigation efforts. However, with pledges made under the
Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.8 °C (5.0 °F) by the end of the
century.

What causes global warming?

(https://www.insightsonindia.com/environment/climate-
change-and-associated-issues/what-causes-global-
warming/)
 

A: Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants
collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have
bounced off the earth’s surface. Normally this radiation would escape into space,
but these pollutants, which can last for years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap
the heat and cause the planet to get hotter. These heat-trapping pollutants—
specifically carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and synthetic
fluorinated gases—are known as greenhouse gases, and their impact is called the
greenhouse effect.
Factors that cause climate change
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/environment/climate-
change-and-associated-issues/factors-that-cause-
climate-change/)
 

A) Natural Factors:

There are numerous natural factors that cause the Earth’s climate to change. They
affect the climate over a period of thousands to millions of years.

Continental Drift: The present-day continents were not the same prior to 200
million years.They have formed millions of years ago when the landmass began
to drift apart due to plate displacement.This movement had an impact on
climate change due to the change on the landmass’s physical features and
position and the change in water bodies’ position like the change in the follow
of ocean currents and winds.The drifting of the landmass is continued today.
The Himalayan range is rising approximately 1 millimetre every year as the
Indian landmass is moving towards the Asian landmass.

Variation of the Earth’s orbit:The Earth’s orbit has an impact on the sunlight’s
seasonal distribution that is reaching the Earth’s surface.A slight change in the
Earth’s orbit can lead to variation in distribution across the world.There are
very few changes to the average sunshine. However, it causes a high impact on
the geographical and seasonal distribution.There are three types of orbital
variations – variations in Earth’s eccentricity, variations in the tilt angle of the
Earth’s axis of rotation and precession of Earth’s axis.These together can cause
Milankovitch cycles, which have a huge impact on climate and are well-known
for their connection to the glacial and interglacial periods.The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change finding showed that the
Milankovitch cycles had influenced the behaviour of ice formation

Plate tectonics:Due to the change in the temperature in the core of the Earth,
the mantle plumes and convection currents forced the Earth’s Plates to adjust
leading to the rearrangement of the Earth Plate.This can influence the global
and local patterns of climate and atmosphere.The oceans’ geometry is
determined by the continents’ position. Therefore, the position of the
continents influences the pattern of the ocean.The location of the sea also plays
a crucial role in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the globe
and determines the global climate.The recent example of the tectonic control on
ocean circulation is the formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 5 million
years ago, leading to the prevention of direct mixing of the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans.

Volcanic Activity:When a volcano erupts, it emits gases and dust particles,

causing a partial block of the Sunrays. This can lead to the cooling of the
weather.Though the volcanic activities last only for a few days, the gases and
ashes released by it can last for a long period, leading to it influencing climate
patterns.Sulphur oxide emitted by the volcanic activities can combine with
water to form tiny droplets of sulphuric acid. These droplets are so small that
many of them can stay in the air for several years.

Ocean Currents:Ocean current is one of the major components of the climate

system.It is driven by horizontal winds causing the movement of the water
 against the sea surface.The temperature differences of the water influence the
climate of the region.

B) Anthropogenic Factors:

Scientists, since the beginning of the 20th century, have studied the impact of
climate change caused by human activities. Global warming, the long-term rise in
the average temperature of the Earth’s climate system, is a major aspect of climate
change. It is mainly a human-caused increase in global surface temperature. The
anthropogenic factors causing climate change are as follows:

Greenhouse Gases:The greenhouse gases absorb heat radiation from the sun.
Following the initiation of the Industrial Revolution, the emission of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere has increased exponentially.This has led to more
absorption and retaining the heat in the atmosphere. This resulted in an
increase in Global Temperature.The greenhouse gases mostly do not absorb the
solar radiation but absorb most of the infrared emitted by the Earth’s surface.

The main greenhouse gases include

water vapour (the majority of the GHG in the atmosphere but the impact
is less)

Carbon dioxide released due to natural and anthropogenic factors

spends more time in the atmosphere, leading to an increase in its impact.
There has been a 30% increase in the concentration of CO2 since the
start of the industrial revolution. Apart from the industrial revolution,
deforestation also contributes to the increase in the CO

Chlorofluorocarbons, used for industrial purposes, especially in

refrigerants and air conditioning, is a man-made compound regulated
under the Montreal Protocol due to their adverse effects on the Ozone
layers.

Methane is released due to decomposition of organic matter. It is

stronger than CO2 because of its capacity to absorb more heat.

Nitrous oxide is produced by the agricultural sector, especially in the

production and use of organic fertilizers and while burning fossil fuels.

Change in the land use pattern:Half of the land-use change is said to have
happened during the industrial era.Most of the forests were replaced by
agricultural cropping and grazing of lands.The increased albedo (reflectivity of
an object in space) in the snow-covered high altitude regions due to
deforestation led to the cooling of the planet’s surface. The lower the albedo,
the more of the Sun’s radiation gets absorbed by the planet and the
temperatures will rise. If the albedo is higher and the Earth is more reflective,
the more of the radiation is returned to space, leading to the cooling of the
planet.The tropical deforestation changes the evapotranspiration rates (the
amount of water vapour put in the atmosphere through evaporation and
transpiration from trees), causes desertification and affects soil moisture
characteristics.From the satellite imagery, it is seen that the clearing of forest
cover for agriculture and irrigated farming in arid and semi-arid lands can
increase solar energy absorption and the amount of moisture evaporated into
the atmosphere.

Atmospheric aerosols:Atmospheric aerosol can: Scatter and absorb the solar

and infrared radiation, change microphysical and chemical properties of the
clouds, Solar radiation, when scattered, cools the planet. On the other hand,
when the aerosols absorb solar radiation, it causes an increase in the
temperature of the air instead of allowing the sunlight to be absorbed by the
Earth’s surface. Aerosols can directly affect climate change by absorbing or
reflecting solar radiation. They can also produce indirect effects by modifying
the cloud’s formation and properties.They can even be transported thousands
of kilometres away from its source through wind and upper-level circulation in
the atmosphere.

There are two types of aerosols – Natural aerosols and Anthropogenic

aerosols.
The sources of natural aerosols include volcanic eruptions (produces
sulphate aerosols) and biogenic sources like planktons (can produce
dimethyl sulphide).

The anthropogenic aerosols include: The ammonia used for fertilizers or

released by the burning of plants and other organic materials forms a
major source for Nitrate aerosols. Burning of coal and oil produces
sulphur dioxide that forms a major source of sulphate aerosols. Burning
of biomass can release a combination of organic droplets and soot
particles.Industrial activities cause the release of wide-ranging aerosols
into the atmosphere. Vehicle emissions can produce numerous pollutants
that are aerosol from the beginning or becomes one due to chemical
reactions in the atmosphere. It is found that the concentration of
aerosols is about three times higher in the Northern Hemisphere than in
 the Southern Hemisphere, leading to the Northern Hemisphere’s
radiation concentration being 50% higher than that of the Southern
Hemisphere.

Impacts of Climate Change

A rise in atmospheric temperature:

The greenhouse gases released due to human activities are increasing the
temperature of the Earth.

The last 6 years topped the list of hottest years ever recorded.

The increase in temperature is the major cause of the current increase in heat-
related deaths and illnesses, rise in sea levels and an increase in the intensity of
natural disasters.

The 20th century saw an increase in the Earth’s average temperature by 1°F. This
is believed to be the fastest rise in a thousand years.

Research estimates predict that if the GHGs are not reduced, the average surface
temperature could increase to 3-5°F by the end of this century.
 

Change in landscapes:

Increasing temperature and changing climate and weather patterns across the
globe led to the shift of trees and plants towards Polar Regions and mountains.

As the vegetation tries to adapt to climate change by moving towards colder

regions, the animals that are dependent on them will be forced to follow them for
survival. While some survive, many perish in the attempt.

Other species like polar bears dependent on cold terrains will not have any
habitat due to the melting of ice, causing a risk to their survival.

Thus, the current hasty change in the landscape causes a considerable risk to the
survival of many species, including the human population.

A risk to the ecosystem:

An increase in the temperature across the globe is changing the weather and
vegetation patterns, causing the species to migrate to cooler areas for survival.

This poses a threat to the survival of numerous species. It is projected that by

2050, one-fourth of the Earth’s species may become extinct if the current trend
continues.

Rising sea levels:

An increase in the temperature of the Earth leads to a rise in sea level due to the
thermal expansion (a condition wherein the warm water takes up more area than
cooler water). The melting of glaciers adds to this problem.

The population living in under-lying areas, islands and coasts are threatened by
the rising sea levels.

It erodes shorelines, damages properties and destroys ecosystems like

mangroves and wetlands that protect coasts from storms.

In the last 100 years, the sea level has risen to 4-8 inches and will continue to rise
between 4 and 36 inches in the next 100 years.
 

Ocean Acidification:

The increase in the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has increased the CO2
absorption in the ocean. This makes the ocean acidic.

The increase in the acidification of the ocean can be harmful to many marine
species like plankton, molluscs, etc. The corals are especially susceptible to this
as they find it difficult to create and maintain the skeletal structures needed for
their survival.

Increase in the risk of natural and manmade disasters:

The moisture from land and water is rapidly evaporating due to the high
atmospheric temperature.

This causes drought. Those areas that are affected by drought are highly
susceptible to the negative effects of flooding.

As this current condition, the droughts may become more frequent and more
severe. This may lead to distressing consequences for agriculture, water security,
and health.

Countries in Asia and Africa are already facing this phenomenon, with droughts
becoming longer and more intense.

The increased temperature is not only causing droughts but also increasing the
cases of forest fires across the globe.

Climate change is also causing increased and intensified hurricanes and tropical
storms, causing a devastating impact on human societies and the environment.

The cause of this is the rise in the ocean temperature as warm waters influence
the energies of hurricanes and tropical storms energies.

The other factors that cause intensified hurricane and tropical storms are rising
sea levels, disappearing wetlands and increased coastal development.

Health issues:
 The high temperature across the globe can pose health risks and deaths.

The increased heat waves caused by climate change have led to the deaths of
many globally.

For instance, in 2003, the extreme heat waves led to the death of more than
20,000 people in Europe and caused more than 1,500 deaths in India.

Climate change increases the spreading of contagious diseases as the long-term

warm weather allows disease-carrying insects, animals and microbes to survive
longer.

Disease and pests that were once confined to the tropics may find it habitable in
the colder regions that were previously inhospitable.

Currently, there is an increase in death due to extreme heat, natural disasters

and diseases due to climate change.

The World Health Organisation estimates that between 2030 and 2050, climate
change may cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths per year due to
malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and extreme heat.

Economic impacts:

It is estimated that if action is not taken to address the carbon emissions, climate
change could cost about 5 to 20% of the annual global GDP.

In contrast, the cost to lessen the most damaging effects of climate change is just
1% of the GDP.

Climate change can alter shoreline habitats. This may lead to the need for
relocation of ports and near-shore infrastructures and habitats, costing about
millions of dollars.

The increased hurricanes and other related natural disasters can bring forth
extreme economic losses caused by damaged properties and infrastructures.

Declining crop yields due to the lengthy droughts and high temperatures can lead
to a risk of starvation of thousands of people.

Coral reefs generate approximately $375 billion each year in goods and services.
Their very survival is currently under threat.
 

Agriculture productivity and food security:

The crop cultivation is dependent on solar radiation, favourable temperature and

precipitation.

Hence, agriculture has always been dependent on climate patterns.

The current climate change

has affected agricultural productivity, food supply and food security.

These effects are biophysical, ecological and economic.

They resulted in:

Climate and agricultural zones are moving towards poles

There is a change in the agricultural production pattern due to increased

atmospheric temperature

Agricultural productivity has increased due to the rise in CO2 in the atmosphere.

Unpredictable precipitation patterns

The vulnerability of the landless and the poor has increased.

Climate Change affecting India
India was the fifth most affected country by climate change:

1. It was not shocking when Germanwatch, an environmental non-profit think

tank, reported in 2018, that India was the fifth most affected country by
climate change, globally.

2. In the last two years, the country has been hit by at least one extreme climate
event every month.

3. According to the World Risk Index 2020, India is the fourth-most-at-risk

country in South Asia, after Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Pakistan.

4. There is no doubt that climate change is real and its implications are
disastrous.

5. Historically, internal migration in India occurred due to factors like ethnicity,

kinship, work opportunities, or access to better healthcare and education.

6. More recently, climate disasters also contribute to displacement (involuntary

and unplanned) and migration (voluntary and planned) in India.

7. In 2018 alone, nearly 7 million Indians were either displaced or have

migrated due to climate-induced distress.
 

One of the major areas that will be extremely vulnerable to climate change in the
future is South Asia.

India especially will be vulnerable to climate change due to its diverse terrain,
rapid use of natural resources due to the current trend of precipitous
urbanisation, industrialisation and economic growth.

Water and air quality are worsening each day due to environmental pollution.

Those that are especially susceptible to climate change are the country’s coastal
ecosystems, biodiversity and agricultural productivity.

The natural disasters’ increasing frequency and intensity are causing negative
effects to the already struggling Indian economy.

The adverse effects of such disasters range from poverty, vulnerability to

diseases, loss of income and livelihoods.

According to the World Bank, an increase of 2°C in the world’s average

temperature in the next few decades will only make India’s monsoon more
unpredictable.

The changing rain patterns in India are predicted to leave many areas flooded
and others without water scarcity.

More than 60% of India’s agriculture is dependent on rain and the majority of
the population are dependent on the agriculture sector for survival. This makes
India more vulnerable to climate change.

It is estimated that by the 2050s, with a temperature increase of 2-2.5°C, water

in the river basins of Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra will be reduced. This may
threaten the food security of about 63 million people.

Poor will be more vulnerable to climate change since many of them are
dependent on the rain-dependent agriculture.

An increase of 2°C by the 2040s is going to affect crop production and will
reduce the crop output by 12%, requiring more imports to meet the domestic
demands.

The melting glaciers and loss of snow can pose a risk to reliable water resources
in India.
Main rivers like Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra mostly depend on snow and
glacial meltwater. This makes them vulnerable to global warming.

Climate change can further increase the risk of flooding of low areas and
threatens agriculture.

Intensity of cyclone to increase

Sea surge height may increase to 7.46 metres

Sea level rise will be higher than global average

Sunderbans and Darjeeling hill to have more rain

The Indian Himalayan region:-

The Himalayas, which represent about 16.2 per cent of the total area of the
country, are not only a key watershed of India but also play a crucial role in the
monsoon system. Climate change impacts on the mountain range can affect the
entire sub-continent

The mean temperature of the Himalayas has gone up by 0.6°C in the past 30
years; the frequency of warmer days is also increasing

The northeastern states of India, particularly parts of Assam and Manipur, are
vulnerable

Flash flood due to glacial lake outbursts may lead to landslides and affect large-
scale food security

Himalayan glaciers melting faster than others elsewhere in the world

Productivity of apple has decreased by 2-3% over the past few years. This will
go down further

Projected increase in intensity of rainy days is 2-12% in the Himalayan region

(https://www.insightsonindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Climate-Change-and-
Water-1.jpg)

India’s Efforts to Counter Climate Change 

India is the world’s third largest economy and fifth largest greenhouse gas
(GHG) emitter, accounting for about 5% of global emissions. India’s emissions
increased 65% between 1990 and 2005 and are projected to grow another 70%
by 2020.

By other measures, India’s emissions are low compared to those of other major
economies. India accounts for only 2% of cumulative energy-related emissions
since 1850. On a per capita basis, India’s emissions are 70% below the world
average and 93% below those of the United States.

India is also at the frontlines of facing the impacts of climate change. Shifting
rainfall patterns, recurring floods, stronger cyclones and droughts or soil
erosion are exacerbating the challenge of poverty eradication and necessitate
the allocation of scarce national resources for preventing loss of human life.

Despite resource constraints, India is undertaking ambitious actions to

undertake adaptation and mitigation actions, including thorough lowering of the
energy intensity of our economic growth, increasing energy efficiency across
sectors and making greater use of renewable.

India has doubled the Clean Energy Cess on coal, which very few countries have,
and the Clean Energy Fund already has over 3 billion US dollars to be used for
promoting clean technologies India’s National Solar Mission is being scaled up
five-fold from 20,000 megawatts to 100,000 megawatts.

This will mean an additional investment of 100 billion dollars and savings of
about 165 million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year.

India is releasing 6 billion US dollars in one go for intensive afforestation which

will result in more carbon sinks.

India has allocated about 200 million US dollars for the ‘National Adaptation
Fund’, setting-up of Ultra Mega Solar Projects, Ultra-Modern Super Critical
Coal Based Thermal Power Technology, and the development of Solar Parks on
canals.

Another initiative is “100 Smart Cities’ with integrated policies for adaptation
and mitigation to reduce the vulnerability and exposure of urban areas to climate
change and also to improve their energy efficiency for which 1.2 billion US
dollars have been allocated. India has put in place stringent norms for the cement
industry.

Our Action Plan for cleaning one of the longest rivers in the world, River Ganga
will bring multiple benefits of pollution reduction and climate adaptation. We
have also taken initiatives for protecting coastal, Himalayan, and forest areas.

India has initiated preparations to develop a National Air Quality Index and have
launched a National Air Quality Scheme. Setting-up of Ultra Mega Solar Projects
in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Ladakh to promote
renewable energy.
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
As a part of the NAPCC, the Indian government had launched 8 missions in
focused areas. They are:

National Solar Mission

The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of solar energy for
power generation and other uses with the ultimate objective of making solar
competitive with fossil-based energy options.

The plan includes: specific goals for increasing use of solar thermal
technologies in urban areas, industry, and commercial establishments; a goal
of increasing production of photovoltaic to 1000 MW/year; and a goal of
deploying at least 1000 MW of solar thermal power generation.

Other objectives include the establishment of a solar research centre,

increased international collaboration on technology development,
strengthening of domestic manufacturing capacity, and increased
government funding and international support.
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Initiatives based on
increasing the energy use efficiency were expected to yield savings of 10,000
MW by 2012. Building on the Energy Conservation Act 2001, the plan
recommends:

Mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-

consuming industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-savings
certificates;

Energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-efficient appliances;

and

Financing for public-private partnerships to reduce energy consumption

through demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings and
agricultural sectors.

National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: To promote energy efficiency as a

core component of urban planning, the plan calls for:
Extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code;

A greater emphasis on urban waste management and recycling, including

power production from waste;

Strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy standards and

using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles;

Incentives for the use of public transportation.

National Water Mission: With water scarcity projected to worsen as a result of

climate change, the plan sets a goal of a 20% improvement in water use
efficiency through pricing and other measures.

National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: The plan aims to
conserve biodiversity, forest cover, and other ecological values in the
Himalayan region, where glaciers that are a major source of India’s water
supply are projected to recede as a result of global warming.

National Mission for a “Green India” Goals: Goals include the afforestation of
6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and expanding forest cover from
23% to 33% of India’s territory.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: The plan aims to support

climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient
 crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms, and agricultural practices.

National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: To gain a better

understanding of climate science, impacts and challenges, the plan envisions a
new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modelling, and
increased international collaboration. It also encourages private sector
initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through venture
capital funds.

International Solar Alliance (ISA)

State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC): State governments have drafted
climate strategies aligned with the eight National Missions under the NAPCC.
The strategies focus on issues ranging from climate mitigation, energy efficiency,
and resource conservation to climate adaptation.

FAME Scheme for E-mobility: Union Government in April 2015 launched Faster
Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric vehicles (FAME) – India
Scheme with an aim to boost sales of eco-friendly vehicles in the country. It is a
part of the National Mission for Electric Mobility.

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation & Urban Transformation (AMRUT) for Smart
Cities.

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: The scheme provides LPG connections to five
crore below-poverty-line beneficiaries. The connections are given in the name of
women beneficiaries to reduce their dependence on fossil fuels and conventional
fuel like cow dung for cooking food, thus reducing air pollution.

UJALA scheme: The scheme was launched by the Prime Minister Narendra Modi
in January 2015 with a target of replacing 77 crore incandescent lamps with LED
bulbs. The usage of LED bulbs will not only result in reducing electricity bills but
also help in environment protection.

India in the international forums on climate change:

India is currently setting up voluntary targets in the international forums to

commit itself to the mission to combat climate change. It is also playing a major
role in climate change mitigation.
 India’s proactive role in mitigating climate change is due to the domestic
compulsion of tackling issues like the need for poverty eradication, food and
nutritional security, universalization of health and education, water security,
sustainable energy, employment.

India is of the opinion that the developing countries’ need for inclusive growth,
sustainable development, poverty eradication and universal access to energy
must be made the fundamental differentiation between them and the developed
nations. Currently, the Conventions recognise the historical emissions of the
developed nations as the basis for differentiation between the developed and
developing nations.

Efforts taken at the international level to combat climate change

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the UN Environment

Programme (UNEP) founded the IPCC to provide for a mechanism to study the
effects of global warming at a governmental level.

IPCC is a UN body that assesses the science related to climate change.

It provides the policymakers with regular scientific assessments on climate

change, its implications and potential future risks while also providing adaptation
and mitigation options.

It complements UNFCCC and vice versa.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

It came to force on 21st March 1994.

The 195 countries that have ratified it are called the Parties to the Convention.

The UNFCC is a Rio Convention, one of the three adopted at the Rio Earth
Summit in 1992. The others include the UN Convention on Biological Diversity
and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification.

The Joint Liaison Group was established to ensure cooperation among the three
Conventions.

Currently, it also consists of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

 The ultimate aim of the Convention is to stabilize the greenhouse gas
concentration “at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system”.

It also aims to achieve the said level within a specific period so that the
ecosystem is allowed to adapt naturally to climate change while also ensuring
food security and sustainable economic development.

Following its establishment, the COP1 (first Conference of Parties) was held in
Berlin, COP2 was held in Geneva and the COP3 was held in Kyoto to adopt the
“Kyoto Protocol” that ensures the implementation of the UNFCCC’s objective.

Kyoto Protocol:

Kyoto Protocols was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on 11th December 1997 and came
to force on 16th February 2005

Its signatories are committed towards the achievement of emission reduction

targets.

COP 7 held in Morocco in 2001 saw the adoption of the detailed rules for the
implementation of the protocol. These are referred to as “Marrakesh Accords”.

This protocol holds the developed countries accountable for the current high
levels of GHG emissions into the atmosphere due to their role in the industrial
revolution.

Kyoto Mechanism, also known as Flexible Mechanism, is defined under the Kyoto
Protocol to lower the overall cost of achieving the emission targets. It includes
Emission Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation.

In December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted.
The changes made include:

New commitments were made by Annex I Parties (developed nations and

Economies in Transition) to be implemented between the period of 1st January
2013 and 31st December 2020.

A revised list of GHG that is to be reported by the Parties during the second
commitment period
 Amendments were made to update several articles of the Kyoto Protocol to be
on par with the second commitment period.

The Kyoto Protocol is a significant step towards the reduction of global emission
regime that will allow the stabilisation of GHG emissions.

Paris Agreement:

Signed in 2016, it is considered to be the world’s first comprehensive climate

agreement.

It aims to:

Keep the global temperature well below 2°C above pre industrial times and
endeavour to limit them even more to 1.5°C.

Strengthen the nations’ ability to combat the adverse impacts of climate change.

The Paris Accord calls for a reduction of the GHGs emitted due to human
activities equal to that of the trees, soil and oceans so that they can be absorbed
naturally.

As per the Agreement, each country’s contribution towards cutting emission

must be reviewed every 5 years.

It also states that rich countries must help the poorer nations by providing them
with “Climate finances” to make them shift towards renewable energy usage.

The agreement is binding in some elements like reporting requirements. Other

elements of the agreement are non-binding like the emission targets of the
individual nations.

The Paris Agreement necessitates all Parties to put forth their best efforts
through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and to strengthen these
efforts in the future.

This also includes the need for regular reporting emissions and implementation
by the parties.

India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) includes the

reduction in the intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35% by 2030 from 2005 level.
Additionally, it has pledged to increase the share of non-fossil fuel-based
 electricity by 40% by 2030. It has also agreed to enhance its forest cover, which
will absorb 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 by 2030.

REDD+

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) is a

mechanism developed by Parties of the UNFCCC.

It creates financial value for the carbon stored in forests to offer incentives for
the developing nations to reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in
low-carbon paths.

The developing nations will receive results-based payments for results-based

actions.

The REDD+ goes beyond simply deforestation and forest degradation by

including the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and
enhancement of forest carbon stocks.

It is estimated that the financial flows for the GHG emission reduction from
REDD+ could reach up to $30 billion per year.

This improved North-South flow of funds can ensure a significant reduction of

carbon emissions and the promotion of inclusive development. It could also
improve biodiversity conservation and secure vital ecosystem services.

Forests are a vital carbon sink and thus, it is vital to increase its resilience to
climate change.

  

Responses: mitigation and adaptation

Climate change impacts can be mitigated by reducing greenhouse gas emissions

and by enhancing sinks that absorb greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.

In order to limit global warming to less than 1.5 °C with a high likelihood of
success, global greenhouse gas emissions needs to be net-zero by 2050, or by
2070 with a 2 °C target .

This requires far-reaching, systemic changes on an unprecedented scale in

energy, land, cities, transport, buildings, and industry.
 Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C often describe reaching net
negative emissions at some point.

To make progress towards a goal of limiting warming to 2 °C, the United Nations
Environment Programme estimates that, within the next decade, countries need
to triple the amount of reductions they have committed to in their current Paris
Agreements; an even greater level of reduction is required to meet the 1.5 °C
goal.

Although there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2.0 °C (2.7
or 3.6 °F), most scenarios and strategies see a major increase in the use of
renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures to
generate the needed greenhouse gas reductions.

To reduce pressures on ecosystems and enhance their carbon sequestration

capabilities, changes would also be necessary in agriculture and forestry, such as
restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.

Other approaches to mitigating climate change entail a higher level of risk.

Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use
of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century.

The Way Forward 

Wealthy nations like the U.S., and those of the EU argued that emissions from
developing countries are consistently rising and they need to commit to more
serious emission cuts. A consensus needs to be developed at the earliest.

The immediate up-scaling of ambition in the second Commitment period of Kyoto

Protocol and its early ratification by all Kyoto Protocol parties would be a step in
the right direction.

Concerning mitigation, distinction enshrined in the Convention between Annex I

(Developed) and nonAnnex I (developing) Parties must be maintained in
accordance with the principles of Equity, CBDR and other provisions of the UN
Conventions.

The ‘developing versus developed country’ schism needs to be diluted at the

earliest and Developed Countries should avoid watering down the CBDR
principle envisaged in earlier agreements.
 

RENEWABLE ENERGY

What Is Renewable Energy?

Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources
or processes that are constantly replenished. For example, sunlight or wind keep
shining and blowing, even if their availability depends on time and weather.

INDIA’S ENERGY MIX

 Types of Renewable Energy Sources

The most common renewable power technologies include:

Wind

This takes advantage of wind motion to generate electricity. Wind motion is brought
about by the heat from the sun, and rotation of the earth, mainly via the Coriolis Effect.

 Solar

It taps heat from the sun to produce energy for the generation of electricity, heating,
lighting homes and commercial buildings.

Hydropower

Utilizes moving water to produce electricity. Moving water creates high energy that can
be harnessed and turned into power.
Biomass

Organic matter that constitutes plants is referred to as biomass, which can be utilized to
generate electricity, chemicals or fuels to power vehicles.

Ocean

Takes advantage of rising and falling of tides to generate electricity

Geothermal

Leverages heat from underneath the earth to generate electricity.

Key Points

Dedicated Project Development Cells have been established to facilitate

investors ensuring ‘Ease of Doing Business’.

India’s renewable power capacity is the fourth largest in the world and is
growing at the fastest speed among all major countries.
India is a big market and a lot of countries are attracted towards it in terms of
One Sun, One World, One Grid and International Solar Alliance.

The renewable energy capacity in India is currently 136 Giga Watts, which is
about 36% of its total capacity.
Target for capacity increase is 450GW by 2030, increasing 25GW every year as
we move forward.

Per capita consumption of energy in India is quite low as compared globally.

Power sector, being primarily dependent on fossil fuels, is one of prime sources
of air pollution.

Why Renewable Energy

Sustainable: Energy generated from renewable sources will be cleaner and

greener and more sustainable.

Employment opportunities: Inclusion of a newer technology simply means more

employment opportunities for the working population of the country.

Market assurance: From the economy point of view, renewable sources provide
 the market and revenue assurance which no other resources can provide.

Power supply: Providing 24*7 power supply to 100% of the households,

sustainable form of transports are some of the goals that can only be achieved
through sustainable power that comes from renewables.

Government Initiatives

As part of its commitment to create awareness about energy efficiency as a

resource and also to develop an action plan for energy conservation initiatives,
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and Alliance for an Energy Efficient Economy
(AEEE), had released the ‘State Energy Efficiency Preparedness Index’, which
assesses state policies and programmes aimed at improving energy efficiency
across various sectors.

The National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) is one of the
eight national missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change
(NAPCC).

NMEEE has the following schemes:

Perform Achieve and Trade Scheme (PAT)

Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency (MTEE)

Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)

Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEED)

Other government initiatives include:

DeenDayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGKY)

Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS)

UDAY

Soubhagya

Power for All 24*7

Ujala

Other technological innovations and initiatives

 Electric vehicles –No Licence required for charging stations

Smart Metering- Procurement of 50 lakh smart meters done

Energy efficiency- Energy Star labeling program

Energy Conservation Building Code for energy efficient buildings launched in

June 2017

Vidyut Pravah – The Mobile/Web App provides real-time information of current

demand met, shortages if any, surplus power available and the prices in Power
Exchange.

UJALA (Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All) – App provides real-time
updates on the LED distribution happening across the country.

UrjaMitra – monitoring of power availability and sending power cut information

through SMS.

MERIT–information pertaining to marginal variable cost and source wise

purchase of electricity.

URJA (Urban Jyoti Abhiyaan) – It is an informative App for Urban Distribution

Sector. It captures Consumer-centric parameters from the IT systems created
under IPDS.

TARANG (Transmission App for real-time monitoring & Growth) – It is an IT

Web/mobile-based platform to provide the status of both inter and intrastate
Transmission Projects in the country. This platform also shows the prospective
interstate as well as intrastate Transmission Projects.

DEEP e-bidding (Discovery of Efficient Electricity Price) – The portal will

provide a common e-bidding platform with e-reverse auction facility to facilitate
nation-wide power procurement through a wider network so as to bring
uniformity and transparency in the process of power procurement.

Ash Track- linking fly ash users and power plants for better ash utilization.

CHALLENGES IN THE RENEWABLE ENERGY SECTOR FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
Despite the progress India has made in developing the renewable energy sector, the
country still faces barriers. Offtaker risk, lack of infrastructure, lack of financial
intermediaries, and limited understanding from investors are the four main challenges to
overcome.

Offtaker risk. This refers to the risk that the buyer may not fulfill the contractual
obligations or will delay or make incomplete payments. Offtakers are primarily state-
owned public-sector distribution companies. Given the poor financial health of India’s
distribution companies, there is a risk of lagged or incomplete payments. In 2015 the
total outstanding debt of distribution companies was approximately $64 billion.

Offtaker risk increases the overall risk of the renewable energy projects. To address this
issue, the government has implemented Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana, which aims at
reducing operational inefficiencies and improving the financial performance of
distribution companies. The program mandates to take over 75% of distribution company
debt and turn it into state-guaranteed bonds.

Lack of infrastructure. Inefficiencies from the lack of infrastructure to generate and

distribute electricity are a key barrier to foreign investment. Moreover, the time taken to
obtain permits for building and operating the transmission evacuation infrastructure is
very long. These delays increase project construction time, which postpones the
commissioning of new projects and ultimately revenues and profits.

Lack of financial intermediaries. Another barrier for Indian institutional investors is a

shortage of financial intermediaries in the renewable energy sector. These actors are
needed to provide proper information about investment opportunities.

Limited understanding. Renewables lie outside traditional investments, and potential

investors are often wary because of their limited understanding of the sector. Domestic
institutional investors typically invest in less risky securities and prefer more liquid
assets with good credit ratings, which are not available in renewable energy projects.
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/indias_renewable.png)

PATHWAYS FORWARD

According to a report by the Climate Policy Initiative, total investment needed for India
to meet its renewable energy targets by 2022 is $189.15 billion, 27% of which is required
to be invested in wind, 37% for utility-scale solar projects, 32% for solar rooftop projects,
and 4% for biomass and small hydropower projects. Several pathways are available for
India to overcome the four challenges outlined above and meet these investment needs.
These include foreign direct investment (FDI), domestic investment, and financial
incentives.

FDI. According to data from the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal
Trade, cumulative FDI inflows in the power sector from 2000 to 2020 were around $15
billion, which is around 3% of total FDI inflows.

The government allowed 100% of FDI under the automatic route to the power sector in
2012, easing the approval process.
This included investment in the generation and transmission of electricity through
hydroelectric dams, fossil fuel–based thermal power plants, renewable energy
generation and distribution, distribution of electricity to households, industrial
commercial users, and power trading. There has been an increase in penetration of
nonconventional sources of energy in the Indian market, which have seen rising FDI
participation.

Domestic investment. As a result of economic reforms and liberalization policies across

sectors implemented since the early 1990s, both the private and public sectors have
shown a sharp growth in investments, especially in the power sector.

The potential investments that are available for renewable projects amount to $411
billion, double the required investment target.

Despite large government investments, India’s energy sector relies on the private sector
more than ever as public-sector resources are more directed toward public health and
sustaining livelihoods.

Therefore, to attract private investment, the government has encouraged the

participation of nonfinancial banking companies, launched a new investment fund,
initiated the rationalization of tariffs, released subsidies, and improved the bankability of
power purchase agreements.

Financial incentives. Alternative debt vehicles such as “green” asset-backed securities

could be potential financial instruments for encouraging investment in sustainable
energy infrastructure.

By pooling renewable energy assets from different companies and geographies at

various points in their operational lifecycles, banks and other financial institutions can
hedge the risks associated with individual renewable energy projects.

Green investment banks are government-funded entities that “crowd in” private
investment in low-carbon assets, provide debt for projects with existing capital reserves,
and raise funds through the issuance of bonds and creation of asset-backed securities.

Governments can issue green bonds through private or public banks, the World Bank, or
regional development banks to attract both domestic and international investors, which
expands the investor base and incentivizes private players interested in cleaner energy.
Indian green bonds are very much in demand overseas. With many countries aiming for a
green recovery from the recession caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, central banks may
induce liquidity in the markets, including through issuing green bonds.

What are Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs)

Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), also known as green energy certificates or tradable
renewable certificates are proof that energy has been generated from renewable sources such as
solar or wind power. Each REC represents the environmental benefits of 1MWh of
renewable energy generation. When you purchase RECs, renewable energy is generated
on your behalf.

Significance:

It is a market based mechanism which will help the states meet their regulatory
requirements (such as Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPOs)) by overcoming
the geographical constraints on existing renewable potential in different states.

RECs unbundle the electricity component (commodity) from the

green/environmental attributes of the power generated from renewable sources.
Both the components can then be traded separately.

Thus, RECs help in incentivizing the production of renewable energy over and
above the RPO state limit as tradable certificates are not constrained by the
geographical limitations of commodity electricity.

Need for removal of GST:

RECs are being charged GST, while bundled power (RECs plus electricity, irrespective of
source) or even just electricity are devoid of the same.

Cost of electricity generation from renewable energy sources is classified as cost of

electricity generation (equivalent to conventional energy sources) and the cost of
environmental attributes. REC is the environmental attribute of the electricity
derived from RE.

As per regulations, RPO compliance through REC is at par with sourcing

electricity directly from RE. Therefore, GST applicable on the sale of RECs
negatively affects its parity with similar electricity sale alternatives, be it conventional
or renewable.
 Moreover discoms, the major buyer of RECs (around 50-60 per cent), do not get
GST credit; and the increase in their cost of RPO compliance will translate to
increased tariff for the end consumer.

What is green hydrogen?

Hydrogen when produced by electrolysis using renewable energy is known as Green

Hydrogen which has no carbon  footprint.

The hydrogen that is in use today is produced using fossil fuels, which is the
primary source.

Organic materials such as fossil fuels and biomass are used for releasing
hydrogen through chemical processes.

Significance of Green Hydrogen:

1. Green hydrogen energy is vital for India to meet its Nationally Determined
Contribution (INDC) Targets and ensure regional and national energy
security, access and availability.

2. Green Hydrogen can act as an energy storage option, which would be

essential to meet intermittencies (of renewable energy) in the future.

3. In terms of mobility, for long distance mobilisations for either urban freight
movement within cities and states or for passengers, Green Hydrogen can be
used in railways, large ships, buses or trucks, etc.

Applications of green hydrogen:

1. Green Chemicals like ammonia and methanol  can directly be utilized in

existing applications like fertilizers, mobility, power, chemicals, shipping etc.

2. Green Hydrogen blending up to 10% may be adopted in CGD networks to gain

widespread acceptance.

Benefits:
 It is a clean-burning molecule, which can decarbonize a range of sectors including
iron and steel, chemicals, and transportation.

Renewable energy that cannot be stored or used by the grid can be channelled to
produce hydrogen.

What are the steps the Indian government has taken in the production of green
hydrogen?

1. During the budget speech in February 2021, Finance Minister Nirmala

Sitharaman announced the launch of the Hydrogen Energy Mission to
produce hydrogen from renewable sources.

2. In the same month, state-owned Indian Oil Corporation signed an agreement

with Greenstat Norway for setting up a Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen
(CoE-H). It will promote R&D projects for the production of green and blue
hydrogen between Norwegian and Indian R&D institutions/universities.

3. Recently, India and the US have set up a task force under the aegis of the
Strategic Clean Energy Partnership (SCEP) to mobilise finance and speed up
green energy development.
 

India’s Key Focus for Next Five Years

The Twin Challenge: India has a twin challenge of providing more energy as well
as cleaner energy to the masses in India.
It should focus on getting into the manufacturing of the solar panels under the
Atma Nirbhar Bharat initiative as the demand is to create jobs as well as
 supply decentralised energy to all the households in India.

Look and develop the entire supply chain of all the components beside the
manufacturing sector.

Methanol and Biomass: Looking for other alternatives such as methanol based
economy and biomass.
Bio-CNG vehicles with 20% blending in petrol is also a target the government
has been chasing.

Conversion of energy from Biomass is a considerable option as it will clean the

cities as well as reduce our energy dependence.
Fuels produced from biomass have a high calorific value and are cleaner than
traditional biomass.

Hydrogen based FCV: Hydrogen in technology is likely to change the landscape

of renewables, shifting towards Hydrogen Based Fuel Cells Vehicles (FCV) is
another area of focus.

Grid Integration: It is the practice of developing efficient ways to deliver

variable renewable energy (RE) to the grid.
Identifying the demands which are in tune with the characteristics of the
renewables, focussing on characteristics of renewables mainly solar and
wind and considering their variability as strength rather than weakness.

Challenges with Renewable Energy

Integration with the Main Grid: Integrating the renewables with the main grid is
the area India needs to work upon.
To accelerate the uptake of renewables, storage and battery solutions is
needed in large quantities.

Cost factor: Renewable resources are slightly more expensive than conventional
sources.

24*7 Power Supply: Sustainable, round-the-clock power supply along with the
storage system is a big challenge ahead.

Agricultural Sector: Much power is consumed in the agricultural sector. The

challenge is to provide sufficient power and energy to every household and to
 the agricultural sector as well.

Way Forward

Identification of areas: Renewable resources specially wind cannot be set up

everywhere, they require specific location.
Identification of these specific locations, integrating them with the main grid
and distribution of powers; A combination of these three is what will take India
forward.

Exploration: More storage solutions need to be explored.

Agriculture subsidy: Agricultural subsidy should be rectified in order to ensure

that only the required amount of energy is consumed.

Hydrogen fuel cell based vehicles and Electric vehicles: These are the most
suitable options when it comes to shifting towards renewable sources of energy,
that’s where we need to work upon.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2020/09/18/what-are-the-implications-of-
changing-climate-on-various-aspects-of-indian-region-elaborate-upon-the-key-
actions-taken-by-india-towards-combating-and-adapting-to-climate-change/
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/2020/09/18/what-are-the-implications-of-changing-
climate-on-various-aspects-of-indian-region-elaborate-upon-the-key-actions-taken-by-
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2)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/03/08/how-has-climate-change-emerged-
as-an-intergovernmental-political-issue-what-are-the-major-international-
agreements-related-to-climate-change-discuss/
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an-intergovernmental-political-issue-what-are-the-major-international-agreements-
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4)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2020/05/13/discuss-the-relationship-between-
climate-change-and-energy-security-in-the-context-of-india-explain-the-key-issues-
involved-and-suggest-solutions/
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/2020/05/13/discuss-the-relationship-between-
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5)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2020/12/12/recent-studies-have-revealed-that-
climate-change-leads-to-more-violence-against-women-in-this-context-discuss-the-
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6)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2019/05/03/6-climate-change-is-not-anymore-
only-an-environmental-problem-but-a-unique-one-with-multi-scalar-characteristic-
from-the-global-to-the-local-comment-also-discuss-challenges-in-tackling-the/

7)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/06/03/a-distinct-global-carbon-incentive-
scheme-can-drive-every-nation-to-alleviate-the-costs-of-climate-change-analyse/
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/06/03/a-distinct-global-carbon-incentive-
scheme-can-drive-every-nation-to-alleviate-the-costs-of-climate-change-analyse/)

8)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/04/06/examine-the-new-challenges-and-
strategies-on-water-and-its-management-on-account-of-climate-change/
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/04/06/examine-the-new-challenges-and-
strategies-on-water-and-its-management-on-account-of-climate-change/)

 
9)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/04/03/climate-change-actions-should-ensure-
distributive-commutative-and-corrective-justice-rather-than-focusing-on-net-zero-
emissions-targets-which-is-unjust-for-developing-countries-comment/
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10)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/04/26/give-an-account-of-current-status-
pertaining-to-climate-change-mitigation-and-adaptation-measures-undertaken-at-
global-and-national-level-with-the-recent-developments/
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12)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2019/10/17/6-discuss-the-renewable-energy-
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13)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/07/12/assess-social-and-ecological-impacts-
of-mega-renewable-energy-projects-in-india/
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/07/12/assess-social-and-ecological-impacts-of-
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14)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/07/22/how-can-rooftop-solar-energy-
projects-offer-an-opportunity-for-india-to-meet-its-emission-reduction-targets-
comment/ (https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/07/22/how-can-rooftop-solar-
energy-projects-offer-an-opportunity-for-india-to-meet-its-emission-reduction-targets-
comment/)

15)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/07/24/what-do-you-understand-by-
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16)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2020/07/14/why-the-renewable-energy-sources-
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achieving-the-targets-set-in-this-sector/
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/2020/07/14/why-the-renewable-energy-sources-
were-given-a-lot-of-importance-now-days-discuss-the-efforts-of-the-government-in-
achieving-the-targets-set-in-this-sector/)

17)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/07/02/what-do-you-understand-by-clean-
energy-discuss-the-prospects-of-it-for-india-while-highlighting-the-associated-
concerns/ (https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/07/02/what-do-you-understand-by-
clean-energy-discuss-the-prospects-of-it-for-india-while-highlighting-the-associated-
concerns/)

18)https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/05/11/what-are-the-problems-being-faced-
by-the-power-sector-how-can-these-problems-be-resolved-with-the-help-of-draft-
national-electricity-policy-2021-explain/
(https://www.insightsonindia.com/2021/05/11/what-are-the-problems-being-faced-by-
the-power-sector-how-can-these-problems-be-resolved-with-the-help-of-draft-
national-electricity-policy-2021-explain/)
  

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